 Definition

Average speed. It is the mean speed maintained by a train during a run. It is given by following expression

Average speed =. Distance between stops or stations. /. Actual time of run

Schedule Speed. It is the ratio of the distance between the stops and the total time taken including time for stops to cover
the distance.

Schedule speed = Distance between the stops. /. (Actual time of run) + (Stop time)

Factors Affecting Schedule Speed

(1)Crest speed. High crest speed results into increase in schedule speed. This is because if the acceleration and
retardation are fixed, then for a constant distance, the running time will decrease if crest speed is high. And if actual run
time decreases, then schedule speed increases.

(II). Acceleration. If distance between the two stations and crest speed are constant, then increase in acceleration will
reduce the running time of train. Thus increase in acceleration will increase the schedule speed. This is considerable if
distance between the stations is small.

(III) Braking retardation. Similar to acceleration, the effect of braking retardation is to increase the schedule speed. This
is considerable if distance between the stations is small.

(iv) Duration of stop. If duration of stop is more, total running time will be more and schedule speed will be low.

 Different types of motors used in tractions

1. D.C. Series Motor. 2. AC Series Motor. 3.Three Phase Induction Motor. 4. Linear Induction Motor. 5.Chopper
Controlled Motor

 various voltage levels used for electric traction systems:

1. DC Traction Systems:

600 V DC – Used in trams and metro systems

750 V DC – Used in light rail and metros

1500 V DC – Used in suburban railways (e.g., Mumbai local trains)

3000 V DC – Used in some mainline railways (common in Europe)

2. AC Traction Systems:

15 kV, 16.67 Hz AC – Used in parts of Europe

25 kV, 50 Hz AC – Most widely used worldwide (India, China, Europe)

2 x 25 kV AC – Used for long-distance high-speed trains (enhanced power supply)

 Requirements of ideal traction system

High starting torque with moderate starting current. Speed control should be convenient and smooth. It should be a
self contained unit and size should be compact. It should withstand temporary overloads. Efficiency should be high.
Braking system should be effective and convenient for passengers. The braking energy should be utilized for regenerative
braking.. Operation should be clean and should not involve smoke, dust etc. Acceleration and deceleration should be
smooth with optimum time.

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  Different types of traction systems used in India The traction system can be classified into two categories:

(i) Non-electric traction system: This traction system does not use electricity. E.g. steam engine drive, direct internal
combustion engine drive (direct IC engine drive).

(ii) Electric traction system: This traction system uses electricity partly or completely. E.g. straight electric drive, battery
electric drive, diesel electric drive.

 Diesel engine drive or direct internal combustion engine drive

Diesel engine It uses diesel as fuel, the combustion of diesel produces gases due to which piston movement is obtained.
The reciprocating movement is converted to rotation of shaft. The shaft is coupled to fluid coupling mechanism.

Fluid coupling. It is used as mechanical power transmitting medium. It is an alternative to mechanical clutch. The fluid
coupling consists of a shell. Inside this shell hydraulic fluid is filled. The diesel engine shaft has turbine connected. This
turbine rotates in hydraulic fluid. This causes flow of fluid.

The motion or flow of fluid is toroidal. This motion is transferred to the output turbine connected at other end. Thus
mechanical energy from IC engine is transferred through fluid. The output turbine is coupled to gear box. The wheels are
connected to gearbox through connecting rod. Thus motion of IC engine piston is transferred to wheels. The diesel
engine drive is a self contained unit. There is no need of electrified route to run a diesel locomotive. It does not required
frequent stopping for refuelling or cleaning etc. like steam engine drive. The starting time is less compared to steam
locomotive. It can accelerate the train rapidly, the control is comparatively smoother. But it is not suitable to take
heavy load. So its use is generally restricted for shunting in traction and very short span trains. It is widely used for road
transport.

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  Faiveley Type Pantograph: Construction and Working

Construction: The Faiveley type pantograph

consists of the following main parts:

Bow: This is the topmost part that slides against the

overhead wire to collect current. Shank:
Connects the bow to the pan positioning rod. Pan
Positioning Rod & Thrust Rod: Helps maintain
contact and positioning of the bow. Main Lower
Arm & Upper Frame: Forms the pantograph
structure and provides mechanical strength.
Horizontal Spindle & Arm: Acts as a pivot point for
pantograph movement. Up Springs: Help to
raise the pantograph and maintain contact pressure.
Slotted Rod & Insulating Rod: Provides insulation
and movement control. Control Cylinder:
Pneumatic/hydraulic actuator used to raise or lower
the pantograph. Lever Arm & Holding Down
Spring: Used to control the downward force.
Throttle Valve: Regulates air supply to the control
cylinder.

Working:

The pantograph is normally in a lowered position. When activated, air

pressure is supplied via the throttle valve to the control cylinder. The
control cylinder pushes the slotted rod and raises the pantograph with the
help of up springs. The bow makes contact with the overhead catenary
wire to draw electric current. The insulating rod ensures no electrical
contact is made with the train body. In case of overspeed or emergency,
the control cylinder retracts, the holding down spring pulls the pantograph
down. Applications: Widely used in electric locomotives, metro
trains, and high-speed trains to collect power from overhead wires.

 Diamond Pantograph:

Construction: Diamond Pantograph consist of pressed steel channel

sectional fitted with renewable collector strips and supported at the apex of
Pentagonal tubular frame work as shown in above figure. Collector strips
are forced against the contact wire by upward action pantograph springs. These strips slide along the bare metal of the
contact wire as the train moves. The collector strip material and the contact. Pressure are such as to ensure the
minimum wear of the contact wire. Metalized carbon strips are used for high current collecting capacity and to Avoid
use of lubricant. Diamond Pantograph may be raised or lowered from cabin by following methods.
Air raised gravity lowered. Air raised spring lowered. Spring raised air lowered

Working: The pantograph current collector is used in the railways for collection of current from the overhead system
where the operating speed of the train is as high as 100 kmph to 130 kmph and the current to be collected are as large as 2
kA to 3 kA. The pantograph is mounted on the roof of the vehicle and carry a sliding shoe for contact with the overhead
trolley wire. It consists of a jointed frame usually of steel tubing. The contact shoe is usually about 1.2 meters long. The
sliding shoe always make contact with the overhead line to collect the current.
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  Speed time curve

Notching up (0-t₁). The traction motor

is started with starting resistance in
circuit. The starting current fluctuates
between a certain value. Tractive effort
is constant, motor speed very slowly
increases.

Acceleration (t2-t2). .The starting

resistance is totally cut down. The speed
continues to increase and torque
decreases because train gathers
momentum.

Free running (t2-ts). …The motor

reaches maximum speed and runs at
constant speed. The free running period
is of more duration for long run train
and very less for urban trains.

Coasting (13-14). After free running period, train comes

near next station, the supply to train is cut off and train is
allowed to run on its momentum.

Braking (t-ts). Mechanical brakes are applied along with

regenerative braking. The motor speed gradually decreased
till it comes to rest.

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 Points Urban Suburban Main line
Distance between the 1km 1 to 8 km More than 10km
station
Acceleration in kmphps 1.5 to 4 1.5 to 4 0.6 to 0.8
Retardation in kmphps 3 to 4 3 to 4 1.5
Comment on speed No free running period, No free running period, coasting Long free running and
time curve coasting period is small. period is long coasting period and,
acceleration and
braking.
Type of trains Local train of short distance Local train of short distance Long run trains, express
metro rail shuttle train train sleeper trains

Points Steam engines Diesel engine Electric drive

Power use for traction High pressure steam Diesel Electric power
Starting time More Less Least
Starting torque Low Higher than steam locomotive Highest due to electric
motor characteristics
Regenerative breaking Not possible Not possible Possible
Maintenance More Less Least
Life Less Moderate More

Capital cost Moderate Moderate More due to overhead

equipment installation
Speed Less Moderate More

 Following features can be summarized for monorail system

It runs on single rail (track). It is best suited for dense traffic where road expansion is not possible. Requires less
side clearance. Reduces property loss due to land acquisition so it is a better option in cities.. Construction cost is
reasonable.. The first monorail project in India is started in Mumbai. After completion of this project, it will stand as
world’s second largest monorail system. The project is partly completed. The Mumbai Metropolitan Region
Development Authority (MMRDA) is executing this project. It has passenger capacity of 568 with 4 to 6 boggies. The
system is provided with computerised inter locking system and modern communication system. The Mumbai monorail
system uses straddle monorail system.

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  Define tariff.

Tariff means schedule of rates or charges. Tariff in case of electric supply means schedule or rates framed for supply of
electric energy to the different classes of consumers.

 Characteristics of tariff

Attraction of consumers. Simplicity in understanding the tariff. Reasonable and fair enough. Proper returns to
company. Reasonable profit to company

 Types of tariff

Simple tariff (Uniform rate tariff)

 Step rate tariff

 Block rate tariff
 Power factor tariff. A) kVA Maximum Demand Tariff. B). kWh and kVARh Tariff
 Two-part tariff
 Three part tariff
 Flat rate tariff
 TOD (i.e. Time of Day Tariff
 Advantages of Power factor improvement

Reduction in Power Bills: Improved power factor reduces reactive power demand, lowering electricity costs, especially in
industries where low power factor penalties are charged.

Improved Voltage Regulation: Higher power factor improves voltage levels in the system, leading to better performance
of electrical equipment.

Increased System Capacity: A better power factor reduces the current in the system, allowing existing electrical
infrastructure to handle more load without upgrade.

Reduction in Losses: Lower current due to improved power factor reduces I²R (copper) losses in conductors and
transformers.

Better Efficiency of Equipment: Motors and other devices operate more efficiently and with less heat generation at higher
power factors.

 Disadvantages of low power factor

Higher electricity bills

Increased line losses. Reduced system capacity

Poor voltage regulation. Need for oversized equipment

 State the various device used for power factor improvement

Synchronous motor as a synchronous condenser for power factor improvement. Static capacitors.
By using face advancer

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  Using static capacitor power factor improvement

Capacitors can be used for improving P.F.

Many of the loads, equipment’s are operating at lagging power

factor. Capacitors are leading p.f. units. So when connected,
overall p.f. improves.

If the load is 3-phase inductive load (or 3-phase induction motor

connected to 3-phase supply) then capacitor 3-phase bank either
connected in star or Delta be connected to the 3 phase supply
voltage on which 3-phase load is connected.

Capacitors provide Leading p.f. so that over all p.f. of the system
increases 0.8, 0.9 etc.

Advantages

Static capacitors consume very small power and losses are thus negligible so overall efficiency improves. Cost of the
capacitor unit is comparatively less. Being static, no-rotation maintenance is nil. No imbalance (as in rotating
unit). Very light in weight. Easy in installation. Capability to operate under ordinary atmospheric conditions.

Disadvantages

Less life (only upto 10 years). In over loading may damage. not possible (so replacement).

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kVA Maximum Demand Tariff

This type of tariff is derived by modifying form of two part tariff. In this case, maximum demand is measured in k instead
of in kW. This type of tariff encourages the consumers to operate their machines and other equipment improved power
factor, because low power factor will cause more demand charges.

kWh and KVARh Tariff

kWh and kVARh are measured and charged separately. Since, kVARh decreases with the increase in power fa therefore,
the consumer is encouraged to improve the power factor of his installation in order to decrease charges on account of
kVARh recorded.

Power factor tariff

Since, the efficiency of plant and equipment depends upon the power factor, therefore, in order to increase the utility of
plant and equipment to the maximum, the plant must be operated at the most economical power factor. That is why,
sometimes consumers are penalized for poor power factor by applying the following types of power factor tariffs:

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