Chapter Three: Ethical Decision Making and Moral

Judgments
3.1. Chapter Introduction

Every day, individuals must decide which desires to satisfy and which to delay. Determining the
right choice and setting standards for right and wrong can be complex. Morality serves as a guide
for handling these challenges. Additionally, conflicts among people are inevitable, and society
needs principles to maintain order and solve disputes fairly. Morality offers rules that promote
peaceful and cooperative living. Since problems regularly arise in both personal and social life,
reflecting on ethical theories helps clarify the purpose and goals of morality. This chapter
introduces the process of ethical decision-making and emphasizes the importance of being moral.

3.2. Chapter Objectives

After reading this chapter, students will be able to
• Identify the moral foundations we base our ethical standards.
• Understand those standards how they applied to specific situations we face.
• Identify how good ethical decision made.
• Understand why we need to be moral.

3.3. How Can We Make Ethical Decisions And Actions?

 In life, we may get difficulties to always do the right thing. What we often considered as
right and correct might put us in difficult condition. The ethical nature of our action and
decision, however, is very much dependent upon our notion of ``Good‘ and ``Bad, `` Right
and`` wrong``.
 Before judging morality of our action we should figure out: “What things are good or bad?”
A. Instrumental good:- things which we consider good or desirable for their result for
what they lead to.
B. Intrinsic good:- things which we consider good because of what they are by
themselves(their own intrinsic nature).

Ethics consists mainly of two tasks:

 Judging and critically examining the values we hold and the claims we make.
 Deciding if the reason why we do things is based on good evidence and good arguments.

Balancing ethical arguments and values is different from other human activities because ethical
values are harder to understand. It is easier to measure physical traits, like blood pressure, than to
determine a person's virtue. Ethics does not involve commanding action but providing means for

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thinking through tough issues. Despite the complexity, all people have a responsibility to resolve
ethical issues honestly, reasonably, and cooperatively.

3.3.1. Ethical Principles and Values of Moral Judgments

The branch of philosophical study ethics’ is concerned with studying and/or building up a
coherent set of ‘rules or principles by which people ought to live.

3.3.2. Moral intuitions and Critical Reasoning

 The study of ethics involves reasoning and making sense of and rationalizing our intuitions about
what is ‘right’ or ‘good’. The integration of these moral sentiments and principles is our conscience,
which is based on emotions, but should also be supported by reason.
 All societies are characterized by their own ethical ideas expressed in terms of attitudes and beliefs.

3.3.2.1. Rationalization
 Studying ethics involves attempting to find valid reasons for the moral arguments(the reasons
underlying those beliefs or opinions) that we make. However, real value of discussing and debating
ethical questions is not to ‘win the argument’ or to ‘score points’ against the other person.
 Rationalization occurs when we use what at first glance seem to be rational or credible motives to
cover up our true (and perhaps unconscious) motives.

3.3.2.2. Types of reasoning

Reasoning by analogy explains one thing by comparing it to something else that is similar, but also
different. Good analogy is when the similarity outweighs the dissimilarity and is clarifying.

 Deductive reasoning:- starts with a general principle and reaches a specific conclusion.
 Inductive reasoning:- starts with specific observations provide evidence to support a
hypothesis and forms a general conclusion.

3.3.2.3. Ethics and Religious Faith

For many people, morality and religious faith go hand in hand. People view actions as being right or
wrong in terms of whether they are commanded by a god. Faith-based arguments are relevant to moral
philosophy for several reasons.
o people do not always agree on what is right or wrong It is not therefore clear that we can
determine what is right and wrong simply through rational reflection.
o Many people in the world do look to religion for moral guidance.
 Moral principles and decisions should be justified by rational arguments, and thus consideration of
religious arguments should not be excluded from the study of ethics.

3.3.2.4. Testing moral arguments

Three ways to test a moral argument
 Factual accuracy:-We cannot say that something is wrong or right simply based on how things are.
 Consistency:- Arguments need to be consistent, you have to show that there is a moral difference
between the two.
 Good will:- Involves resorting to our intuitions and emotions.

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 3.3.3. Thinking Ethically: A framework for Moral Decision Making
Firstly get the facts, but having the facts is not enough. Facts by themselves only tell us what is; they do
not tell us what ought to be. Although ethics deals with right and wrong, it is not a discipline that always
leads everyone to the same conclusions. To guide our reflection on such difficult questions, philosophers,
religious teachers and other thinkers have shaped various approaches to ethical decision-making:

o Fairness and Justice - the common Good - the Rights

- the Utilitarian - the Virtues

3.3.3.1. Fairness and Justice Approach

 This approach focuses on how fairly or unfairly our actions distribute benefits and burdens among
the members of a group. The basic moral question in this approach is: How fair is an action? The
principle states: “Treat people the same unless there are morally relevant differences between them.”
 Favoritism gives benefits to some people without a justifiable reason for singling them out
 discrimination imposes burdens on people who are no different from those on whom the
burdens are not imposed

3.3.3.2. The Common Good Approach

The Common Good Approach advocates for acts that promote the welfare of society, particularly for the
weak, and views communal life as intrinsically desirable. It highlights the importance of systems like the
law, healthcare, education, and peace for the welfare of all. Actions that respect individual liberties and
promote the "common good" are considered ethical.

3.3.3.3. The Rights Approach:

Respecting each person's autonomy and dignity is the main goal of the rights approach. It
highlights the need of protecting people's fundamental rights, such as safety, privacy, and the
truth. If a course of action upholds and defends the moral rights of all parties, it is considered
ethical.

3.4. To Whom or What Does Morality Apply?

3.4.1. Religious Morality
It refers to a human being in relationship to a supernatural being or beings. For example, the first
three of the Ten Commandments. These commandments deal with a person’s relationship with
God, not with any other human beings

3.4.2. Morality and Nature

It refers to a human being in relationship to nature. It has been prevalent in all primitive cultures.

3.4.3. Individual Morality

It refers to individuals in relation to themselves and to an individual code of morality that may or
may not be sanctioned by any society or religion

3.4.4. Social Morality

It concerns a human being in relation to other human beings

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3.5. Who is Morally/Ethically Responsible?
Morality pertains to human beings and only to human beings; all else is speculation. most evidence seems
to indicate that animals, as and plants should be classified as either non-moral or amoral - that is, they
should be considered either as having no moral sense or as being out of the moral sphere altogether

3.5.1. Moral Judgments

Moral judgments are judgments about what is right and wrong in human actions and are mainly
concerned with voluntary actions. They are evaluative because they value actions, and normative
because they use moral norms in judging actions. A good moral judgment takes into
consideration the motive (the why of the action), means (how the action is done), and
consequences (the result of the action).

 Motives must be good; an action done from duty is morally better than one done from self-
interest.
 Means must be just and fair; evil means cannot be justified even for a good end.
 Consequences are important but must be connected to a good motive and right means.
Moral choices cannot be made by applying rules in a rigid manner; careful thought must be given
on each occasion. Right moral actions are based on right motives, utilize the right means, and
have good consequences. Not every action is moral; only those which have a significant effect on
others through free choice are morally considered. True morality requires that the agent act from
duty, use ethical means, and promote the good of others.
3.5.2. What Makes an Action Moral?
An action is ethical if it is performed by a free, reflective agent, with good intentions. It should have
serious effects that impact other people, either benefiting or injuring them. Unintentional acts are typically
ethically neutral unless they result from negligence. Natural occurrences or movements of animals are not
moral because they don't exercise free will. A moral action must be deliberate, not automatic or random.
In general, morality relies on free will, good intention, and effect on others.

 Sometimes we think of “morall” means morally good

o But, philosophically, it refers to an action which comes within the scope of morality
o an action which is morally significant either in positive way ( because it is good or right)
or in a negative way (because the action is good or bad)
 Not all actions have a moral sense
o putting on a raincoat, sharpening a pencil, or counting apples…
o are not in themselves either good or bad acts - Such actions are morally neutral or non-
moral
features that make an action moral
 A moral act involves an agent:
o natural event or an action performed by animals, then it is morally neutral - it does not
appear on our moral radars
o Humans can be moral agents, or any creatures that can freely and thoughtfully choose its
actions will count as a moral agent.
 A moral act involves intention
o intention here refers to our motives

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 o If an action is done accidentally, it may be counted as a morally neutral action
 However, some unintentional acts, such as those done through negligence, can be
moral. Neglecting our duties, even accidentally, make us morally culpable
 A moral act affects others
o Moral action is an action that has harmful (be it physical, psychological, emotional, or
depriving others of happiness) or beneficial consequences for others.
o Confusion about the content of morality arises because morality is not always
distinguished from religion

Generally, a moral action is one which

 performed by agents: creatures that are capable of free choice/ free will.
 Is the result of intention: the action was done on purpose with a particular motive.
 Has a significant consequence on others: in respect of harm or benefits it brings about.

3.6. Why Should Human Beings Be Moral?

A. Argument from Enlightened Self-Interest
Generally it's better to be good rather than bad and to create a world and society that is good rather
than one that is bad. If everyone tried to do and be good and tried to avoid and prevent bad, it would be
in everyone's self-interest.

B. Argument from Tradition and Law

As traditions and laws, formulated over centuries, direct the behavior of human beings. These traditions
and laws lead human beings to be moral and not immoral, there are good reasons for being So.

C. Common Human Needs

That all human beings have numerous needs, wants, aims, and goals in common. Example: human
beings tend to require friendship, love, happiness, freedom, peace, creativity. In order to satisfy these
needs, human beings must create and follow moral rules that cause them to cooperate with one
another and that free them from fear.

Generally, People typically choose to be moral because of such things as self-respect, acceptance by
others, threat of punishment, religious belief, and the wish to be a good role model. There are two sides
to the inquiry "Why be moral?": why society needs moral rules and why individuals should be moral.
Moral rules are good for society in that they prevent anarchy, reduce harm, make possible
development, settle disputes impartially, and organize praise, blame, and punishment. Even when rule-
breaking appears to be advantageous in the short term, being moral consistently has more long-term
benefits, reinforcing both individual and societal welfare.

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