1, what are the basic ethical principle and value of moral judgment?

The basic ethical principles and values of moral judgment include:

Fairness and Justice (Aristotle): Treat equals equally and unequals

unequally, avoiding favoritism or discrimination.


Common Good (John Rawls): Actions should advance shared societal

benefits (e.g., healthcare, education, peace).


Rights Approach (Kant): Respect individuals’ dignity, autonomy, and rights

(e.g., truth, privacy, freedom from harm).


Utilitarianism: Maximize overall happiness/minimize harm.

Virtue Ethics: Cultivate moral character (e.g., honesty, courage).



2, Briefly discuses moral intuition , rationalization and type of reasoning.

1. Moral Intuition

Moral intuition refers to our immediate, instinctive sense of right and wrong, often
shaped by upbringing, culture, and personal experiences. Unlike deliberate
reasoning, moral intuition operates quickly, influencing judgments before logical
analysis. Philosophers argue that while intuitions provide a starting point for
ethical reflection, they must be critically examined to ensure they align with
rational principles. For example, someone might instinctively feel that lying is
wrong, but ethical reasoning helps determine whether exceptions (e.g., lying to
protect someone) are justified.

2. Rationalization

Rationalization occurs when individuals justify their actions with seemingly logical
reasons while concealing their true motives. Unlike genuine reasoning,
rationalization serves as a defense mechanism to make questionable behavior
appear morally acceptable. For instance, a company might claim that layoffs are
necessary for "innovation" when the real motive is cost-cutting. Ethical decision-
making requires distinguishing between valid justifications and self-serving
rationalizations.

3. Types of Reasoning in Ethics

Ethical reasoning involves structured thinking to evaluate moral dilemmas. Three

key types include:

Deductive Reasoning: Applies universal principles to specific cases (e.g.,

"Killing is wrong → War involves killing → Therefore, war is wrong").
Inductive Reasoning: Draws probable conclusions from evidence (e.g.,
"Studies show corruption harms economies → Therefore, anti-corruption
laws are morally necessary").
 Analogical Reasoning: Compares similar cases to draw ethical parallels (e.g.,
"If animals feel pain like humans, should they have similar rights?").

3 , list and deeply discuss ways to test a moral argument.

To evaluate whether a moral argument is sound and ethically valid,

philosophers and ethicists use several key tests. These ensure that moral
reasoning is not just persuasive but also logically consistent, factually
accurate, and grounded in good intentions. Below are the three primary
methods for testing moral arguments, along with deeper explanations and
examples:

1. Factual Accuracy

A moral argument must be based on correct and relevant facts.

Misinformation or false premises weaken the argument’s validity.

"Is" vs. "Ought" Problem (Hume’s Guillotine): Just because something

*is* a certain way doesn’t mean it *ought* to be. For example:


 Incorrect: "Many people cheat on taxes, so cheating must be morally

acceptable."
 Correct:* "Tax fraud harms public services; thus, it should be
condemned."
o Empirical Evidence: Claims must be supported by reliable data. If an
argument asserts that "capital punishment deters crime," it must cite
credible studies.
 Example: A debate on euthanasia must accurately represent medical,
legal, and psychological facts—not just emotional appeals.

2. Consistency (Logical Coherence)

The argument must avoid contradictions and apply moral principles

uniformly.

Universalizability (Kant’s Categorical Imperative): If an action is right

for one person, it should be right for all in similar circumstances.


 Inconsistent:* "Lying is wrong, but I can lie to protect myself."

 Consistent:* "Lying undermines trust; thus, honesty should be upheld
even when inconvenient."
 Example: Opposing animal testing while supporting factory farming
would require justifying the moral distinction between the two.
3. Good Will (Moral Intentions)

The argument should reflect genuine ethical concern, not hidden biases or
harmful motives.

Motives Matter (Kantian Ethics): An action is only truly moral if

done out of duty to ethical principles, not self-interest.
 Bad Will:* Donating to charity solely for a tax break.
 Good Will:* Donating because alleviating suffering is a moral
duty.
o Emotional vs. Rational Balance: While emotions like empathy matter,
they must align with reasoned principles.
 Example: A politician advocating for environmental laws must prove
their commitment isn’t just for votes but for ecological ethics.

4, mention and briefly discuss approaches to deal with moral issues.

Ethical decision-making involves multiple philosophical frameworks, each

offering a unique perspective on resolving moral dilemmas. Below are the
key approaches discussed in the text:

i. Fairness and Justice Approach (Aristotelian Ethics)

: "Equals should be treated equally, and unequals unequally."
: Examines whether actions distribute benefits and burdens fairly.


Application: Condemns favoritism (e.g., nepotism in hiring).



:Rejects discrimination (e.g., unequal pay

for equal work).

 Example: Affirmative action policies aim to rectify historical

inequalities .
ii. . Common Good Approach (Communitarian Ethics)
 : Actions should promote societal well-being and shared conditions
(e.g., healthcare, education).
 : Emphasizes collective welfare over individual interests.
Application: Justifies taxation for public services.

: Supports environmental conservation for

future generations.

 Example: Vaccination mandates during pandemics protect public

health.
iii. . Rights Approach (Kantian Ethics)
: Respect for individual autonomy and dignity.
: Upholds fundamental rights (e.g., privacy, truth, freedom from


harm).


Opposes censorship (violates freedom of speech).

Condemns exploitation (violates dignity).
o

Example: Whistleblower protections defend the right to truth

o

iv. . Utilitarian Approach (Consequentialism)



: Choose actions that maximize overall happiness/minimize harm.

: Outcomes matter more than intentions.


Example: Trolley problem: Sacrifice one to save five?




v. . Virtue Ethics (Aristotle)

Cultivate moral character (e.g., honesty, courage).
"What would a virtuous person do?"


Application: Prioritizes integrity over rigid rules.



 Example: A leader showing compassion in layoffs.

5, what does morality applies? Discuss 4 aspect in moral application.

four key dimensions where morality applies, reflecting different

relationships and contexts in which ethical judgments operate.

1. Religious Morality

Morality tied to a human’s relationship with a supernatural

being (e.g., God/gods).
Governed by divine commandments (e.g., the Ten
Commandments’ first three rules focus on worship and
reverence).
Violations are sins against God, not necessarily humans (e.g.,
blasphemy).
 Example: "Keep holy the Sabbath" is a moral duty in
Judaism/Christianity, even if no human is directly affected.

2. Morality and Nature

 Human actions in relation to the natural world (animals, ecosystems,
etc.).
Anthropocentric view: Nature is valuable only for human benefit.
Ecocentric view: Nature has intrinsic moral worth (e.g., protecting
endangered species for their own sake).
 Example: Robinson Crusoe’s treatment of his desert-island
environment could be judged as moral (conservation) or immoral
(exploitation).

3. Individual Morality

Personal conscience and self-governance, independent of society or

religion.
Focuses on internal standards ("higher morality" from within).
Actions are judged by personal integrity (e.g., honesty when no one is
watching).
 Example: Choosing not to cheat on a test because it feels wrong, even
if you won’t get caught.
 Limitation: Subjective; may conflict with societal norms (e.g., civil
disobedience).

4. Social Morality

Human interactions within society (the most pervasive aspect of

morality).
Ensures peaceful coexistence (e.g., laws against theft, murder).
Embodied in cultural norms, legal systems, and institutions.

6, Who is morally / ethically responsible ?

1. Moral Agency Requires Free Will

Humans: Only humans possess the capacity for rational thought,

intentional decision-making, and moral reasoning (e.g., choosing to lie


or tell the truth).

Non-Humans (Animals, Nature, AI):
Animals act on instinct, not moral choice (e.g., a lion killing prey isn’t


"immoral").


 AI lacks consciousness and cannot understand ethical consequences.

2. Key Criteria for Moral Responsibility

For an action to be morally significant, the agent must:

o Be capable of free choice (voluntary actions, not forced).

o Act with intention (e.g., accidentally causing harm may reduce
culpability).
o Affect others (positively or negatively).

3. Exceptions & Edge Cases

Negligence: Unintentional harm due to recklessness (e.g., drunk

driving) still holds moral weight.


Groups/Institutions: While corporations or governments aren’t

"persons," their human decision-makers bear responsibility (e.g.,


CEOs accountable for pollution).

4. Practical Implications

Justice Systems: Punish humans, not animals or objects.

AI Ethics: Programmers/users bear responsibility for AI’s actions, not


the AI itself.


 Moral responsibility is uniquely human because it requires conscious

choice, reasoning, and the capacity to weigh right vs. wrong.

7, what should be considered in oral judgment?

Key Considerations in Moral Judgment

a) . Motive (Intention)
 A morally good action requires good intentions (e.g., helping
someone out of genuine care vs. for personal gain).
 Kant emphasized that only actions done from duty (moral obligation)
have true moral worth.
 Example: Donating to charity for social media praise lacks moral value
compared to doing it selflessly.

2. Means (Method Used)

Ethical means matter—even good ends don’t justify harmful methods

(e.g., lying to "protect" someone may still be wrong).


The "ends justify the means" argument is often morally questionable

(e.g., torture for information).

  Example: A doctor using unapproved drugs to save a life risks patient
safety—the means are unethical.

3. Consequences (Outcomes)

o Utilitarians focus on outcomes: the best action maximizes

happiness/minimizes harm.
o However, good results don’t automatically make an action moral (e.g.,
stealing to feed the poor).
 Example: A policy that helps many but exploits a minority may be
morally flawed despite positive effects.

4. Moral Principles Involved

.Does the action align with ethical standards?

. Rights-based ethics: Did it respect autonomy, truth, and dignity?

. Justice: Was it fair to all parties?

. Virtue ethics: Did it reflect integrity, courage, or compassion?

 Example: Breaking a promise to help someone might violate honesty

but uphold kindness—principles must be weighed.

5. Context & Circumstances

- What was the situation?

Moral judgments must account for cultural, social, or emergency

contexts (e.g., lying to save a life).


 Moral luck: Outcomes beyond control (e.g., a drunk driver who harms
no one vs. one who kills).
 Example: Stealing bread to survive is judged differently than stealing
for profit.

6. Consistency & Fairness

Is the judgment applied equally?

Hypocrisy undermines moral credibility (e.g., punishing one group


harshly while excusing another).


 Kant’s categorical imperative: Act only in ways that could be universal
laws.


 Example: Forgiving a friend’s lie while condemning a stranger’s

shows bias.

7. Emotional & Rational Balance

o Are feelings and logic both considered?

o Empathy matters (e.g., understanding why someone acted as they
did).
 Example: Judging a crime requires both compassion for circumstances
and rational assessment of facts.

8, What Makes an Action Moral?

To determine whether an action is moral, we must examine its key

characteristics. a moral action is defined by three essential criteria, along
with supporting philosophical principles.

1. A Moral Action Requires a Moral Agent

Who performs the action?

 Only humans (or beings with free will and reasoning ability) can act
morally or immorally.
Why? Moral actions require:
 Conscious choice (not instinct or programming).
 Understanding of ethical principles (e.g., fairness, honesty).
 Examples:
o A person choosing to help a stranger = moral.
o A robot following its code = not moral (no free will).

2. The Action Must Be Intentional

Was it done deliberately?

Moral actions stem from intention, not accidents.
*Good intention*: Acting out of duty, compassion, or justice.


*Bad intention*: Acting out of malice, greed, or indifference.




- Exceptions:

- Negligence (e.g., forgetting a child in a hot car) can still be immoral due
to reckless disregard.
- Example:

- Moral: Donating to charity to alleviate suffering.

- Immoral: Donating just for tax benefits.

3. The Action Must Affect Others

Does it impact other beings (positively or negatively)?

Moral actions have consequences for:
Other people (e.g., lying harms trust).
o

Animals/environment (e.g., pollution harms ecosystems).

o

Neutral actions (e.g., brushing your teeth) are non-moral unless tied
o

to a larger ethical issue (e.g., wasting water during a drought).

o

9, Why Should Human Beings Be Moral? Discuss argument from self

interest , tradition and low and common human needs.

Morality is not just an abstract ideal—it serves fundamental purposes in

human life. Three key arguments explaining why people should act morally:
self-interest, tradition and law, and common human needs.

1. Argument from Enlightened Self-Interest

"Being moral benefits me in the long run."

Personal Well-Being: Moral behavior (honesty, kindness, fairness)

fosters trust, strong relationships, and social stability—all of which


improve individual happiness.

Reciprocity: If everyone follows moral rules (e.g., "don’t steal"),
society becomes safer and more prosperous, benefiting all.


Avoiding Harm: Immoral actions (lying, cheating) often lead to

punishment, guilt, or social rejection.


Example:

- A businessperson who treats employees fairly gains loyalty and

productivity, leading to long-term success.

- A society where people respect traffic laws reduces accidents, benefiting

everyone.
 Some may act morally only for rewards or fear of punishment, not
genuine ethics.


What if immorality goes unpunished (e.g., a corrupt leader who

prospers)?


2. Argument from Tradition and Law

"Morality is embedded in our cultural and legal systems."

Social Stability: Moral norms (e.g., prohibitions against murder, theft)

have evolved over centuries to maintain order.


Legal Enforcement: Laws codify moral principles (e.g., anti-

discrimination laws reflect fairness).


Moral Education: Families and institutions teach morality from

childhood (e.g., "golden rule").


Example:

- Religious commandments (e.g., "Do not kill") became secular laws because
they protect life.

- Cultural traditions like hospitality reinforce trust in communities.

Traditions can be outdated or unjust (e.g., historical caste systems).

Blindly following rules without critical thinking may perpetuate harm.



3. Argument from Common Human Needs

"Morality helps fulfill universal human desires."

Shared Needs: All humans seek safety, love, freedom, and meaning—
morality helps achieve these.


Cooperation: Moral behavior (e.g., honesty, altruism) enables

teamwork, essential for survival and progress.


Psychological Well-Being: Acting immorally (e.g., betrayal) often leads

to guilt, while moral acts bring fulfillment.


Examples:

- A society that values justice meets people’s need for fairness.

- Helping others satisfies our innate desire for connection and purpose.

Needs vary across cultures—some prioritize community over

individual rights.
Conflicts arise when needs clash (e.g., freedom vs. security).

 Conclusion

Morality is not just a duty but a necessity—it ensures personal well-being,

societal order, and the fulfillment of human aspirations. While each
argument has limits, together they show that ethical behavior is rational,
culturally ingrained, and deeply human.

10. Why Does Society Need Moral Rules?

Society depends on moral rules to function smoothly, ensure cooperation,

and promote human well-being. The five key reasons why moral rules are
essential:

1. Prevent Society from Falling Apart

Without moral rules, people would act purely out of self-interest,

leading to chaos, violence, and distrust.
Example: If stealing were widely accepted, commerce and property
rights would collapse.


2. Reduce Human Suffering

Moral rules like *"Do not harm others"* minimize unnecessary pain.
Example: Laws against assault and fraud protect people from physical
and emotional harm.


3. Promote Human Flourishing

Moral values (justice, honesty, compassion) create conditions where

people can thrive.
Example: Fair wages and education access help individuals reach
their potential.


4. Resolve Conflicts Justly

 Moral rules provide a framework for fair conflict resolution (e.g.,
courts, negotiations).
Example: Mediation in disputes relies on principles of fairness rather
than brute force.


5. Assign Accountability (Praise & Blame)

Moral standards allow society to:

Reward good behavior (e.g., honoring philanthropists).
Punish wrongdoing (e.g., imprisoning criminals).
Example: Holding corrupt leaders accountable maintains trust in
institutions.


Real world implication

Moral Social Benefit Consequence of Absence

Rule
Honesty Build trust in relationship& Fraud , broken relationship
business
Fairness Encourage meritocracy Corruption, inequality
Compassio Strengthens community bones Isolation, exploition
n

REFERENCE

1. Sandel, M. (2009). “ Justice: What’s the Right Thing to Do?”

2. Rachels, J. & Rachels, S. (2019 “The Elements of Moral Philosophy” (9th ed.).

3. Kant, I. (1785 “Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals”

4. Mill, J.S. (1863). “Utilitarianism”

5. FDRE Ministry of Education (2010). *Civic and Ethical Education* (Grade 11–12
textbooks).

6. Tegegne, G. (2015). *Indigenous Conflict Resolution Mechanisms in Ethiopia.