THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
EE/EG 232 ENGINEERING MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS LECTURE NOTES
CONTACT HOURS:2 hours/ week
The course is divided into two parts, namely the Electrical and the Mechanical.

Course content (Electrical)

 Concept of Measurement Systems : Fundamental and Derived Units, Standards and
their Classifications, Methods of Measurement, Classification of Instruments, Definitions
of Some Static Characteristics, Measurement of Errors, Loading Effects
 Analog Meters: Classification, Principle of Operation, Constructional Details,
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instrument, Extension of Range of PMMC Instruments,
Moving-Iron Instruments, Electrodynamometer-Type Instruments, Electrostatic
Instruments, Induction-type Instruments, Electrothermal Instruments, Rectifier-type
Instruments.
 Instrument Transformers: Advantages of Instrument Transformers, Current
Transformers (CT), Potential Transformers (PT)
 Measurement of Resistance: Measurement of Medium Resistances, Measurement of
Low Resistances, Measurement of High Resistances, Localisation of Cable Faults
 Potentiometers: A Basic dc Potentiometer, Crompton’s dc Potentiometers, Applications
of dc Potentiometers, AC Potentiometers, Classification of AC Potentiometers,
Applications of AC Potentiometer
 AC and DC Bridges: Sources and Detectors, General Balance Equation for Four-Arm
Bridge, Measurement of Self-Inductance, Measurement of Capacitance, Measurement of
Frequency, Wagner Earthing Device
 Power Measurement: Power Measurement in dc Circuits, Power Measurement in ac
Circuits, Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter, Induction-type Wattmeter, Power
Measurement in Polyphase Systems, Power Measurement in Three-Phase Systems,
Reactive Power Measurements, Power Measurement with Instrument Transformers
 Measurement of Energy: Single-Phase Induction-type Energy Meter, Errors in
Induction-type Energy Meters and Their Compensation, Testing of Energy Meters
 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope: Block Diagram of a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT), Electrostatic
Deflection, Time Base Generator, Vertical Input and Sweep Generator Signal
Synchronisation, Measurement of Electrical Quantities with CRO, Measurement of
Voltage and Current, Measurement of Frequency, Measurement of Phase Difference,
 Electronic Instruments: Merits and Demerits of Digital Instruments over Analog Ones,
Performance Characteristics of Digital Meters, Digital Multimeter, Digital Frequency
Meter, Digital Voltmeters (DVMs), Signal Generators
 Sensors and Transducers: Electrical Transducers, Linear Variable differential
Transformer (LVDT), Strain Gauges, Electromagnetic Flow Meter, Temperature
Transducers, Pressure Measurement
 Recording, Storage and Display Devices: Analog Recorders, Digital Recorders, Display
System
 Programmable Logic Controllers: Advantages, The Control Program, Function of each
Part in PLC, Hardware of PLC, System Addressing, PLC Operation and Program Scan,
Implementation of Control Programs in PLC, More in Ladder Logic

1
Module 1
Concept of Measurement Systems :
1. Fundamental and Derived Units,
2. Standards and their Classifications,
3. Methods of Measurement,
4. Classification of Instruments,
5. Definitions of Some Static Characteristics,
6. Measurement of Errors,
7. Loading Effects

Introduction
Metrology (from Greek words metron – to measure and logy- science) is the science of measurements. Measurements
are important to humans as it helps to determine unknown quantities, which can be with their bare hands. Measurement
has been developing along side with advancement in engineering. The first in the world institution set up to study
measurements was established in German in 1887. The institution said to be partly responsible for the abrupt increase
in industrialisation of German, which was the first one in the world. Other countries which are industrialised today
follow the German example.

The main purpose for of metrology is best described by the famous Italian scientist Galileo Galilei, who said ‘measure
everything that can be measured and try to make measurable what is not yet measurable’.

Measurements are useful in determining the value of a measured quantity.

Quantities can include electric current, distance, mass, time, magnetic flux, and others. A measured value is the
reading obtained from a measuring instruments, with a degree of error. A true value is simply the rated value.

Measurement is the assignment of a numerical value to an object’s physical quantity, or the comparison of physical
properties of an object with a standard value. Measurement of physical quantities such as length, mass, volume, density
and time is very common. Whenever we measure (assign numerical value to convey the magnitude of the physical
quantity) a unit is also assigned to the numerical value. i.e.

Magnitude of a physical quantity = numerical value x unit

When the numerical value is used to express the measurement magnitude without units, it is difficult to ascertain the
actual magnitude of measurements and there is not context to what the magnitude represents. The magnitude only
makes sense if the numerical value has a unit to accompany it. The result of the measurement is expressed by a pointer
deflection over a predefined scale or a number representing the ratio between the unknown quantity and the standard.
A standard is defined as the physical personification of the unit of measurement or its submultiple or multiple values.
The device or instrument used for comparing the unknown quantity with the unit of measurement or a standard
quantity is called a measuring instrument.

Methods of measurements
The value of the unknown quantity can be measured by direct or indirect methods. In direct measurement methods,
the unknown quantity is measured directly instead of comparing it with a standard. Examples of direct measurement
are current by ammeter, voltage by voltmeter, resistance by ohmmeter, power by wattmeter, etc. In indirect
measurement methods, the value of the unknown quantity is determined by measuring the functionally related quantity
and calculating the desired quantity rather than measuring it directly. Suppose the resistance as (R) of a conductor can
be measured by measuring the voltage drop across the conductor and dividing the voltage (V) by the current (I) through
the conductors, by:
𝑉
Ohm’s, 𝑅 =
𝐼

Types of units

There units of measure (units) is the standard amount of each kind of physical quantity.
There are two type of units, namely, fundamental and derived units. The fundamental units are the units of the
fundamental quantities, as defined by the International System of Units. They are not dependent upon any other units,
and all other units are derived from them. The fundamental units in mechanics are measures of length, mass and time.
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The sizes of the fundamental units, whether foot or metre, pound or kilogram, second or hour are arbitrary and can be
selected to fit a certain set of circumstances. Since length, mass and time are fundamental to most other physical
quantities besides those in mechanics, they are called the primary fundamental units. Measures of certain physical
quantities in the thermal, electrical and illumination disciplines are also represented by fundamental units. These units
are used only when these particular classes are involved, and they may therefore be defined as auxiliary fundamental
units.

All other units which can be expressed in terms of the fundamental units are called derived units. Every derived unit
originates from some physical law defining that unit. For example, the area (A) of a rectangle is proportional to its
length (l) and breadth (b), or A = lb. If the metre has been chosen as the unit of length then the area of a rectangle of
5 metres by 7 metres is 35 m2. Note that the numbers of measure are multiplied as well as the units. The derived unit
for area (A) is then the metre square (m2).

A derived unit is recognized by its dimensions, which can be defined as the complete algebraic formula for the derived
unit. The dimensional symbols for the fundamental units of length, mass and time are L, M and T respectively. The
dimensional symbol for the derived unit of area is L2 and that for volume is L3. The dimensional symbol for various
quantities are listed below:

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐿
1. Speed, Velocity, Velocity =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
= 𝑇 = 𝐿𝑇 −1

𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐿
2. Acceleration, 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = = 2 = 𝐿𝑇 −2
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 2 𝑇
3. Force
4. Work
5. Power
6. Electric charge
7. EMF or potential
8. Current density
9. Resistance
10. Electric flax density
11. Magnetic motive force
12. Conductance
13. Resistivity
14. Magnetic field intensity
15. Magnetic flux
16. Magnetic flux intensity
17. Impedance
18. Admittance
19. Inductance
20. capacitance

The International System of Units (SI)

SI is the modern and most widely used system of units in measurements. It is made up of seven base units which
include.

1. Length measured in meters (m),

2. mass- Kilogram (kg),
3. time- seconds (s),
4. electric current- Ampere (A),
5. temperature- Kelvin (K),
6. luminous (light) intensity –Candela (Cd) and
7. Amount of substance- mole (mol).

SI is the foundation of modern metrology. It was found in 1960. Apart from the seven base units there are 23 other
units which are derived using formulas. Electric current is the only unit for electrical engineers in the base units.
Other electrical engineering units like voltage, resistance, power and others are derived from formulas using electric
current.

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Advantages of SI units

Disadvantages

PREFIXES
Since the presentation of the results in the initial (base) units of physical quantities is sometimes unsuitable, the SI
system defines the use of SI prefixes as shown in Table 1 below. The prefixes hecto, deka, deci, and centi are not
used in electrical engineering. Using only a single prefix inthe SI system is also allowed. Therefore, 10 μμW is not
allowed, as it must be 10 pW.

Table 1SI prefixes

Prefix Symbol Exponent Number
Tera T 1012 1 000 000 000 000
Giga G 109 1 000 000 000
Mega M 106 1 000 000
Kilo k 103 1 000
Base base 100 1
Deci d 10−1 0.1
centi c 10−2 0.01
Milli M 10−3 0.001
Micro μ 10−6 0.000001
Nano n 10−9 0.000000001
pico p 10−12 0.000000000001
Other prefixes are included in the table 2 below,

Table 2

The base is the unit used to measure some quantity, eg amps, watts, meter, second etc. From table 1 it can be seen
that it is convenient to express some numbers in their exponent form i.e10 x.
For example, 2.5 Megagram=2.5 Mg=2.5x10 6g=2500 000g.

Prefix conversion
Example 1. How many dg are there in 2.6 kg?
Solution
Approach (steps)
1. Write the amount and units as given in question
2. Multiply the amount and units given in1 by a fraction having the given units at the bottom and the
require units at the top,
3. Then assign the bigger prefix from the fraction with 1 and the small one with 10
4. Determine the exponent of the figure 10 assigned to smaller prefix of the fraction in 3 by
subtraction the exponent of the smaller prefix from that of a bigger one.
5. After that cancel the like terms and present the final answer in simple exponent form as shown
below.

4
 104 𝑑𝑔
2.6 𝑘𝑔 ∙ = 2.6 ∙ 104 𝑑𝑔
1 𝑘𝑔

Finding exponent of dg, exponent of kg =3 that of dg—1, therefore 3-(-1)=4, when simplifying the expression by
cancelling the like units and prefixes, we get 𝟐. 𝟔 ∙ 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝒅𝒈

Example 2. How many cm are there in 18.2 nm?

Solution
The approach is similar to the previous example

1 𝑐𝑚
18.2 𝑛𝑚 ∙ = 18.2 ∙ 10−7 𝑐𝑚
107 𝑛𝑚
Finding exponent of nm. since exponent of cm =-2 that of nm=-9, therefore -2-(-9)=7, when simplifying the
expression by cancelling the like units and prefixes, we get 𝟏𝟖. 𝟐 ∙ 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒅𝒈

Conversion of quantities that squared and cubed

For quantities like length that get squared and cubed to give area and volume have a slightly different way of
converting their prefixes.

Example 3, How many m2 are there in 1 km2?

Solution
The approach is similar to the previous example; apart from the fact that the exponent will have to be multiplied by
2 or 3 with we are dealing with squared or cubed quantities respectively.

2
103(2) 𝑚2
1 𝑘𝑚 ∙ = 1 ∙ 106 𝑚2
1 𝑘𝑚2
Finding exponent of 𝑚2 . Since exponent of km =3 that of m=0, therefore 3-(0)=3, the exponent is then multiplied by
2 as the units are squared. Then after simplifying the expression by cancelling the like units and prefixes, we get 1 ∙
106 𝑚2
Standards

STANDARDS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATIONS

A standard of measurement is an acceptable approved system or object or experiments against which others are
judges ore measured.
There are several classes of standards, namely:
1. International standards
2. Primary standards
3. Secondary standards
4. Working standards
5. Current standards
6. Voltage standards
7. Resistance standards
8. Capacitance standards
9. Time and frequency standards

International Standards
The international standards are defined by international agreement. They represent certain units of measurement to
the closest possible accuracy that production and measurement technology allow. International standards are
periodically checked and evaluated by absolute measurements in terms of the fundamental units. These standards are
maintained at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures and are not available to the ordinary user of
measuring instruments for purposes of comparison or calibration. Table 1.1 shows basic SI Units, Quantities and
Symbols.

Primary Standards
The primary standards are maintained by national standards laboratories in different places of the world. The
National Bureau of Standards (NBS) in Washington is responsible for maintenance of the primary standards in
North America. Other national laboratories include the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in Great Britain
and the oldest in the world, the Physikalisch Technische Reichsanstalt in Germany. The primary standards, again
representing the fundamental units and some of the derived mechanical and electrical units, are independently
5
calibrated by absolute measurements at each of the national laboratories. The results of these measurements are
compared with each other, leading to a world average figure for the primary standard. Primary standards are not
available for use outside the national laboratories. One of the main functions of primary standards is the verification
and calibration of secondary standards.

Secondary Standards
Secondary standards are the basic reference standards used in the industrial measurement laboratories. These
standards are maintained by the particular involved industry and are checked locally against other reference
standards in the area. The responsibility for maintenance and calibration rests entirely with the industrial laboratory
itself. Secondary standards are generally sent to the national standards laboratory on a periodic basis for calibration
and comparison against the primary standards. They are then returned to the industrial user with a certification of
their measured value in terms of the primary standard.

Working Standards
Working standards are the principle tools of a measurement laboratory. They are used to check and calibrate general
laboratory instruments for accuracy and performance or to perform comparison measurements in industrial
applications. A manufacturer of precision resistances, for example, may use a standard resistor in the quality control
department of his plant to check his testing equipment. In this case, the manufacturer verifies that his measurement
setup performs within the required limits of accuracy.

Current Standard
The fundamental unit of electric current (Ampere) is defined by the International System of Units (SI) as the
constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length and negligible circular
cross section placed 1 meter apart in vacuum, will produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 ×10-7 newton
per meter length. Early measurements of the absolute value of the ampere were made with a current balance which
measured the force between two parallel conductors. These measurements were rather crude and the need was felt to
produce a more practical and reproducible standard for the national laboratories. By international agreement, the
value of the international ampere was based on the electrolytic deposition of silver from a silver nitrate solution.
The international ampere was then defined as that current which deposits silver at the rate of 1.118 mg/s from a
standard silver nitrate solution. Difficulties were encountered in the exact measurement of the deposited silver and
slight discrepancies existed between measurements made independently by the various National Standard
Laboratories. Later, the international ampere was superseded by the absolute ampere and it is now the
fundamental unit of electric current in the SI and is universally accepted by international agreement.

Assignments
Write brief notes of the following
Resistance standard
Voltage standard
Capacitance standard
Inductance standard
Time / frequency standard
Length standard
Mass standard

Measurement system and its elements

A measurement system is a systematic arrangement for measurement and analysis of instrumentation. The figure
below shows a general measurement system and its components

Physical Primary Signal

Transducer
system sensing conditioner
(Input measurand) Element

Data Data Variable

Manipulation
presentation Transmission conversion
element
(Indicator, recorder) signal modification

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Functions of each element of the measuring system.
Every measuring system is made up of one or more of these functional elements and each one of them consists of
distinct component or group of components.

1. Physical system: This take is the physical quantity to be measured and passes it to the sensing elements in
its original form.
2. Primary sensing element: This senses the condition and state of measurand by extracting a small part of
energy from it and produces and output which reflects the condition and states of the physical quantity.
3. Transducer: This converts the output from the sensing element into electrical signal if the sensing element
has a non-electrical input and output. If the sensing element has an electrical input and output, the
transducer can be eliminated from the measuring system.
4. Variable Conversion element: From the transducer or sensing element (depending on weather the sensing
element has an electrical or non-electrical input/ output) a signal which may be in form of voltage,
frequency or current may not be in a form that that is acceptable by the system. The variable conversion
element converts this into suitable form that is acceptable by the system, while retaining the information
from original signal. E.G. analog to digital converter will be used to convert analog to digital signals were
necessary
5. Manipulation Elements: sometimes it’s necessary to change the level of signal without changing the
information content in it, thus the function of manipulation element is to change the signal presented to it
while maintain the nature of the signal E.G. electronic amplifier converts a low input voltage into a high
output voltage.
6. Data transmission Element: This element transmits (moves) the signals from one system ( element) to
another without changing the information content.
7. Data presentation element: This provides an indication and recording components which can be used by
humans or controller for monitoring, controlling or analysis purpose. The element can be analog or digital.
A calibrated scale and pointer are a common type of display device. Magnetic tape or magnetic discs may
be used if data recording is important.

Measurements and errors

Most important terms used in metrology include:
Measurement: This is the process of using an instrument to determine the magnitude or value of a quantity,
variable or parameter.
Electrical/ electronic measuring instrument: this is a device based on electrical and electronic principle for
determining the value or magnitude of a quantity, variable or parameter.
Instrument accuracy: this is the closes of an instrument reading to the true value of the variable being measured.
Instrument precision: This is the measure of the degree to which successive measurements taken under the same
conditions differ from each other.
Instrument sensitivity: this is the ratio of the output signal or response of the instrument to change of an input or
measured variable.
Instrument resolution: this is the smallest change in measured value the instrument will respond to.
Instrument Error: this the deviation (difference) of the measured value from a true value
Measurement reproducibility: is the closeness of individual measurements of the same quantity that are measured
in changed circumstances (different measurers in different laboratories, using other measurement methods,
instruments, places, and conditions, etc.).
True value: the arithmetic mean of an infinite set of measurements. Note that it is practically impossible to make
infinity measurements.
Confidence limits: the range within which it is probable to find the true value of a measurement.
Indicated value
Correction
Range
Repeatability
Drift
Linearity or non-linearity
Dead zone
Dead time
Speeder response
Tolerance
Backlash
Stiction
Noise

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Error Minimisation Techniques

Several techniques may be used to minimize the effects of errors. For example:
Making precision measurements,
It is advisable to record a series of observations rather than rely on one observation.
Alternate methods of measurement, as well as the use of different instruments to perform the same
experiment,
Provide a good technique for increasing accuracy.
Although these techniques tend to increase the precision of measurement by reducing environmental or random
error, they cannot account for instrumental error.

Error has been defined above as the deviation of the measured value from a true value. Mathematically it can be
define:

𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝛿 = 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒(𝑉𝑚 ) − 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒(𝑉𝑇 )

If 𝑉𝑚 > 𝑉𝑇 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑓 𝑉𝑚 < 𝑉𝑇 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒

Example
A motor is rated 3000 rpm at full speed. When correctly connected to the power supply at full speed, the reading of
the torque meter is used to measure the rpm was 3002 rpm. Determine the error.
Solution
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝛿 = 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒(𝑉𝑚 ) − 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒(𝑉𝑇 ) = 3002 − 3000 = +𝟐 𝒓𝒑𝒎

Note that 𝛿 is also known as absolute error.

Errors in measurements are usually expressed in percentage (%).

The quality of an instrument in terms of accuracy is determined by its percentage Relative Static Error (RSE) (also
called the limiting Error).

𝑉𝑚 − 𝑉𝑇 𝛿 𝑉𝑚
%𝑅𝑆𝐸 = ∙ 100% = ∙ 100% = ( − 1) ∙ 100%
𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝑇

𝑉𝑚 −𝑉𝑇 𝛿
= is also referred to as relative error
𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝑇

% 𝑅𝑆𝐸 is also referred to as Percentage Error

Example
Two instruments A and B had the information as shown below:
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐴: 𝛿𝐴 = 1 𝐴, 𝑉𝑇 = 2 𝐴

𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐵 ∶ 𝛿𝐵 = 10 𝐴, 𝑉𝑇 = 1000 𝐴
Determine which instrument was more quality.
Solution
𝛿 1
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐴: %𝑅𝑆𝐸 = ∙ 100% = ∙ 100% = 50%,
𝑉𝑇 2

𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑦 = 100% − %𝑅𝑆𝐸 = 100% − 50% = 50%

𝛿 10
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐵: %𝑅𝑆𝐸 = ∙ 100% = ∙ 100% = 1%,
𝑉𝑇 1000

𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑦 = 100% − %𝑅𝑆𝐸 = 100% − 1% = 99%

From the results obtained, it can be concluded that instrument B is more quality as it has a higher accuracy low
error.

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Accuracy and Precision
As mentioned above, Accuracy refers to the degree of closeness or conformity to the true value of the quantity under
measurement. Precision refers to the degree of agreement within a group of measurements or instruments.

To demonstrate the difference between accuracy and precision, two voltmeters of the same make and model may be
compared. Both meters have knife-edged pointers and mirror-backed scales to avoid parallax, and they have
carefully calibrated scales. They may therefore be read to the same precision. If the value of the series resistance in
one meter changes considerably, its readings may be in error by a fairly large amount. Therefore the accuracy of the
two meters may be quite different. (To determine which meter is in error, a comparison measurement with a
standard meter should be made).

Precision is composed of two characteristics: conformity (closeness) and the number of significant figures to which a
measurement can be made. Consider, for example, that a resistor, whose true resistance is 1,273,672 Ω, is measured
by an ohmmeter which consistently and repeatedly indicates 1.3 MΩ. But can the observer “read” the true value
from the scale? His estimates from the scale reading consistently yield a value of 1.3 MΩ. This is as close to the true
value as he can read the scale by estimation. Although there are no deviations from the observed value, the error
created by the limitation of the scale reading is a precision error. The example illustrates that conformity is a
necessary, but not sufficient condition for precision because of the lack of significant figures obtained. Similarly,
precision is a necessary, but not sufficient condition for accuracy.

Too often the beginning student is inclined to accept instrument readings at face value. He is not aware that the
accuracy of a reading is not guaranteed by its precision. In fact, good measurement techniques demands continuous
scepticism as to the accuracy of the results.
In critical work, good practice dictates that the observer make an independent set of measurements, using different
instruments or different measurement techniques, not subject to the same systematic errors. He must also make sure
that the instruments function properly and are calibrated against a known standard, and that no outside influence
affects the accuracy of his measurements.

Significant Figures
An indication of precision of the measurement is obtained from the number of significant figures in which the result
is expressed. Significant figures convey actual information regarding the magnitude and the measurement precision
of a quantity. The more significant figures, the greater the precision of measurement.

For example, if a resistor is specified as having a resistance of 68 Ω, its resistance should be closer to 68 Ω than to
67 Ω or 69 Ω. If the value of the resistor is described as 68.0 Ω, it means that its resistance is closer to 68.0 Ω than it
is to 67.9 Ω or 68.1 Ω. In 68 Ω there are two significant figures; in 68.0 Ω there are three. The latter, with more
significant figures, expresses a measurement of greater precision than the former.

Often, however, the total number of digits may not represent measurement precision. Frequently, large numbers
with zeros before a decimal point are used for approximate populations or amounts of money. For example, the
population of a city is reported in six figures as 380,000. This may imply that the true value of the population lies
between 379,999 and 380,001, which is six significant figures. What is meant, however, is that the population is
closer to 380,000 than 370,000 or 390,000. Since in this case the population can be reported only to two significant
figures, how can large numbers be expressed?

A more technically correct notation uses powers of ten, 38 × 10 4 or 3.8 × 105. This indicates that the population
figures is only accurate to two significant figures. Uncertainty caused by zeros to the left of the decimal point is
therefore usually resolved by scientific notation using powers of ten. Reference to the velocity of light as 186,000
mi/s, for example, would cause no misunderstanding to anyone with a technical background. But 1.86 × 10 5 mi/s
leave no confusion.

It is customary to record a measurement with all the digits of which we are sure nearest to the true value. For
example, in reading a voltmeter, the voltage may be read as 117.1 V. This simply indicates that the voltage, read by
the observer to best estimation, is closer to 117.1 V than to 117.0 V or 117.2 V. Another way of expressing this
result indicates the range of possible error. The voltage may be expressed as 117.1 ± 0.05 V, indicating that the
value of the voltage lies between 117.05 V and 117.15 V.
When a number of independent measurements are taken in an effort to obtain the best possible answer (closest to the
true value), the result is usually expressed as the arithmetic mean of all the readings, with the range of possible error
as the largest deviation from that mean. This is illustrated in Example 1.

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Example 1
A set of independent voltage measurements taken by four observers was recorded as 117.02 V, 117.11 V, 117.08 V,
and 117.03 V. Calculate:

The average voltage,

The range of error.

Solution:

1. Average Voltage

𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + 𝑉4 117.02 + 117.11 + 117.08 + 117.03

𝑉𝑎𝑣 = = = 117.06 𝑉
𝑛 4
2. Range

Range 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑎𝑣 = 117.11 − 117.06 = 0.05

but also 𝑉𝑎𝑣 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 117.06 − 117.02 = 0.04

0.05+0.04
The average range of error therefore equals = ±0.045 = ±0.05
2

When two or more measurements with different degrees of accuracy are added, the result is only as accurate as the
least square measurement. Suppose that two resistances are added in series as in Example 2.

Example 2
Two resistors R1 and R2 are connected in series. Individual resistance measurements, using a Wheatstone bridge,
give R1 = 18.7Ω and R2 = 3.624Ω. Calculate the total resistance to the appropriate number of significant figures.

Solution:
R1 = 18.7 Ω (three significant figures)
R2 = 3.624 Ω (four significant figures)
RT = R1 + R2 = 22.324 Ω (five significant figures) = 22.3 Ω

The doubtful figures are written in italics to indicate that in the addition of R1 and R2 the last three digits of the sum
are doubtful figures. There is no value whatsoever in retaining the last two digits (the 2 and the 4) because one of the
resistances is accurate only to three significant figures or tenths of an ohm. The result should therefore also be
reduced to three significant figures or the nearest tenth, i.e., 22.3 Ω.

The number of significant figures in multiplication may increase rapidly, but again only the appropriate figures are
retained in the answer, as shown in Example 3.
Example 3
In calculating voltage drop, a current of 3.18 A is recorded in a resistance of 35.68 Ω. Calculate the voltage drop
across the resistor to the appropriate number of significant figures.

Solution

V = IR = 3.18 × 35.68 = 113.4624 = 113V

Since there are three significant figures involved in the multiplication, the answer can be written only to a maximum
of three significant figures.

In Example 3, the current, I, has three significant figures and R has four; and the result of the multiplication has only
three significant figures. This illustrates that the answer cannot be known to the accuracy greater than the least
poorly defined of the factors. Note also that if extra digits accumulate in the answer, they should be discarded or
rounded off. In the usual practice, if the (least significant) digit in the first place to be discarded is less than five, it
and the following digits are dropped from the answer. This was done in Example 3. If the digit in the first place to be
discarded is five or greater, the previous digit is increased by one. For three-digit precision, therefore, 113.46 should
be rounded off to 113; and 113.74 to 114.

10
Addition of figures with a range of doubt is illustrated in Example 4.

Example 4
Add 826 ± 5 to 628 ± 3

Solution
N1 = 826 ± 5 (= ±0.605%)
N2 = 628 ± 3 (= ±0.477%)
Sum = 1454 ± 8 (= ±0.55%)

Note in Example 4 that the doubtful parts are added, since the ± sign means that one number may be high and the
other low. The worst possible combination of range of doubt should be taken in the answer. The percentage doubt in
the original figures N1 and N2 does not differ greatly from the percentage doubt in the final result. If the same two
numbers are subtracted, as in Example 5, there is an interesting comparison between addition and subtraction with
respect to the range of doubt.

Example 5
Subtract 628 ± 3 from 826 ± 5 and express the range of doubt in the answer as a percentage.
Solution
N1 = 826 ± 5 (= ±0.605%)
N2 = 628 ± 3 (= ±0.477%)
Difference = 198 ± 8 (= ±4.04%)

Again in Example 5, the doubtful parts are added for the same reason as in Example 4. Comparing the results of
addition and subtraction of the same numbers in Example 4 and 5, note that the precision of the results, when
expressed in percentages, differs greatly. The final result after subtraction shows a large increase in percentage doubt
compared to the percentage doubt after addition. The percentage doubt increases even more when the difference
between the numbers is relatively small. Consider the case illustrated in Example 6.

Example 6
Subtract 437 ± 4 from 462 ± 4 and express the range of doubt in the answer as a percentage.
Solution
N1 = 462 ± 4 (= ±0.87%)
N2 = 437 ± 4 (= ±0.92%)
Difference = 25 ± 8 (= ±32%)

Example 6 illustrates clearly that one should avoid measurement techniques depending on subtraction of
experimental results because the range of doubt in the final result may be greatly increased.

Types of Error
No measurement can be made with perfect accuracy, but it is important to find out what the accuracy actually is and
how different errors have entered into the measurement. A study of errors is a first step in finding ways to reduce
them. Such a study also allows us to determine the accuracy of the final test result.

Errors may come from different sources and are usually classified under three main headings:
Gross Errors -Largely human errors, among them misreading of instruments, incorrect adjustment and improper
application of instruments, and computational mistakes.
Systematic Errors -Shortcomings of the instruments, such as defective or worn parts, and effects of the
environment on the equipment or the user.
Random Errors -Those due to causes that cannot be directly established because of random variations in the
parameter or the system of measurement.

Each of these classes of errors will be discussed briefly and some methods will be suggested for their reduction or
elimination.

Gross (grave) Errors

This class of errors mainly covers human mistakes in reading or using instruments and in recording and calculating
measurement results. As long as human beings are involved, some gross errors will inevitably be committed.
Although complete elimination of gross errors is probably impossible, one should try to anticipate and correct them.
Some gross errors are easily detected; others may be very elusive. Grave errors are avoided with good knowledge
and attention during the measurements, and a proper selection of measurement equipment and the measurement
procedure. It is always useful to evaluate the approximate value of the measurand before the measurements. One
common gross error, frequently committed by beginners in measurement work, involves the improper use of an
11
instrument. In general, indicating instruments change conditions to some extent when connected into a complete
circuit, so that the measured quantity is altered by the method employed. For example,
a well-calibrated voltmeter may give a misleading reading when connected across two points in a high resistance
circuit (Example 7). The same voltmeter, when connected in a low-resistance circuit, may give a more dependable
reading (Example 8). These examples illustrate that the voltmeter has a “loading effect” on the circuit, altering the
original situation by the measurement process.

Example 7
A voltmeter, having a sensitivity of 1,000 Ω/V, reads 100 V on its 150-V scale when connected across an unknown
resistor in series with a milliammeter. ;ojjjWhen the milliammeter reads 5 mA, calculate:
1. Apparent resistance of the unknown resistor,
2. Actual resistance of the unknown resistor,
3. Error due to the loading effect of the voltmeter.

Solution
1. The total circuit resistance equals
𝑉𝑇 100 𝑉
𝑅𝑇 = = = 20 𝑘Ω
𝐼𝑇 5 𝑚𝐴

Neglecting the resistance of the milliammeter, the value of the unknown resistor is R X = 20 kΩ

2. The voltmeter resistance equals

Ω
𝑅𝑉 = 1000 ∙ 150 𝑉 = 150 𝑘Ω
𝑉
Since the voltmeter is in parallel with the unknown resistance, we can write.

𝑅𝑇 ∙ 𝑅𝑉 20 ∙ 150
𝑅𝑋 = = = 23.05 𝑘Ω
𝑅𝑉 − 𝑅𝑇 150 − 20

3. Error

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 − 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 23.05 − 20

% 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = ∙ 100% = ∙ 100% = 13.23%
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 23.05
Example 8
Repeat Example 7 if the milliammeter reads 800 mA and the voltmeter reads 40 V on its 150-V scale.

Solution

1. The total circuit resistance equals

𝑉𝑇 40 𝑉
𝑅𝑇 = = = 50 Ω
𝐼𝑇 0.8 𝐴
2. The voltmeter resistance equal
Ω
𝑅𝑋 = 1000 ∙ 150 𝑉 = 150 𝑘Ω
𝑉
Since the voltmeter is in parallel with the unknown resistance, we can write.

𝑅𝑇 ∙ 𝑅𝑉 50 ∙ 150
𝑅𝑋 = = = 75 Ω
𝑅𝑉 − 𝑅𝑇 150 − 50

3. Error
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 − 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 75 − 50
% 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = ∙ 100% = ∙ 100% = 33.33 %
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 75
Errors caused by the loading effect of the voltmeter can be avoided by using it intelligently. For example, a low-
resistance voltmeter should not be used to measure voltages in a vacuum tube amplifier. In this particular
measurement, a high-input impedance voltmeter (such as VTVM or TVM) is required.

12
A large number of gross errors can be attributed to carelessness or bad habits, such as improper reading of an
instrument, recording the result differently from the actual reading taken, or adjusting the instrument incorrectly.
Consider the case in which a multi-range voltmeter uses a single set of scale markings with different number
designations for the various voltage ranges. It is easy to use a scale which does not correspond to the setting of the
range selector of the voltmeter. A gross error may also occur when the instrument is not set to zero before the
measurement is taken; then all the readings are off.

Errors like these cannot be treated mathematically. They can be avoided only by taking care in reading and
recording the measurement data. Good practice requires making more than one reading of the same quantity,
preferably by a different observer. Never place complete dependence on one reading but take at least three separate
readings, preferably under conditions in which instruments are switched off-on.

Systematic Errors
This type of errors is usually divided into two different categories:
1. Instrumental errors, defined as shortcomings of the instrument;
2. Environmental errors, due to external conditions affecting the measurement.

Instrumental errors are errors inherent in measuring instruments because of their mechanical structure. For example,
in the d’Arsonval movement, friction in bearings of various moving components may cause incorrect readings.
Irregular spring tension, stretching of the spring, or reduction in tension due to improper handling or overloading of
the instrument will result in errors. Other instrumental errors are calibration errors, causing the instrument to read
high or low along its entire scale. (Failure to set the instrument to zero before making a measurement has a similar
effect.)

There are many kinds of instrumental errors, depending on the type of instrument used. The experimenter should
always take precautions to insure that the instrument he is using is operating properly and does not contribute
excessive errors for the purpose at hand. Faults in instruments may be detected by checking for erratic behaviour,
and stability and reproducibility of results. A quick and easy way to check an instrument is to compare it to another
with the same characteristics or to one that is known to be more accurate.

Instrumental errors may be avoided by:

1. selecting a suitable instrument for a particular measurement application;
2. applying correction factors after determining the amount of instrumental error;
3. calibrating the instrument against a standard.

Environmental errors are due to conditions external to the measuring device, including conditions in the area
surrounding the instrument, such as the effects of changes in temperature, humidity, barometric pressure, or of
magnetic or electrostatic fields. Thus a change in ambient temperature at which the instrument is used causes a
change in the elastic properties of the spring in a moving-coil mechanism and so affects the reading of the
instrument. Corrective measures to reduce these effects include air conditioning, hermetically sealing certain
components in the instrument, use of magnetic shields, and the like.

Systematic errors can also be subdivided into static or dynamic errors. Static errors are caused by limitations of the
measuring device or the physical laws governing its behavior. A static error is introduced in a micrometer when
excessive pressure is applied in torquing the shaft. Dynamic errors are caused by the instrument’s not responding
fast enough to follow the changes in a measured variable.

Random Errors
Random errors result from small and variant changes that occur in the standards, measures, measurement laboratory,
and environment. These errors can cause a large number of different errors in each individual measurement and each
time have a different size and sign, causing measurement results to scatter.
If the same quantity is measured several times in a row under the same external conditions and with the same
instrument, each time the results will scatter around some value due to random errors that change the size and sign
in each measurement. These random errors cannot be solved by making corrections, as for some systematic errors.
Since all measurements are carried out under the same conditions, all results have the same weight. Thus, the most
probable value of the measured quantity is the arithmetic mean of individual results. If the measurements are
repeated n times, and individual results are then the arithmetic mean of the individual results is:?
Arithmetic Mean
The most probable value of a measured variable is the arithmetic mean of the number of readings taken. The best
approximation will be made when the number of readings of the same quantity is very large. Theoretically, an
infinite number of readings would give the best result, although in practice, only a finite number of measurements
can be made. The arithmetic mean is given by the following expression:

13
 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 ∑ 𝑥𝑖
ẍ= =
𝑛 𝑛
Where ẍ=arithmetic mean
x1, x2, x3, x4,…, xn=readings take
n=number of readings

Example 1 showed how the arithmetic mean is used.

Deviation from the Mean

Deviation is the departure of a given reading from the arithmetic mean of the group of readings. If the deviation of
the first reading, x1, is called d1, and that of the second reading, x2, is called d2, and so on, then the deviations from
the mean can be expressed as

d1 = x 1 − ẍ
d2 = x2 – ẍ
dn = x n − ẍ

Note that the deviation from the mean may have a positive or a negative value and that the algebraic sum of all the
deviations must be zero.
Example 9 illustrates the computation of deviations.

Example 9
A set of independent current measurements was taken by six observers and recorded as 12.8 mA, 12.2 mA, 12.5
mA, 13.1 mA, 12.9 mA, and 12.4 mA. Calculate
1. The arithmetic mean,
2. The deviations from the mean.

Solution
1. Using Eq. (1), we see that the arithmetic mean equals
x = 12.8 + 12.2 + 12.5 + 13.1 + 12.9 + 12.46 = 12.65 mA

2. Using Eq. (2), we see that the deviations are

d1 = 12.8 − 12.65 = 0.15 mA
d2 = 12.2 − 12.65 = −0.45 mA
d3 = 12.5 − 12.65 = −0.15 mA
d4 = 13.1 − 12.65 = 0.45 mA
d5 = 12.9 − 12.65 = 0.25 mA
d6 = 12.4 − 12.65 = −0.25 mA
Note that the algebraic sum of all the deviations equals zero.

Average Deviation
The average deviation is an indication of the precision of the instruments used in making the measurements. Highly
precise instruments will yield a low average deviation between readings. By definition, average deviation is the sum
of the absolute values of the deviation divided by the number of readings. The absolute value of the deviation is the
value without respect to sign. Average deviation may be expressed as:

|𝑑1 | + |𝑑2 | + |𝑑3 | + |𝑑4 | + ⋯ + |𝑑𝑛 | ∑|𝑑𝑖 |

𝐷= =
𝑛 𝑛
Example 10 shows how average deviation is calculated.
Example 10
Calculate the average deviation for the data given in Example 9.

Solution

0.15 + 0.45 + 0.15 + 0.45 + 0.25 + 0.25

𝐷= = 0.283 𝑚𝐴
6

14
Standard Deviation

In statistical analysis of random errors, the root-mean-square deviation or standard deviation is a very valuable aid.
By definition, the standard deviation of an infinite number of data is the square root of the sum of all the individual
deviations squared, divided by the number of readings. Expressed mathematically:

d12 + d22 + d23 + ⋯ + d2n ∑ 𝑑𝑖2

σ= √ = √
n 𝑛

In practice, of course, the possible number of observations is finite. The standard deviation of a finite number of data
is given by:

d12 + d22 + d23 + ⋯ + d2n ∑ 𝑑𝑖2

σ=√ =√
n−1 𝑛−1

Equation (5) will be used in Example 11.

Another expression for essentially the same quantity is the variance or mean square deviation, which is the same as
the standard deviation except that the square root is not extracted. Therefore
variance(V ) = mean square deviation =σ2

The variance is a convenient quantity to use in many computations because variances are additive. The standard
deviation, however, has the advantage of being of the same units as the variable, making it easy to compare
magnitudes. Most scientific results are now stated in terms of standard deviation.

Probability of Errors
Normal Distribution of Errors
Table 1 shows a tabulation of 50 voltage readings that were taken at small time intervals and recorded to the nearest
0.1 V. The nominal value of the measured voltage was 100.0 V. The result of this series of measurements can be
presented graphically in the form of a block diagram or histogram in which the number of observations is plotted
against each observed voltage reading. The histogram of Figure 1represents the data of Table 1.

15
Figure 1 shows that the largest number of readings (19) occurs at the central value of 100.0 V, while the other
readings are placed more or less symmetrically on either side of the central value. If more readings were taken at
smaller increments, say 200 readings at 0.05-V intervals, the distribution of observations would remain
approximately symmetrical about the central value and the shape of the histogram would be about the same as
before. With more and more data, taken at smaller and smaller increments, the contour of the histogram would
finally become a smooth curve, known as a Gaussian curve. The sharper and narrower the curve, the more definitely
an observer may state that the most probable value of the true reading is the central value or mean reading.

The Gaussian or Normal law of error forms the basis of the analytical study of random effects. Although the
mathematical treatment of this subject is beyond the scope of the text, the following qualitative statements are based
on the Normal law:
1. All observations include small disturbing effects, called random errors.
2. Random errors can be positive or negative.
3. There is an equal probability of positive and negative random errors.

We can therefore expect that measurement observations include plus and minus errors in more or less equal
amounts, so that the total error will be small and the mean value will be the true value of the measured variable.

The possibilities as to the form of the error distribution curve can be stated as follows:
1. Small errors are more probable than large errors.
2. Large errors are very improbable.
3. There is an equal probability of plus and minus errors so that the probability of a given error will be symmetrical
about the zero value.

The error distribution curve of Figure 2 is based on the Normal law and shows a symmetrical distribution of errors.
This normal curve may be regarded as the limiting form of the histogram of Figure 1 in which the most probable
value of the true voltage is the mean value of 100.0 V.

Probable Error
The area under the Gaussian probability curve of Figure 2, between the limits +∞ and −∞, representsthe entire
number of observations. The area under the curve between the +𝜎 and −𝜎limits representsthe cases that differ from
the mean by no more than the standard deviation. Integration of the area under the curve within the ±𝜎 limits gives
the total number of cases within these limits. For normally dispersed data, following the Gaussian distribution,
approximately 68% of all the cases lie between the limits of +𝜎 and −𝜎 from the mean. Corresponding values of
other deviations, expressed in terms of 𝜎, are given in Table 2.

16
If, for example, a large number of nominally 100 resistors is measured and the mean value is found to be 100.00 ,
with a standard deviation of 0.20 , we know that on the average 68% (or roughly two-thirds) of all the resistors have
values which lie between limits of ±0.20 of the mean. There is then approximately a two to one chance that any
resistor, selected from the lot at random, will lie within these limits. If larger odds are required, the deviation may be
extended to a limit of ±2 𝜎, in this case ± 0.40. According to Table 2, this now includes 95% of all the cases, giving
ten to one odds that any resistor selected at random lies within ±0.40 of the mean value of 100.00.

Table 2 also shows that half of the cases are included in the deviation limits of ±0.6745 𝜎. The quantityr is called the
probable error and is defined as probable error, r = ±0.6745𝜎

The value is probable in the sense that there is an even chance that any one observation will have arandom error no
greater than ±r. Probable error has been used in experimental work to some extent inthe past, but standard deviation
is more convenient in statistical work and is given preference.

Example 11
Ten measurements of the resistance of a resistor gave 101.2Ω, 101.7Ω, 101.3Ω, 101.0 Ω, 101.5Ω , 101.3Ω,101.2Ω ,
101.4 Ω, 101.3Ω , and 101.1 Ω.
Assume that only random errors are present. Calculate
1. the arithmetic mean,
2. the standard deviation of the readings,
3. the probable error.

Solution

With a large number of readings a simple tabulation of data is very convenient and avoids confusion and
mistakes.

17
Limiting Errors
In most indicating instruments, the accuracy is guaranteed to a certain percentage of full-scale reading. Circuit
components (such as capacitors, resistors, etc.) are guaranteed within a certain percentage of their rated value. The
limits of these deviations from the specified values are known as limiting errors or guarantee errors. For example, if
the resistance of a resistor is given as 500 ± 10 per cent, the manufacturer guarantees that the resistance falls
between the limits 450 and 550. The maker is not specifying a standard deviation or a probable error, but promises
that the error is no greater than the limits set.

Example 12
A 0-150-V voltmeter has a guaranteed accuracy of 1 per cent full-scale reading. The voltage measured by this
instrument is 83 V. Calculate the limiting error in per cent.

Solution
The magnitude of the limiting error is:

0.01 × 150 V = 1.5 V

The percentage error at a meter indication of 83 V is:

1.5
∙ 100% = 1.81%
83
It is important to note in Example 12 that a meter is guaranteed to have an accuracy of better than 1per cent of the
full-scale reading, but when the meter reads 83 V, the limiting error increases to 1.81 percent. Correspondingly,
when a smaller voltage is measured, the limiting error will increase further. If the meter reads 60 V, the per cent
limiting error is 1.5/60 ×100 = 2.5 per cent; if the meter reads 30 V, the limiting error is 1.5/30 × 100 = 5 per cent.
The increase in per cent limiting error, as smaller voltages are measured, occurs because the magnitude of the
limiting error is a fixed quantity based on the full-scale reading of the meter. Example 12 shows the importance of
taking measurements as close to full scale as possible.

Measurements or computations, combining guarantee errors, are often made. Example 13 illustrates such a
computation.

Example 13
Three decade boxes, each guaranteed to ±0.1 per cent, are used in a Wheatstone bridge to measure the resistance of
an unknown resistor Rx. Calculate the limits on Rx imposed by the decade boxes.

Solution
The equation for bridge balance shows that Rx can be determined in terms of the resistance of the three decade
boxes and Rx = R1xR2/R3, where R1, R2, and R3 are the resistances of the decade boxes, guaranteed to ±0.1 per
cent. One must recognize that the two terms in the numerator may both be positive to the full limit of 0.1 per cent
18
and the denominator may be negative to the full 0.1 per cent, giving a resultant error of 0.3 per cent. The guarantee
error is thus obtained by taking the direct sum of all the possible errors, adopting the algebraic signs which give the
worst possible combination.

As a further example, using the relationship P = I2R, as shown in Example 14, consider computing thepower
dissipation in a resistor.

Example 14
The current passing through a resistor of 100 ± 0.2 is 2.00 ± 0.01 A. Using the relationship P = I 2R,calculate the
limiting error in the computed value of power dissipation.

Solution
Expressing the guaranteed limits of both current and resistance in percentages instead of units, we obtain
I = 2.00 ± 0.01 A = 2.00 A ± 0.5%
R = 100 ± 0.2 = 100 ± 0.2%
If the worst possible combination of errors is used, the limiting error in the power dissipation is (P = I 2R):
(2 × 0.5%) + 0.2% = 1.2%
Power dissipation should then be written as follows:
P = I2R = (2.00)2 × 100 = 400 W± 1.2% = 400 ± 4.8 W

19
Common symbols used in metrology.

Continuation

Module 2

20
Measuring instruments: classification; torque generation, controlling and damping; PMMC, MI and
electrodynamometer ammeters and voltmeters; electrodynamometer, induction types in wattmeters (1 and 3 phase);
induction energy meter, compensation, creeping errors testing; frequency meter: vibration reed type, electrical
resonance.

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Definition of instruments

A Measuring instrument is a device in which we can determine the magnitude or value of the quantity to be
measured. The measuring quantity can be voltage, current, power and energy etc.
Generally instruments are classified in to two categories.

Electrical Measuring Instruments

Basically there are three types of measuring instruments and these are:
Electrical measuring instruments
Mechanical measuring instruments.
Electronic measuring instruments

In this section we are interested in electrical measuring instruments that measure electrical quantities like power
factor, power, voltage, current, frequency etc.
Broadly speaking electrical measuring instruments are divided into Absolute and secondary instruments

Absolute instruments are those that give the output of the measurements in terms of parameters of the instruments
that have to be inserted in formulas to obtain the value of the quantity that was been measured whereas the
secondary instruments are those that give out the measured parameter directly. Tangent galvanometer give the
current measurements in terms of tangent of the angles of the pointers deflections, is the most common type of an
absolute instrument while ammeter, voltmeter and ohmmeter are examples of secondary instruments.Practically
secondary instruments are suitable for measurement while absolute instrument are mostly used for lab experiments
and calibrating other instruments. Absolute instrument have no history of been calibrated but secondary instruments
are calibrated by using absolute instruments. Secondary instrument deflection is meaningless if the instrument is not
calibrated. Secondary measuring instruments can either be analog of digital.
Analog Instruments
These instruments can be classifies according to the following factors:

Quantity to be measured
Current, Amperes, Instrument –Ammeter
Resistance, Ohms, instrument- Ohmmeter or Megga
Voltage, Volts, Instrument-voltmeter
Active power, Watts, Instrument Wattmeter
Reactive power, Vars, Instrument, Varmeter
Energy, Watt-hour, instrument, Energymeter

Working principle: to operate, all instruments depend on many physical effect of electrical current, voltage and
magnetism and are generally classified according to which effects they use for their operation.
Magnetic effect (ammeters and voltmeters)
Eletromagmetic field of attraction or repulsion (ammeters, voltmeters, wattmeters, watt-hour meters
Electrostatic effect (voltmeters only
Induction effect (ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter, watt-hour meter)
Heating effect (ammeters, voltmeters)

Another way of instrument classification is by dividing them into:

Indicating instrument
Recording instrument
Integrating instrument
Electromechanical indicating instrument
Null detector

21
Indicating instrument

This instrument uses a dial and pointer to determine the value of measuring quantity. The pointer
Indication gives the magnitude of measuring quantity. It is give reading only when connected to the circuit with
power supplied. All it does is to display the value using a point. It has no data storage capacity.
The Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) technology can be used to make indicating analog Ammeters and
Voltmeters. The Electro-Magnetic Moving Coil set-up is used also for ammeter, voltmeter and also for Wattmeters.
Moving Iron phenomenon is used for indicating ammeters and voltmeters
Ohmmeters and megga can also be indicating instruments.

Recording instrument
This type of instruments records the magnitude of the quantity to be measured continuously over
a specified period of time. It also indicates the magnitude on its scale. Such instruments may find their applications
in the medical field to monitoring patients (eg electro-cardiograph), in aviation as black boxes (flight and voice
recorders) for recording various quantities. Monitoring of earthquakes (seismograph), Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
(CRO).

Integrating instrument
This type of instrument gives the total amount of the quantity to be measured over a specified period of time. It has
display and recording and other capacities depend of the requirements. Examples of such meters include Energy-
meters, which can record and indicate how power is been consumed.

Null Detector Type of Instruments

In opposite to deflection type of instruments, the null or zero type electrical measuring instruments tend to maintain
the position of pointer stationary. They maintain the position of the pointer stationary by producing opposing effect.
Thus for the operation of null type instruments following steps are required:
Value of opposite effect should be known in order to calculate the value of unknown quantity.
Detector shows accurately the balance and the unbalance condition accurately.
The detector should also have the means for restoring force.

Let us look at the advantages and disadvantages of deflection and null type of measuring instruments:
Deflection type of instruments is less accurate than the null type of instruments. It is because, in the null deflecting
instruments the opposing effect is calibrated with the high degree of accuracy while the calibration of the deflection
type instruments depends on the value of instrument constant hence usually not having high degree of accuracy.
Null point type instruments are more sensitive than the Deflection type instruments.
Deflection type instruments are more suitable under dynamic conditions than null type of instruments as the intrinsic
responses of the null type instruments are slower than deflection type instruments.

Electromechanical indicating instrument

The main difference between indicating and Electromechanical (and electronic, electrochemical and electronic)
indicating instrument is that to the EMMC is added an electronic circuit which increases the instrument sensitivity
and output impedance.

22
 For satisfactory operation of electromechanical indicating and indicating instruments, three forces are necessary i.e.
Deflecting, Controlling and Damping forces.
Deflecting force (torque)(Td): this is some time called the operation torque. It can be generated by magnetic,
electro-magnetic, electrodynamic (dynamometer) , electrostatic, hot wire and other effects of using current and
voltage. The process of producing the deflecting torque depends of the type of instrument.

Controlling force (TC): This is the opposing force to the deflection force and increases with an increase in the
deflection force. The pointer comes to rest at a position where the deflection and controlling forces are equal. The
controlling torque ensures that current applied to the instrument produces the deflection proportional to its size.
Without the controlling torque, the pointer would swing to the maximum regardless of the magnitude of the current
applied. Furthermore without the controlling torque, one the pointer swings to the maximum when some current is
applied, it would remain there even after the applied current is disconnected, as there is no force to push the pointer
back to zero. Controlling force can be produced using spring and gravitational forces.

Spring controlled
In these instruments the spring made of phosphor-bronze is attached to the moving system (pointer). When
the pointer moves the then spring twist in the opposite direction, thus producing a force opposing the
deflection force that is causing the pointer to move
In PMMC instruments, the deflection torque produced is proportional to the currentpassing through them i.e𝑇𝑑 ∝ 𝐼 ,
and for spring control 𝑇𝑐 ∝ 𝜃 𝑎𝑠 𝑇𝑐 = 𝑇𝑑 , ∴ 𝜃 ∝ 𝐼
Spring controlled instruments have a uniform or equally spaced scale over the entire range because the deflection
angle is proportional to the current passing in the instrumenti.e𝜃 ∝ 𝐼.

23
 Fig shows deflection type permanent magnet moving coil ammeter.

To ensure that the controlling torque is promotional to the angle of deflection, the spring should have a fairly large
number of turns so that angular deformation per unit length, of a full scale deflection is small.
A good spring should have the fooling characteristic
Non magnetic
Not prone to fatigue
Have low resistance
Low temperature coefficient

Gravity controlled

Gravity controlled is obtained by attaching small adjustable weights to the moving system such that the weights
exert torque in opposite directions; such an arrangement is shown in the figure above. In this type, the controlling
torque is proportional to the sine of the angle of deflection .i.e. 𝑇𝑐 ∝ sin 𝜃. The deflection torque is proportional to
the current in its .i.e 𝑇𝑑 ∝ 𝐼. The pointer come to rest where 𝑇𝑑 = 𝑇𝑐 , ∴ 𝐼 ∝ sin 𝜃
Gravity controlled instruments do not have a uniform or equally spaced scale over the entire range because the sine
of deflection angle is proportional to the current passing in the instrument i.e. sin𝜃 ∝ 𝐼 . Meaning that when the
deflection and approaches 90o the graduations of the scale increases while at the beginning the scale was cramped up
or crowded
Comparisons of spring and gravity control
Gravity control scale not uniform while spring control has uniform scale
Gravity control instrument to be kept vertical whereas spring control can be used in any position ( provided
it’s not fluid friction controlled
Gravity control is cheaper compared to spring control
Gravity control not affected by temperature but spring controlled system are affected by temperature
Gravity not affected by fatigue or deterioration with time but spring control is.
24
Damping force: This is the force that acts on the moving system of the instrument on when it is moving and
opposes its motion regardless of the direction, thus bring the pointer to rest quickly. Without the damping force the
pointer would oscillate about its final deflection position for longer time before coming to rest. The degree of
damping set to a value than enable the pointer to rise quickly from the initial position and the deflected position
without overshooting. Over-damping makes the instrument slow and be out of calibration. Damping can be
produced by air friction, eddy currents and fluid friction.

Air friction damping

The piston is mechanically connected to a spindle through the connecting rod (see immediate Fig. below). The
pointer is fixed to the spindle and moves over a calibrated dial. When the pointer oscillates about on the dial, the
piston also moves about in the cylinder and air in it gets compressed and reduced, thus oppose the motion of the
pointer.

Fluid friction damping is similar to air friction excerpt that in this type of damping oil is used in place of air. This
is because oil has a greater viscosity and provides a more effective damping than air. However oil damping is not
much used because such instruments may be associated with oil creeping, such instruments are supposed to be used
in the vertical position and are not portable. Hard to keep instrument clean due to oil leakage.

Eddy current damping

Eddy current damping is the most effective of the three methods. Two types of eddy current damping are in figure
10.6 and 10.7, in 10.6 (a) is a disk type, in which a thing aluminum (conducting but non magnetic material) circular
disc is fixed to the spindle. This disc is made to move in the magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet as the
pointer moves. The disk is positioned such that when it is rotating it cuts the magnetic flux of the magnet; hence
eddy currents are produced in the disk flows and produces the damping force in accordance with Lenz’s law.

Figure 10.7 shows the second type of eddy current damping .this kind is mostly used in PMMC instruments.The coil
is wound on a thing light aluminium former in which the eddy currents are produced when the coil moves in the
field magnet. The direction of the induced current and the damping force produced are shown in the figure.

25
Example
The deflection torque of an ammeter varies as a square of the current through it. If a current of 5 A produces a
deflection of about 90°, what deflection will occur for a current of 3 A when the instrument is (a) spring controlled
(b) gravity controlled.

Solution

Since the deflection torque varies as a (current)2, we have 𝑇𝑑 ∝ 𝐼 2

For spring control, 𝑇𝑐 ∝ 𝜃, ∴ 𝜃 ∝ 𝐼 2

For gravity control 𝑇𝑐 ∝ sin 𝜃 , ∴ sin 𝜃 ∝ 𝐼 2

𝟑𝟐
For gravity control: 𝟗𝟎° ∝ 𝟓𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜽 ∝ 𝟑𝟐 , 𝜽 = 𝟗𝟎° ∙ = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟒°
𝟓𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 𝟗
For gravity control:𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟗𝟎° ∝ 𝟓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 ∝ 𝟑 , 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟏
𝟐𝟓

Moving Iron (MI) measuring instruments.

As stated earlier this technology is mostly used for the manufacturing of ammeters and voltmeters. MI instruments
are of two types, namely the attraction and repulsion type. The operation of the attraction type of MI instrument
depend of the attraction action of a single piece of soft iron into a magnetic field while that of the repulsion type
depend of the repulsion action of two adjacent pieces of iron magnetised by the same magnetic field. MI ammeters
are constructed with very few numbers of turns of thin wire so that the instrument has low resistance as they are
connected in series in the circuit. In the case of MI voltmeters, the coils have a higher resistance as they are
connected in parallel in the circuit. The high resistance is attained by constricting the coils with a large number of
turns of thin wire.

Attraction type of MI instruments

The working principle of an attraction type of moving iron types of instruments is shown in the figure below this
text. It is a well know fact the, if a piece of un-magnetised soft iron is brought near a current carrying coil, it would
be attracted to the coil the same way it would be attracted to a permanent magnet. Therefore, if we pivot an oval
shaped disc of soft iron on a spindle between the coil carrying current, as the electromagnetic field in the coil builds
up and grows stronger in the center. The iron disc is positioned in such a way that large portion of it moves through
the center. If the pointer is attached to the spindle carrying the iron disc, the passing of current in the coil creates an
electromagnet that attracts the disc which makes the pointer to deflect. The greater the current creating and electron
magnetic field the great the amount of pointer deflection. MI instruments can be used for DC and AC application
because regardless of the direction of the current in the coil, the iron disc is attracted the same way i.e pulled in
wards.
26
A sectional view of an MI attraction instrument

Deflection Torque
Let the axis of the iron disc when at zero position be assigned the angle ϕ with the direction perpendicular to the
direction of the magnetic field 𝐻 produced by the coil. Let the deflection of the pointer be 𝜃 corresponding to a
current 𝐼 passing through the coil. The magnetisation of the iron disc is proportional to the component of the field 𝐻
acting on the axis of the disc i.e 𝑀 ∝ 𝐻 cos[90 − (𝜑 + 𝜃)] or 𝐻 sin(𝜃 + 𝜑). The Force 𝐹 pulling the disc
inward is proportional to 𝑀𝐻or 𝐻 2 sin(𝜃 + 𝜑). If the permeability of iron is assumed to be constant, then 𝐻 ∝ 𝐼 .
Hence 𝐹 ∝ 𝐼 2 sin( 𝜃 + 𝜑). If the force acted at a distance of 𝑙 from the pivot of rotation of the disc, the deflection
torque 𝑇𝑑 = 𝐹𝑙 cos(𝜃 + 𝜑). Replacing 𝐹we get:

𝑇𝑑 ∝ 𝐼 2 sin(𝜃 + 𝜑) ∙ 𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃 + 𝜑) ∝ 𝐼 2 sin 2(𝜃 + 𝜑) = 𝐾𝐼 2 sin 2 (𝜃 + 𝜑)

If the instrument is spring controlled, the controlling torque 𝑇𝑐 = 𝐾 ′ 𝜃

When the pointer is steadily indicating a reading, 𝑇𝑑 = 𝑇𝑐

∴ 𝐾𝐼 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 (𝜃 + 𝜑) = 𝐾 ′ 𝜃, Hence 𝜃 ∝ 𝐼 2
2
If AC is used then 𝜃 ∝ 𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠

If gravity control is used, then 𝑇𝑐 = 𝐾1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

∴ 𝐾𝐼 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 (𝜃 + 𝜑) = 𝐾1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, hence sin θ ∝ 𝐼 2 sin 2 (𝜃 + 𝜑)

In both spring and gravity control the scales are uneven.

Damping torque
As shown in the figure, air friction is used to provide damping. The actual arrangement being a light piston moving
in the air chamber.

Repulsion type of MI instrument

The sectional and cut away view of a Repulsion MI instrument is shown below.

27
Repulsion type of MI instrument

It is made of a fixed coil, inside which are placed two soft iron bars (rods) A and B parallel to each other and along
the axis of the coil. Iron rod A is fixed while coil B is movable and is attached to the pointer or Moving system. When
the current to be measured passes through the fixed coil, It creates a magnetic field that magnetises the two iron rods
in such a way that adjacent points on the length of rods have the same polarity of the magnet. This causes the two rods
to repel each other which result in the movable rod to be pushed away from the fixed one, thus making the pointer to
deflect. The repulsion force is proportional to the square of current passing through the instrument. Moreover, water
ever may be the direction of current in the coil, the two rods will always be magnetised in this same way. This makes
it possible for this instrument to be used for both AC and DC.

Deflection torque

The deflection torque is due to the repulsion of two rod after been magnetised to have the same polarity and adjacent
end to each rod.
Instantaneous torque ∝ repulsion force ∝ 𝑚1 𝑚2 (the product of pole strengths)
Since pole strengths are proportional to magnetising force 𝐻 of the coil,

∴ 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 ∝ 𝐻 2

Since H itself is proportional to the current passing through the coil (assuming the permeability is constant)

∴ 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 ∝ 𝐼 2

Hence the deflection torque, which is proportional to the mean of instantaneous torque is in effect, proportional to
the mean value of 𝐼 2 . Therefore when used for AC, the instrument reads the rms value.
The scales of such instruments are uneven if rod are used, are even when the tongue like strips are used in place of
rods.
These instruments are be either string or gravity controlled.
Air friction is the method of damping employed here. Eddy current damping cannot be used because of the
requirement of a permanent magnet in such a method of damping, which can interfere with the pointer deflection.

Errors in MI instruments
There are two possible error in such instruments, firstly, those associated both AC and DC application and secondly
those which occur when used in AC circuits.
Error associated with AC and DC application
Errors due to Hysteresis. Because of hysteresis in magnetising of iron, the moving system readings are
higher for descending values and low for ascending values. These error are eliminated by using mumetal or
perm-alloy, which is have negligible hysteresis loess.
Errors due to stray field: stray (external) field can give wrong readings, these error are eliminated by
magnetic shielding of the working parts of an instruments by used cases of cast-iron
Error associated with only AC application
Changes of frequency produced brings about (1) change in the impendance of the coil (2) change in the
magnitude of the eddy currents. The increase in impendance of the coil with increase in the frequency of
the AC is important to the voltmeter. The frequencies higher than the one used in calibration will give low
readings. This error can however can be reduced or eliminated by connecting a suitable capacitor in parallel
with the swamp resistor R of the instrument. It can be seen that that the impedance of the whole circuit of
𝐿
the instrument becomes independent of the frequency if 𝐶 = 2, where C is the capacitance of the
𝑅
capacitor.

Advantages of MI

MI instruments can be used in AC and DC

They are cheap and robust
Simple construction
Less friction error.

Disadvantages
Can be affected by hysteresis error
Scale is not uniform in attraction type
It consumed more power
Calibration is different for AC and DC operation
28
Deflection torque in terms of change of self-induction
The value of the deflection torque of a moving iron instrument can be found in terms of the variation of the self-
induction in its coil with deflection 𝜃.
Suppose that when a direct current I pass through the instrument and produces a deflection of 𝜃 and the inductance
of L. Then suppose that the current change fron I to (I+dI), the deflection change from 𝜃 to (𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) and inductance
for L to (L+dL). Then the increase in the energy stored in the magnetic field is:

1 1 1 1
𝑑𝐸 = 𝑑 ( 𝐿𝐼 2 ) = 𝐿2𝐼𝑑𝐼 + 𝐼 2 𝑑𝐿 = 𝐿𝐼𝑑𝐼 + 𝐼 2 𝑑𝐿 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
2 2 2 2
1
If 𝑇 𝑁 − 𝑚 is the controlling torque for the deflection 𝜃 then the extra energy stored in the control system is 𝑇 ∙
2
𝑑𝜃 joules, Hence the total increase in the stored energy of the system is:

1
𝐿𝐼𝑑𝐼 + 𝐼 2 𝑑𝐿 + 𝑇 ∙ 𝑑𝜃
2
𝑑𝜑
The emf induced in the coil of the instrument is 𝑒 = 𝑁 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑑𝑡
where 𝑑𝜑 −change in flux linked with coil due to change in the position of the disc or bar.

𝑑𝑡 −time taken for the above change

N- number of turns in the coil
𝐹 𝐿𝐼 𝑑𝜑 1 𝑑
Now 𝐿 = 𝑁 , ∴ 𝜑 = , ∴ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑁 ∙ 𝑑𝑡 (𝐿𝐼)
𝐼 𝑁

1 𝑑 𝑑
Induced emf, 𝑒 = 𝑁 ∙ (𝐿𝐼)
𝑁 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑡 (𝐿𝐼)

The energy drawn from the supply to overcome this back emf is :

𝑑
= 𝑒𝐼𝑑𝑡 = (𝐿𝐼)𝐼𝑑𝑡 = 𝐼𝑑(𝐿𝐼) = 𝐼(𝐿𝑑𝐼 + 𝐼𝑑𝐿) = 𝐿𝐼𝑑𝐼 + 𝐼 2 𝑑𝐿 𝑒𝑞 𝑖𝑖
𝑑𝑡
1
Equating equations (I) and (II) above we get, 𝐿𝐼𝑑𝐼 + 𝐼 2 𝑑𝐿 + 𝑇𝑑𝜃 = 𝐿𝐼𝑑𝐿 + 𝐼 2 𝑑𝑙
2

1 𝑑𝐿
∴ 𝑇 = 𝐼2 𝑁−𝑚
2 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝐿 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦
Where,
𝑑𝜃
𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠

Range extension of the by shun and multiplier of MI instruments

Ammeter
The range of the MI ammeter can be extended by using a suitable shunt across its terminal. There is no trouble when
we extended the range of an ammeter used for DC applications, but trouble is there when we use it for AC currents
as the division of current between the instrument and the shunt changes with the change in the frequency of the
current applied. To minimise this problem the resistance and inductance of the instrument and that of the shunt have
to be taken into account when dealing with AC. The following relationship is applicable:

𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑖 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝑠 𝑍𝑠

= =
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑠ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑡, 𝐼𝑠 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝑍
Where;
𝑅, 𝐿 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑅𝑠 , 𝐿𝑠 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

It can be seen that the above ratio i.e. division of current between the instrument and shunt would be independent of
𝐿 𝐿
the frequency if the time constants of the instrument coil and shunt are the same i.e. if
𝑅
= 𝑅𝑠 . The multiplying (N)
𝑠
power of the shunt is given by:

29
 𝐼 𝑅
𝑁 = =1+
𝑖 𝑅𝑠
Where 𝐼 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 − 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

Voltmeter
The range of voltmeters can be extended by using a high non inductive resistance R connected in series with the
instrument as showing in the figure below.

Range extension of voltmeter

The series resistance is known as multiplier when used on dc circuits. Suppose the range was extended from v to V,
then the excess voltage of ( V-v) is tp be dropped in the resistor R. If 𝑖 is the full-scale deflection current of the
instrument, then:
𝑉 − 𝑣 𝑉 − 𝑖𝑟 𝑉
𝑖 ∙ 𝑅 = 𝑉 − 𝑣; 𝑅 = = = −𝑟
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
𝑉
Voltage magnification = , since 𝑖𝑅 = 𝑉 − 𝑣,
𝑣

𝑖𝑅 𝑉 𝑖𝑅 𝑉
∴ = − 1, 𝑜𝑟 = − 1,
𝑣 𝑣 𝑖𝑟 𝑣
𝑉 𝑅
∴ = (1 + )
𝑣 𝑟
Hence, greater the value of R, the greater the range of extension of the voltmeter. For DC application, the main
requirement for R is that it should remain constant i.e. have low temperature coefficient. But for AC applications, it
is important that the total impedance of the instrument and the series (swamp) resistance R should remain as nearly
constant as possible at different frequencies. That is why R is ma non- inductive as possible in order to keep the
inductance of the whole circuit to a minimum. The frequency error introduced by inductance of the instrument coil
can be compensated by shunting R with a capacitor as seen in the figure above. In cases where r<<R, then the
impedance of the instrument circuit will remain constant for frequencies up to 100 Hz.

Moving coil instruments

There are two types of moving coil instruments, namely the Permanent magnate type which can be used only for DC
and the electrodynamic (dynamometer) type which is usable for both AC and DC.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) Instrument
The operation of the PMMC type of instrument is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field, it is forced to move to one side of the field

Construction of PMMC instrument

This instrument consist of the permanent magnet and a rectangular coil of many turns wound on an aluminium of
copper former inside which is and iron core as shown below.

30
In between the magnetic poles is placed a cylindrical soft iron whose main functions include:
To making the magnetic field radial and uniform
Reduce the reactance of the air gap between the poles, thus increasing magnetic field.

Surrounding the core is a rectangular coil of many turns wound on either the aluminium or copper frame which is a
spindle and pointer. The aluminium former does not only accommodate the coil and support the pointer, it also
provides damping by eddy currents induced in it. The sides of the coil are free to move in the two air gaps between
the poles and core. The controlling force in this type of instrument is by spring.

Deflection Torque
When current passes through the coil, force acts on its sides which produce a deflection force
Let
B=flux density in Wb/m2 (tesla)
𝑙=Length of coil in m
𝑏=breadth of coil in meter
N=number of turns in the coil
If I amperes is the current passing through the coil, then the magnitude of the force experienced by each of its side is
= 𝐵𝐼𝑙 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠
For N turn, the force on each side is = 𝑁𝐵𝐼𝑙
Therefore the deflection torque 𝑇𝑑 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ∙ 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑁𝐵𝐼𝑙 ∙ 𝑏 = 𝑁𝐵𝐼(𝑙 ∙ 𝑏) =
𝑁𝐵𝐼𝐴 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 − 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, where A is the face area of coil.
It can be noted that B is constant, the 𝑇𝑑 is proportional to the current passing through the coil.i.e𝑇𝑑 ∝ 𝐼.
Since these instruments are spring controlled, then the controlling torque is proportional to the angle of deflection,
i.e.𝑇𝑐 ∝ 𝜃. At the final deflection position 𝑇𝑑 = 𝑇𝑐 . Therefore 𝜃 ∝ 𝐼.
Hence such instruments have a uniform scale. As stated earlier, the dumping method used here is eddy currents and
which are induced into the matalic frame.

Advantages of PMMC instruments

They have low power consumption
Their scale is uniform and can be extended over and arc of 170°or so.
They possess high (torque/weight) ratio.( pointer can give reading for very small deflection
The can be modified using shunts and series resistors to cover a wide range
They have no hysteresis losses
They have a very effective and efficient method of damping
They are not affected by stray fields as such instruments have very strong operation fields
Disadvantages
Use only for D.C.
Cost is high
Error is produced due to ageing effect of PMMC
Friction and temperature error are present

Electro dynamic or dynamometer type of instrument

This is a moving coil type of instrument in which the magnetic field used is produced by an electromagnet instead of
a permanent magnet as it is the case in PMMC instruments. This instrument can be used to measure both AC and
DC voltage, current and active power as this phenomenon cal be used to manufacture voltmeter, ammeters, and
wattmeter.
31
The figure below show an electrodynamic instrument consisting of a fixed coil , arranged in two equal sections F1
and F2, placed close and parallel to each other. The coils are air cored to avoid hysteresis loss when used in AC
circuits.

Fig. showing the arrangement of fixed and moving coils in a dynamometer instrument.
The controlling torque in this kind of instrument is produced by springs, If 𝐼1 is the current passing through the
fixed coil, and 𝐼2 is the current in moving coil, therefore, since there is no iron in the construction of the instrument,
the magnetic field and hence the flux density B is proportional to 𝐼1 .

∴ 𝐵 = 𝑘𝐼1
Where k is a constant.
The moving coil can be circular, square or rectangular in shape, but for simplicity we assume it to be rectangular and
its area is found to be the product of the length and breadth i.e. 𝑙 ∙ 𝑏.
If the moving coil has 100 turns, the force acting of its sides is 𝐹 = 𝑁𝐵𝐼2 𝑙, Newtons.
The deflection torque of the coil is given by:

𝑇𝑑 = 𝑁𝐵𝐼2 𝑙𝑏 = 𝑁𝑘𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑙𝑏, 𝑖𝑓𝑁𝑘𝑙𝑏 = 𝑘1 , 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑇𝑑 = 𝑘1 𝐼1 𝐼2 , 𝐾1 − 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.

as𝑇𝑑 ∝ 𝐵𝐼2 , 𝐵 = 𝑘1 𝐼1

The expression shows that the deflection torque is proportional to the product of the currents flowing in the fixed
and moving coils. Since the instrument is spring controlled, the controlling torque is proportional to the angle of
deflection 𝜃.
𝑇𝑐 = 𝑘2 ∙ 𝜃

∴ 𝑘1 𝐼1 𝐼2 = 𝐼2 𝜃, 𝑜𝑟 𝜃 ∝ 𝐼1 𝐼2

When used as ammeter, the current that passes through the fixed coil will also passes through the moving coil, as
shown below.

Fig showing equivalent circuits of dynamometer ammeter, fig 10.25shows the arrangement for small current
measurement and fig.10.26 that of large current measurements
In this case,𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼, hence 𝜃 ∝ 𝐼 2 , 𝑜𝑟 𝐼 = √𝜃
When used as a voltmeter, the moving coil and the fixed coil are joined in series with a high resistance if meant for
high voltage measurements. The figure below shows the circuit arrangement in dynamometer voltmeter.

32
 𝑉 𝑉
Here 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐼 = 𝑖𝑛 𝐷𝐶 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 = 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝐶 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑠.
𝑅 𝑍

∴ 𝜃 ∝ 𝑉 ∙ 𝑉, 𝜃 ∝ 𝑉 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 ∝ √𝜃.

For this reason the scale of dynamometer instruments are not evenly distributed over their ranges, as they are rather
clamped up near the zero position. These instrumented are damped by air friction method.

When used as a wattmeter the circuit looks as below.

Fig , showing the circuit arrangement of a dynamometer instrument.

The flux density produced by an air cored coil is proportional to 𝐼1 .

∴ 𝐵 ∝ 𝐼1 , 𝑜𝑟 𝐵 = 𝑘1 𝐼1 ,

𝐼2 ∝ 𝑉, 𝑜𝑟 𝐼2 = 𝐾2 𝑉

Now 𝑇𝑑 ∝ 𝐵𝐼2 ∝ 𝐼1 𝑉, ∴ 𝑇𝑑 = 𝑘𝑉𝐼1 = 𝑘 ∙ 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑃)

In DC circuits the power is given as the productof voltage and current, thus torque is directly proportional to the
power.
In AC circuits the value of instantaneous defle
ction torque is given by:
𝑇𝑑,𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎. = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑘𝑣𝑖,

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙,

𝑖 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙

33
The instrument indicates the average (mean) power,

∴ 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑇𝑚 ∝ 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑖

𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin(𝜃 − 𝜑)

2𝜋
1
∴= 𝑇𝑚 ∝ ∫ 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝜃 ∙ 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin(𝜃 − 𝜑) 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋
0

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑇𝑚 ∝ ∙ ∙ cos 𝜑 ∝ 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜑
√2 √2
Where 𝑉 − 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝐼 − 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

For the fact the deflection of in AC circuits in proportional to power, the scale of this instrument is uniform. Air
friction (pneumatic) is used.
Advantages
Instruments are free from hysteresis losses and eddy current errors
Used for ac and dc
Easy in construction
Light weight
Range can be extended
Consume less power

Disadvantages
Instrument has low torque/weight, hence has low sensitivity
Affected by stray field
Friction errors
Low power factor

Errors instruments and their mitigation techniques

Friction errors, there come about as air cored fixed coil require a large number of turns on the moving coil to
produce sufficient deflection torque. Another factor is that two springs are normally used, which require more
current for the deflection to be happen, these factor leads to having a heavier moving coil which brings about
friction error/ losses which are larger than in any other type of instrument.

Electromagnetic Induction type of measuring instruments

These types of instruments are only used for used for Ac measurements. The technology can be used to construct
ammeters, voltmeter, wattmeters and energy meters (watt- hour), but it has found most application for energymeters.
In these instruments the deflection toque is produced sue to the interaction between the AC magnetic flux and eddy
current induced by another flux.
Main operation principle of all kinds of induction types of induction instruments
The operation of all induction instruments depends on the torque due to the reaction between 𝜑1 (whose magnitude
depends on the current/ voltage to be measured) and the eddy currents induced in a metal disc (drum) by another
flux 𝜑2 ( magnitude depends on the current / voltage to be measured). Since the magnitude of eddy currents also
depend on the flux producing them, the instantaneous value of the torque is proportional to the square of the current
/ voltage to me measured and the mean torque is proportional to the mean square value of this current/voltage.

Illustration
34
In all induction meters two fluxes are produced by two different alternating currents on a metallic disc. Due to
alternating fluxes there is an emf induced. The emf produced at one point interacts with the AC of the other side,
resulting in the production of deflection torque. Similarly the emf produced at the other point interacts with the AC
at point 1, resulting in the production of torque again but in the opposite direction.

Mathematical expression for deflection torque

Lets the the flux from 𝑃1 to be 𝐹1 and that from 𝑃2 to be 𝐹2 ,
𝐹1 = 𝐹𝑚1 ∙ sin 𝜔𝑡,
𝐹2 = 𝐹𝑚2 ∙ sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽)
When 𝐹𝑚1 and 𝐹𝑚2 are maximum values of fluxes 𝐹1 and𝐹2 , 𝛽is the phase difference between the two flux.
The expression for the emf at 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 are:
𝑃(𝑃1 ) 𝑃(𝑃2 )
𝑃1 = 𝑃𝑃
and𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑃
The expression for eddy currents at 𝑃1 is:

𝑃1
𝑃1 = = 𝑃 ∙ 𝑃 ∙ 𝑃1
𝑃
Where: k – constant, f- frequency
Phasor diagram

From the phasor diagram its clear that 𝑃1 𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑃2 lag behind 𝑃1 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃2 respectively by an angle A.The angle
between 𝑃2 𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑃 1 is 90°-B+A, and that between 𝑃1 𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑃 2 is 90+B+A, thus we rewite theexpresion for44
de3fle3ct8i9on fo94rc as;
𝑃
𝑃𝑃1 = 𝑃 ∙ 𝑃2 ∙ 𝑃1 ∙ cos(90 − 𝑃 + 𝑃) = 𝑃 ∙ 𝑃1 ∙ 𝑃2 ∙ ∙ cos(90 − 𝑃 + 𝑃)
𝑃
Also the same way de determine the value of 𝑃𝑃2 :

𝑃
𝑃𝑃2 = 𝑃 ∙ 𝑃1 ∙ 𝑃2 ∙ cos(90 + 𝑃 + 𝑃) = 𝑃 ∙ 𝑃1 ∙ 𝑃2 ∙ ∙ cos(90 + 𝑃 + 𝑃)
𝑃
The total deflection𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃1 − 𝑃𝑃2 , when we substitute the values of the two deflection torque and simplify the
expression we get:

𝑃 𝑃
𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑑1 − 𝑃𝑃2 = 𝑃 ∙ 𝑃1 ∙ 𝑃2 ∙ ∙ cos(90 − 𝑃 + 𝑃) − 𝑃 ∙ 𝑃1 ∙ 𝑃2 ∙ ∙ cos(90 + 𝑃 + 𝑃)
𝑃 𝑃
𝑃
= 𝑃 ∙ 𝑃1 ∙ 𝑃2 ∙ ∙ sin 𝑃 ∙ cos 𝑃
𝑃

The expression above is known as the general expression for the deflection torque in electromagnetic induction type
of meters

Electromagnetic Induction Ammeter

There are three types if induction ammeters namely the Disc with slip phase winding, cylinder with slip phase
windings and the shaded pole type.

Disc with slip phase winding ammeter

Fig.
The fig above shows a disc with slip phase windings induction ammeter in which 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 are connected in series
but 𝑃2 is shunted by a resistor R, so that the current this winding lags behind the total current. In such a way the
35
necessary phase angle 𝑃 is produced be tween the two fluxes 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 .The angle is in the order of 60°. If
hysteresis and other effects are neglected, each flux would be proportional to the current to bemeasured, I,e line
current.
𝑻𝑻 ∝ 𝑻𝟏𝑻 ∙ 𝑻𝟏𝑻 ∙ 𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑻

𝑻𝑻 ∝ 𝑻𝟏

If the spring control used then 𝑻𝑻 ∝ 𝑻. And at final deflection position, 𝑻𝑻 ∝ 𝑻𝑻 , ∴ 𝑻 ∝ 𝑻𝑻 .

Eddy current damping is used in this instrument.

Cylinder with split phase winding ammeter

The working principle of this instrument is not very different fro that of a disc type, above, but that inseated of a
rotating disc, its used a rotating cylinder, also unknown as drum, as shown below.

Fig
The poles 𝑃1 produced an alternating flux𝑃1 which inturn produces eddy current 𝑃1 in portions of the drum under
poles 𝑃2 . The same thing with poles 𝑃2 which produces the flux 𝑃2 and 𝑃2 in areas under 𝑃1 . Eddie currents
induced in separate in a separate disc, not shown in the figure, is used for damping.

Shaded-Pole induction ammeter

In shaded pole disc type of induction ammeter shown below, only a single flux producing winding is used, The flux
𝐹 produced by the winding is split into two fluxes 𝛷1 and 𝛷2 which are made to have the necessary phase
difference 𝛼. The controlling force in these instruments is produced by spring while the damping one is by eddie
current induced into the disc by a separate permanent magnet.

Induction Voltmeter
The construction of the induction voltmeter is similar to that of the disc ammeter with split phase winding, except
that this has a large number of turns to increase the instrument resistance to avoid load effect errors. The figure
showing this type of instrument is shown below.

36
Induction wattmeter
The fig of this instrument is shown below

Fig

This instrument is used there where the frequency, voltage and current are constant. As seen from the fig above, this
instrument has 2 electromagnets, the aluminium disc and the shaded copper bands. The aluminium disc is mounted
in such a way that it cuts the fluxes of both magnets; hence two Eddie currents are induced in it. The deflection
torques are produced due to the interaction of the two Eddie currents. The copper shadded bands are fitted to make
sure that the flux from the shunt magnet lags behind that of the series magnet by 90°. It can be noted from the
illusion that the two pressure coils are joined in series and wound in such a way that both send the flux in the same
direction to the disc. The same thing with the series magnet. These instruments are spring controlled and their scales
can extent up to 300°.

Induction energy meter

This is the most common type of energy meter used for domestic and industrial applications. The meter measures
energy in Kilo-watt-hours. The principle of operation is similar to that of induction type of wattmeter, voltmeter and
ammeter. Dumping is achieved using separatepermanentmagnet that induces Eddie currents into the disc. In this
instrument the disc revolves continuously instead of rotating through a fraction of a revolution. Copper shaded band
produce the require phase difference.

37
Registering mechanism
The register mechanism is either pointer type or cyclometer type. In cyclometer type the pinion ( aa round gear ) on
the rotor shaft moves with the help of a suitable train of reduction gears. A series of five or six pointers rotating on
dials marked with ten equal division

Frequency meter
There are several technologies used to manufacture analogue frequency meters including vibration reed,
electrodynamic and moving iron types. In this course we will look at the vibration reed type.
Vibrating reed frequency meter( mechanical resonance)
Working principles
The meter depends for its induction on the mechanical resonance of a thin flat steel reeds arranged alongside and ,
close to, an electromagnet as shown in figure below,

Construction
The electromagnet has a laminated armature and its windings , in series with resistance, is connected across a supply
whose frequency is to be measured. In that respect, the external connection of this meter is the same as that of a
voltmeter.

The metallic reed (about 4 mm wide and 0.5 mm think) are arranged in a row and are mounted side by side on a
common and slightly flexible base which also carries the armature of the electromagnet. The upper free ends of the
reeds are bent over a right angle so as to serve a flags or targets and painted white for better visibility. The
38
successive reeds are not exactly similar, their natural frequencies of vibration differing by 0.5 cycle. The reeds are
arranged in ascending order of natural frequency.

Working
When the electromagnet is connected across the supply whose frequency is to be measured, its magnetism alternates
with the same frequency. Hence the electromagnet exerts attraction forces on each reed once every half cycle. All
reeds tend to vibrate but only that whose natural frequency is exactly double the supply frequency vibrates with
maximum amplitude due to mechanical resonance. The supply frequency is read directly by noting the scale mark
opposite the white painted flag which is vibrating the most. The vibration of other reeds would be so small as to be
almost unobserved. For a frequency exactly midway between the natural frequencies of the two reed, both will
vibrate with amplitudes which are equal but much less that when the supply frequency exactly coincided with that of
the reeds.

Range
Such meters have a small range usually 47 to 53 Hz or 57 to 63 Hz. The frequency range of a given set of reeds may
be doubled by polarizing the electromagnets as explained below. As seen from above description, each reed is
attracted twice per cycle of the supply .i.e once every half cycle and the reed whose natural frequency is twice that
of the current is the one which responds mostly. Suppose the electromagnet carries an additional winding carrying
direct current whose steady flux is equal in magnitude to the alternating flux of the AC winding. The resulting flux
would be zero in one half-cycle and double in the other half cycle when the two fluxes reinforce each other so that
the reeds would receive one impulse per cycle. Obviously, a reed will indicate the frequency of the supply if the
electromagnet is polarized and half the supply frequency if it is un-polarized. The polarization may be achieved by
using and extra dc winding on the electromagnet or by using a permanent magnet which is then wound with an ac
winding.

Advantages and disadvantages of reed type frequency meters

Advantages
Meter readings are independent of the waveform or magnitude of the applied wave form , as long as the voltage
provides enough amplitude for the reed to vibrate.
Disadvantages
Instrument can not be used for precision measurements as it cannot read measurements like 49.3 hz

Instrument transformers
Instrument transformers (ITs) are designed to transform voltage or current from the high values in
the transmission and distribution systems to the low values that can be utilized by low voltage and
metering devices. There are three primary applications for which ITs are used:
1. metering (for energy billing and transaction purposes);
2. protection control (for system protection and protective relaying purposes); and
3. load survey (for economic management of industrial loads).

Depending on the requirements, the IT design and construction can be quite different. Generally
the metering ITs require high accuracy in the range of normal operating voltage and current.
Protection ITs require linearity as a wide range of voltages and currents. During a disturbance,
such as system fault or overvoltage transients, the output of the IT is used by a protective relay to
initiate an appropriate action (open or close a breaker, reconfigure the system, etc) to mitigate the
disturbance and protect the rest of the power system.
Instrument transformers are of two types, namely the current and voltage transformers.

Instrument transformers are the most common and economic way to detect a disturbance. Typical
output levels of instrument transformers are 1-5 amperes and 115-120 volts for CTs and VTs,
respectively. There are several classes of accuracy for instrument transformers defined by the
IEEE, CSA, IEC, and ANSI standards.

39
Figure 1: Current and Voltage Transformer Symbols and Simplified Concepts

Figure 1 presents a conceptual design of CTs and VTs.

Figure 2 shows instrument transformer connection.

Figure 2: Instrument Transformer Connections

The current transformer is designed to connect in series with the line to transform the line current
to the standard 5 amperes suitable for the meter or relay. The voltage transformer is designed to
connect in parallel with the line to transform the line voltage to 115 or 120 volts suitable for the
meter or relay. To keep the voltage at the meters and relays at a safe value, the secondary circuit
must be grounded.

40
The polarity markers indicate the relative instantaneous directions of current in the windings.
The polarity, or instantaneous direction of current, is of no significant to current-operated or
voltage-operated devices.
Correct operation of current-current, voltage-voltage, or current-voltage devices usually depends
on the relative instantaneous directions.
Advantages and disadvantages of instrument transformers
Advantages
1. They enable instruments with small ranges to measure quantities of large magnitudes
Normal ranges are 0-5 A, 0-110 V).
2. They isolate metering and protection circuits and personnel from high voltages and
currents, thus making its safe for operators and instruments
3. They help in standardising of measuring and protection instruments
4. Several instruments can be connected to a single IT
5.

Disadvantages
1. They can only be used for AC and not DC circuits.
2. They are expensive than shunt and multipliers
3. They can give errors when the burden exceeds limit

Terms relating to instruments transformers

1. Burden: this is the load across the secondary winding of IT. It can be expressed as:
(𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆)𝟐
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐛𝐮𝐫𝐝𝐞𝐧 = 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒅𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒆𝒄.𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅. 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒍𝒖𝒅.𝒔𝒆𝒄 .𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅.)
=(𝑺𝒆𝒄. 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕)𝟐 ∙
𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒅𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒆𝒄. 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅. 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒍𝒖𝒅. 𝒔𝒆𝒄 . 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅. )

(𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆)𝟐

𝐁𝐮𝐫𝐝𝐞𝐧 𝐝𝐮𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝 = 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒅𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒆𝒄.𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅. 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅.)
𝟐
=(𝑺𝒆𝒄. 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕) ∙ 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒅𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒆𝒄. 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅. 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅)

2. Actual Transformation Ration ( Kact ): this is the ratio of primary phasor (current )
to secondary phasor (current)i.e.
|𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒐𝒓| 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝑲𝒂𝒄𝒕 = |𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒐𝒓| = 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑪𝑻 or =
𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑷𝑻
𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆
3. Nominal Transformation ratio (K nom): this is the ratio of rated primary winding
current (or voltage) to the rated secondary winding voltage (or current) i.e.
𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝑲𝒏𝒐𝒎 = 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑪𝑻
𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝑲𝒏𝒐𝒎 = 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑷𝑻
𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕

4. Turns ratio, Kt): this is defined as:

𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝑲𝒕 = 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑪𝑻
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝑲𝒕 = 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑷𝑻
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈
41
 𝑼𝒔𝒖𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝑲𝒏𝒐𝒎 = 𝑲𝒕

5. Ratio correction factor (RCF) ): this is the ratio of the actual transformation ratio to
the nominal transformation ratio. i.e
𝑲
𝐑𝐂𝐅 = 𝑲 𝒂𝒄𝒕 or 𝑲𝒂𝒄𝒕 = 𝑹𝑪𝑭 ∙ 𝑲𝒏𝒐𝒎
𝒏𝒐𝒎

6. Phase angle (θ): this is the angle by which the secondary current phasor, when
reversed, differs in phase wither the primary current. The value of phase angel is +
when the secondary current leads (Is) the primary current (Ip) and negative when
it lags.

Current Transformers
The basic principle of the current transformer is the same as that of the power transformer. Like
the power transformer, the current transformer also contains a primary and a secondary winding.
Whenever an alternating current flows through the primary winding, alternating magnetic flux is
produced, which then induces alternating current in the secondary winding. In the case of current
transformers, the load impedance or “burden” is very small. Therefore the current transformer
operates under short circuit conditions. Also the current in the secondary winding does not depend
on load impedance but instead depends on the current flowing in the primary winding.

The current transformer basically consists of an iron core upon which primary and secondary
windings are wound. The primary winding of the transformer is connected in series with the load
and carries the actual current flowing to the load, while the secondary winding is connected to a
measuring device or a relay. The number of secondary turns is proportional to the current flowing
through the primary; i.e., the larger the magnitude of current flowing through the primary, more
the number of secondary turns.

The ratio of primary current to the secondary current is known as the current transformation ratio
of the CT. Usually the current transformation ratio of the CT is high. Normally the secondary
ratings are of the order 5 A, 1 A, 0.1 A, whereas the primary ratings vary from 10 A to 3000 A or
more.

The CT handles much less power. Rated burden can be defined as the product of current and
voltage at the secondary side of the CT. It is measured in volt ampere (VA).
The secondary of a current transformer should not be disconnected from its rated burden while
current is flowing in the primary. As the primary current is independent of the secondary current,
the entire primary current acts as a magnetizing current when secondary is opened. This results in
deep saturation of the core, which cannot return to normal state and so the CT becomes usable.

Types: Bar, Wound, and Window

42
Bar type current transformer
Bar Type. This type consists of a bar of suitable size and material forming an integral part of the
transformer.

Wound type current transformer

Wound Type. This type has a primary winding of more than one full turn wound over the core.

Window type current transformer

Window Type. This type has no primary winding. The secondary wind of the CT is placed
around the current flowing conductor. The magnetic electric field created by current flowing
through the conductor induces current in the secondary winding, which is used for measurement.

43
Types
Based on the function performed by the current transformer, it can be classified is follows:
1. Measuring current transformers. These current transformers are used along with the
measuring devices for the measurement of current, energy, and power.
2. Protective current transformers. These current transformers are used along with the
protection equipments such as trip coils, relays, etc.

Figure 2 - Phasor diagram of an actual CT

VP = primary supply voltage

EP = primary winding induced voltage
VS = secondary terminal voltage
ES = secondary winding induced voltage
IP = primary current
IS = secondary current
I0 = no-load current
IC = core loss component of current
IM = magnetizing component of current
rP = resistance of primary winding
xP = reactance of primary winding
rS = resistance of secondary winding
xS = reactance of secondary winding
44
RC = imaginary resistance representing core losses
XM = magnetizing reactance
RE = resistance of external load (burden) including resistance of meters, current coils, etc.
xE = reactance of external load (burden) including reactance of meters, current coils, etc.
NP = primary winding number of turns
NS = secondary winding number of turns
n = turns ratio = NS/NP
Φ = working flux of the CT
θ = the “phase angle” of the CT
δ = phase angle between secondary winding induced voltage and secondary winding current
(i.e. phase angle of total burden, including secondary winding)
β = phase angle of secondary load (burden) circuit only
α = phase angle between no-load current I0 and flux φ

The flux φ is plot along the positive x-axis. Magnetising component of current IM is in phase
with the flux. The core loss component of current Ic, leads by IM 90°. Summation of IC and IM
produces the no-load current I0, which is α angle ahead of flux φ. The primary winding
induced voltage EP is in the same phase with the resistive core loss component of the current IC.
As per transformer principles, the secondary winding induced voltage ES will be 180° out of phase
with the primary winding induced voltage EP. The secondary current IS lags the secondary induced
voltage ES by angle δ.

The secondary output terminal voltage VS is obtained by vectorically subtracting the secondary
winding resistive and reactive voltage drops IS rS and IS xS respectively from the secondary
induced voltage ES. The phase angle difference between secondary current IS and secondary
terminal voltage VS is β, which is the phase angle of the load (burden). The secondary current IS,
when reflected back to primary, can be represented by the 180° shifted phasor indicated by nIS,
where n is the turns ratio. The primary winding current IP is the phasor summation of this
reflected secondary current (load component) nIS and the no-load current I0. The phase angle
difference θ between the primary current IP and the reflected secondary current nIS is
called phase angle of the CT
Transformation ratio of a CT
Consider the expanded phasor diagram shown in the figure below.

45
 from
the right angled triangle we pqr, we get
𝑝𝑟 = 𝐼0
𝑝𝑞 = 𝐼0 ∙ cos(90 − 𝛿 − 𝛼) = 𝐼0 ∙ sin(𝛿 + 𝛼)
𝑞𝑟 = 𝐼0 ∙ sin(90 − 𝛿 − 𝛼) = 𝐼0 ∙ cos(𝛿 + 𝛼)
(𝑜𝑟)2 = (𝑜𝑝 + 𝑝𝑞)2 + (𝑞𝑟)2
2
Or (𝐼𝑝 ) = (𝑛𝐼𝑠 + 𝐼0 ∙ sin(𝛿 + 𝛼))2 + (𝐼0 ∙ cos(𝛿 + 𝛼))2 = 𝑛2 𝐼𝑠2 + 𝐼02 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝛿 + 𝛼) + 2𝑛𝐼𝑠 𝐼0 ∙
sin( 𝛿 + 𝛼) + 𝐼02 ∙ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 (𝛿 + 𝛼) = 𝑛2 𝐼𝑠2 + 2𝑛𝐼𝑠 𝐼0 ∙ sin( 𝛿 + 𝛼) + 𝐼02 (𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝛿 + 𝛼) + 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 (𝛿 +
𝛼)) = 𝑛2 𝐼𝑠2 + 2𝑛𝐼𝑠 𝐼0 ∙ sin( 𝛿 + 𝛼) + 𝐼02
∴ 𝐼𝑝 = √𝑛2 𝐼𝑠2 + 2𝑛𝐼𝑠 𝐼0 ∙ sin( 𝛿 + 𝛼) + 𝐼02
In properly designed CTs I0 << nIs. Mostly I0 is less than 1 % of Ip and Ip is thus very nearly
equal to nIs.
∴ 𝐼𝑝 = √𝑛2 𝐼𝑠2 + 2𝑛𝐼𝑠 𝐼0 ∙ sin( 𝛿 + 𝛼) + (𝐼0 ∙ sin(𝛿 + 𝛼))2
i.e. 𝐼02 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝐼02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝛿 + 𝛼)

𝐼𝑝 √𝑛2 𝐼𝑠2 +2𝑛𝐼𝑠 𝐼0 ∙sin(𝛿+𝛼)+(𝐼0 ∙sin(𝛿+𝛼))2

𝑛𝐼𝑠 +𝐼0 ∙sin(𝛿+𝛼)) 𝐼
and 𝐾𝑎𝑐𝑡 = = = = 𝑛 + 𝐼0 sin(𝛿 + 𝛼) = 𝑛 +
𝐼𝑠 𝐼𝑠 𝐼𝑠 𝑠
𝐼0 𝐼0 sin 𝛿 cos 𝛼+𝐼0 cos 𝛿 sin 𝛼 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝛿+𝐼𝑤 cos 𝛿
(sin 𝛿 cos 𝛼 + cos 𝛿 sin 𝛼) = 𝑛 + =𝑛+
𝐼𝑠 𝐼𝑠 𝐼𝑠

phase angle of CT
from the expanded phasor diagram it can be seen that
𝑞𝑟 𝑞𝑟 𝐼0 ∙ sin[90° − (𝛿 + 𝛼)]
tan 𝜃 = = =
𝑜𝑞 𝑝𝑜 + 𝑞𝑝 𝑛𝐼𝑠 + 𝐼0 ∙ cos[90° − (𝛿 + 𝛼)]
𝐼0 ∙ cos(𝛿 + 𝛼)
= 𝑟𝑎𝑑, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑛𝐼𝑠 + 𝐼0 ∙ sin(𝛿 + 𝛼)
When we assume Io <<nIs, 𝐼0 ∙ sin(𝛿 + 𝛼) can be neglected

46
 𝐼0 ∙cos(𝛿+𝛼) 𝐼0 ∙cos(𝛿)∙cos(𝛼)−𝐼0 ∙sin 𝛿 sin 𝛼 𝐼𝑚 ∙cos(𝛿)−𝐼𝑤 ∙sin 𝛿 180
Thus 𝜃 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ∙
𝑛𝐼𝑠 𝑛𝐼𝑠 𝑛𝐼𝑠 𝜋
𝐼𝑚 ∙cos(𝛿)−𝐼𝑤 ∙sin 𝛿
( )𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠
𝑛𝐼𝑠

Errors
In practical cases the actual transformation ration is not equal to the turns ratio. Also the value of
actual transformation ration varies depending on magnetizing and los components of exciting
current, secondary winding load current and load power factor. This introduces ration and phase
angle errors in CTs.
Ratio errors: these are due to actuat transformation ration being diferent from the turns ration
It is computed as:
𝐾𝑛𝑜𝑚 − 𝐾𝑎𝑐𝑡
% 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = ∙ 100
𝐾𝑎𝑐𝑡

Phase angle error: This is due to secondary winding current not been exactly 180 ont of phase with
the primary winding current. It is the angle by which phase deference between Ip amd Is is different
fro 180 degres.
180 𝐼 ∙cos(𝛿)−𝐼𝑤 ∙sin(𝛿)
𝜃= 𝜋 [𝑚 ] degrees
𝑛𝐼 𝑠

Secondary Current Rating

The value of the rated secondary current is 5A. A secondary current rating of 2A and 1A may also
be used in some cases if the number of secondary turns is low and the ratio cannot be adjusted
within the required limits by the addition or removal of one turn, if the length of secondary
connecting lead is such that the burden due to them at higher secondary current would be excessive.
The disadvantage of making transformers with lower secondary current ratings is that they produce
much higher voltage if they are ever accidentally left open circuited. For this reason, it is better to
adopt 5 A rating at the secondary.

Terminology of Current Transformer

Current error (ratio error). The percentage error in the magnitude of the secondary current, it is
defined by the following formula:
Ratio error = (KnIs - Ip)/ Ip x 100%
Ip, Is = primary and secondary winding currents respectively,
Kn = turns ratio

Accuracy class. Accuracy class tells you how accurate the current transformer is. Accuracy class
shall be 0.2, 0.5, 1, 3 or 5. For example, if the accuracy class of a current transformer is 1, then
the ratio error will be ±1% at the rated primary value.

Rated secondary current. The value of rated secondary current shall be 5 A. The secondary
currents rating of 2 and 1 A may also be used in some case.

Rated burden. The product of current and voltage at the secondary side of the CT is called the
rated burden. It is measured in volt ampere (VA).
Table 1 - Rated Primary Current
ampere ampere ampere ampere ampere
0.5 10 100 1000 10000
1 12.5 125 1250
2.2 15 150 1500
5 20 200 2000
47
ampere ampere ampere ampere ampere
25 250 2500
30 300 3000
40 400 4000
50 500 5000
60 600 6000
75 750 7500
800

Example 7.1
A 100:5-A CT is used to measure current of a motor using a 5-A ammeter. If the ammeter
reading were 4-A, what is the line (primary) current?
Solution.
The CT connection in the motor circuit is as shown in figure 7.6.
Three-phase supply

Fig.7.6 CT connected in motor circuit.

The rating of 100:5-A means that if I1 is 100-A, I2 will be 5-A.
I.e. CT ratio Kn = I1/I2 = 100/5 = 20:1.
∴ for I2 = 4-A
I1 = I2.Kn = 4(20) = 80-A.
I.e. primary (line) current is 80-A

Examples
The following data relates to a current transformer
Number of primary turns=1
Number of secondary turns = 240
Secondary winding current = 5A
External burden=1.2 Ω (non-inductive)
Magneto motive force for setting up flux in core (mmf) =96 AT
Cross section area of core= 1200 mm2
Frequency of supply= 50 Hz
Neglecting the effects of magnetic leakage, iron losses and I2R losses, calculate
Actual transformation ration, phase angle, and maximum flux density in the core
Solution
Given: 𝑁𝑝 = 1, 𝑁𝑠 = 240, 𝐼𝑠 = 5 𝐴, 𝑅𝑒 = 1.2 𝛺, 𝑚𝑚𝑓 = 96 𝐴𝑇, 𝐴𝑒 = 1200 𝑚𝑚2 , 𝑓 = 50 𝐻𝑧
i. Actual transformation ratio
𝑁𝑠 240
𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝑛 = = = 240
𝑁𝑝 1
𝐸𝑠 = 𝐼𝑠 ∙ 𝑅𝑒 = 5 ∙ 1.2 = 6 𝑉

48
 Since the burden on the secondary side is purely resistive, 𝐼𝑠 is in phase with 𝐸𝑠 and
the secondary power factor is 1 or 𝛿 = 0
The loss component (𝐼𝑤 ) of no-load current (𝐼0 ) is to neglected and t

𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝛼 = 0, herefore 𝐼𝑤 = 0
∴ 𝐼0 = √𝐼𝑚2 + 𝐼 2 = 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑤 𝑚
𝑚𝑚𝑓 96
𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝐼𝑚 = = = 96 𝐴
𝑁𝑝 1
Reflected secondary winding current =𝑛𝐼𝑠 = 240 ∙ 5 = 1200 𝐴
Whi reference to the phasor diagram, 𝐼𝑝 = √(𝑛𝐼𝑠 )2 + 𝐼𝑚
2 = √12002 + 962 = 1203.8

Primary winding current,

𝐼𝑝 1203.8
∴ 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝐾𝑎𝑐𝑡 = = = 240.76
𝐼𝑠 5

ii. Phase angle,

From the phasor diagram,
𝐼𝑚 96
tan 𝜃 = = = 0.08
𝑛𝐼𝑠 1200
∴ 𝜃 = tan−1 0.08 = 4.34°
iii. Maximum flux density.
Its known that:

𝐸𝑠 = 4.44 ∙ 𝑓 ∙ 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∙ 𝑁𝑠

𝐸𝑠 6
𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 0.1126 ∙ 10−3 𝑊𝑏
4.44 ∙ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑁𝑠 4.44 ∙ 50 ∙ 240
𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 0.1126 ∙ 10−3
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 0.0938 𝑊𝑏/𝑚2
𝐴𝑐 1200 ∙ 10−6
A ring core current transformer of ration 1000/5 A is operating at full primary current with the
secondary burden of non-inductive resistance of 1.1 Ω. Its exciting current is 1A at a power
factor of 0.45. Calculate: the ratio error at full load, assuming that there has been no
compensation, and the phase angle

Solution
𝐼𝑝 1000
Given: 𝐼0 = 1 𝐴, 𝑁𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑚 = 𝐼 = 2 = 200, 𝑅𝑒 =
𝑠
1.1 𝛺, 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 0.45
i. Ratio error at full load
Since the burden on the sec. winding is purely resistive, then the PF on this side is
unity or 𝛿 = 0
The PF of the exciting current 𝐼0 , is 0.45
∴ cos(90° − 𝛼) = 0.45
𝑜𝑟 (90° − 𝛼) = cos −1 0.45 = 63.26°
𝑜𝑟 𝛼 = 90° − 63.26° = 26.74°
Since there is no turn compensation, the turns ration is equal to the nominal
transformation ratio, i.e.
𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑚 = 200
When the primary winding carries the rated current of 1000 A, the secondary winding
will carry 5 A, which is the rated secondary winding current.
∴ 𝑛𝐼𝑠 = 200 ∙ 5 = 1000 𝐴

49
 𝐼0
∴ 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝐾𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝑛 + ∙ (sin(𝛿 + 𝛼)
𝐼𝑠
1
= 200 + sin(0 + 26.740 = 200.09
5
𝐾𝑛𝑜𝑚 − 𝐾𝑎𝑐𝑡 200 − 200.09
∴ 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = ∙ 100 = ∙ 100 = −0.045%
𝐾𝑎𝑐𝑡 200.09
ii. Phase angle
180 𝐼0 ∙ cos(𝛿 + 𝛼)
𝜃= ∙[ ] 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠
𝜋 𝑛𝐼𝑠
180 1 ∙ cos(0 + 26.74°)
= ∙[ ] = 3.4°
𝜋 200 ∙ 5

The secondary winding burden of CT having a bar primary and 300 secondary turns, has an
ammeter resistance and reactance of 1 Ω and 0.55 Ω respectively. The resistance of secondary
winding is 0.3 Ω while the reactance is 0.25 Ω. The core requires mmf of 90 AT for
magnetisation and 45 AT for core losses. Determine (1) the primary winding current and actual
transformation ratio when the ammeter in the secondary winding reads 5 A (2) the number of
turns which could be reduced in secondary winding so that the ratio error be zero for this
condition.

Solution

Given: : 𝑁𝑝 = 1, 𝑁𝑠 = 300, 𝐼𝑠 = 5 𝐴, 𝑅𝑒 = 1.0 𝛺, 𝑋𝑒 = 0.55𝛺, 𝑅𝑠 = 0.3 𝛺. 𝑋𝑠 =

0.25 𝛺 𝑚𝑚𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 90 𝐴𝑇, 𝑚𝑚𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 45 𝐴𝑇
i. 𝐼𝑃 , 𝐾𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑅𝑒 + 𝑅𝑠 = 1 + 0.3 = 1.3𝛺
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑋𝑒 + 𝑋𝑠 = 0.25 + 0.55 = 0.8𝛺
0.8
Secondary winding phase angle,𝛿 = tan−1 1.3 = 31.6°
cos 𝛿 = cos 31.6° = 0.8517 𝑎𝑛𝑑
sin 𝛿 = sin 31.6° = 0.524
𝑁𝑠 300
Turns ratio, 𝑛 = 𝑁 = 1 = 300
𝑝
𝑚𝑚𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 90
Magnetising current, 𝐼𝑚 = = = 90 𝐴
𝑁𝑝 1
𝑚𝑚𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 45
Loss component, 𝐼𝑤 = = = 45 𝐴
𝑁𝑝 1
𝐼𝑚 sin 𝛿 + 𝐼𝑤 cos 𝛿 92 ∙ 0.524 + 45 ∙ 0.8517
∴ 𝐾𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝑛 + = 300 + = 317.1
𝐼𝑠 5
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝐼𝑃 = 𝐾𝑎𝑐𝑡 ∙ 𝐼𝑠 = 317.1 ∙ 5 = 1585.5 𝑆
ii. Number of turns to be reduced:
To eliminate the ratio error , we must reduce the secondary wining turns , in other
words we must reduce the turns ratio.
For zero ratio error:
𝐾𝑛𝑜𝑚 = 𝐾𝑎𝑐𝑡 , (Where, 𝐾𝑛𝑜𝑚 = 𝐾𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 300)
𝐼𝑚 sin 𝛿 + 𝐼𝑤 cos 𝛿
𝑜𝑟, 300 = 𝑛′ +
𝐼𝑠

90 ∙ 0.524 + 45 ∙ 0.8517
𝑜𝑟, 300 = 𝑛′ + = 𝑛′ + 17.1
5
𝑜𝑟, 𝑛′ = 282.9
Hence the secondary winding turns, 𝑁𝑠 = 𝑛′ ∙ 𝑁𝑝 = 282.9 ∙ 1 = 282.9

50
 ∴ 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 = 300 − 282.9 = 17

Voltage transformers
Voltage transformer is ideally a transformer under no-load conditions where the load current is
zero and the voltage drop is only caused by the magnetizing current and is thus negligible.
They are also known as potential transformers.

It is not an easy way to measure the high voltage and currents associated with A.C. power
transmission and distribution systems, hence instrument transformers are often used to step-down
these values to a safer level to measure. This is because measuring meters or instruments and
protective relays are low voltage devices, thereby cannot be connected directly to high voltage
circuit for the purpose of measurement and protection of the system.

In addition to the reduction of voltage and current levels, these transformers isolate the measuring
or protective circuit from the main circuit which is operating at high power levels.

The current transformers reduce the level of current to the instrument or relay operating range,
whereas potential transformers transforms the high voltage to a circuit operating low voltage.

The basic principle of operation and construction of this transformer is similar to the standard
power transformer. In common, the potential transformers are abbreviated as PT.

The primary winding consists of a large number of turns which is connected across the high voltage
side or the line in which measurements have to be taken or to be protected. The secondary winding
has lesser number of turns which is connected to the voltmeters, or potential coils of wattmeter
and energy meters, relays and other control devices. These can be single phase or three phase
potential transformers. Irrespective of the primary voltage rating, these are designed to have the
secondary output voltage of 110 V.

Since the voltmeters and potential coils of other meters have high impedance, a small current
flows through the secondary of PT. Therefore, PT behaves as an ordinary two winding
transformer operating on no load. Due to this low load (or burden) on the PT, the VA ratings of
51
PTs are low and in the range of 50 to 200 VA. On the secondary side, one end is connected to the
ground for safety reasons as shown in figure above.

Similar to the normal transformer, the transformation ratio is specified as

V1/V2 = N1/N2

From the above equation, if the voltmeter reading and transformation ratio are known, then high
voltage side voltage can be determined.

Compared to the conventional transformer, potential transformers or PTs use larger conductor
sizes and core. PTs designed for ensuring the greater accuracy and hence, at the time of designing
economy of the material is not considered as main aspect.

PTs are made with special high quality core operating at lower flux densities in order to have small
magnetising current so that no load losses are minimised. Both core and shell type constructions
are preferred for PTs. For high voltages, core type PTs are used while shell type is preferred for
low voltages.

Construction

To reduce the leakage reactance, co-axial windings are used for both primary and secondary. For
reducing the insulation cost, low voltage secondary winding is placed next to the core. And for
high voltage PTs, high voltage primary is divided into sections of coils to reduce the insulation
between coil layers. For these windings, vanished cambric and cotton tape are used as
laminations. In between the coils, hard fiber separators are used.

These are carefully designed to have minimum phase shift between the input and output voltages
and also to maintain a minimum voltage ratio with variation in load. Oil filled PTs are used for

52
high voltage levels (above the range of 7KV). In such PTs, oil filled bushings are provided to
connect the main lines.

Types of Voltage or Potential Transformers

Majorly these are classified into outdoor and indoor potential transformers.

1. Outdoor Potential Transformers

These can be single or three phase voltage transformers available for different range of operating
voltages that are used for outdoor relaying and metering applications. Up to 33KV, these are of
electromagnetic type single and three phase voltage transformers. Above 33KV single phase
outdoor potential transformers can be two types electromagnetic type and capacitive voltage
transformer (CVT).

Electromagnetic or Wound Type Conventional Potential Transformer

These are similar to the conventional oil filled wire wound transformers. The figure below shows
the electromagnetic type of PT wherein tap tank is connected to the line terminal. A plug is
provided on the tank to fill the oil and this tank is mounted on an insulator support.

At the base, ground terminal and oil drain plug is provided. In this, primary is connected between
the two phases or between one phase and ground. So one end of the primary is connected to main
line at the top and the other end is brought out at the bottom and is grounded with other ground
terminals.

The secondary terminals including earth terminal are located in the terminal box at the bottom,
further these are connected to the metering and relay circuits. These are used up to or below 132
KV operating voltages due to insulation aspects.

PotentialTransformer

Capacitive Voltage Transformers (CVTs)

It is a capacitive potential divider connected between the phase of main line and ground. These
can be coupling capacitor or bushing type CVTs. These two types are electrically less or more
similar, but the difference is that the formation of capacitance which further decides their rated
burden (or load).
53
A coupling capacitor type consists of a stack of series connected capacitors which are made up
of oil-impregnated paper and aluminium foil. For desired primary and secondary voltages,
primary and secondary terminals are connected across the capacitors.

The bushing type CVT uses condenser type bushings provided with tapping. CVTs are also used
for power line carrier communication and hence more economical.

Capacitive Voltage Transformers

2.Indoor Potential Transformers

These are also available as single or three phase PTs which are of moulded, magnetic type. The
mounting mechanism can be fixed or drawout type. In this type of PTs, all parts of primary
winding are insulated from earth at its rated insulation capacity. These are designed to operate
relays, measuring instruments, and other control devices in indoor service with high accuracy.

54
Indoor Potential Transformers

Based on the function, PT or voltage transformers are classified into metering voltage
transformers and protection voltage transformers.

Theory of PT
The figure below shows an equivalent circuit of a PT

55
VP = primary supply voltage
EP = primary winding induced voltage
VS = secondary terminal voltage
ES = secondary winding induced voltage
IP = primary current
IS = secondary current
10 = no-load current
IC = core loss component of current
IM = magnetizing component of current
rP = resistance of primary winding
xP = reactance of primary winding
rS = resistance of secondary winding
xS = reactance of secondary winding
RC = imaginary resistance representing core losses
XM = magnetizing reactance
rE = resistance of external load (burden) including resistance of meters, current coils etc.
xE =reactance of external load (burden) including reactance of meters, current coils, etc.
NP = primary winding number of turns
NS = secondary winding number of turns
n = turns ratio =NP /NS =Ep/Es=Is/Ip
φ = working flux of the PT
θ = the ‘phase angle’ of the PT

56
δ =phase angle between secondary winding terminal voltage and secondary winding current (i.e.,
phase angle of load circuit)
β = phase angle between primary load current and secondary terminal voltage reversed
α = phase angle between no-load current I0 and flux φ

Actual transformation ratio

Consider the expanded phasor diagram of PT show below.

The phase-angle difference θ between the primary voltage VP and the reflected secondary
voltage nVS is called phase angle of the PT. Ideally, without any no-load current and without any
voltage drop in winding impedances, these two phasors must have been in the same phase,
i.e., ideally θ = 0. From the equivalent circuit of the PT shown in Figure 3.15 and the phasor
diagram of Figure 3.16, we have
𝑽𝒑 = 𝑬𝒑 + 𝑰𝒑 𝒓𝒑 + 𝑰𝒑 𝒙𝒑 = 𝒏𝑬𝒔 + 𝑰𝒑 𝒓𝒑 + 𝑰𝒑 𝒙𝒑
𝑽𝒑 = 𝒏(𝑽𝒔 + 𝑰𝒔 𝒓𝒔 + 𝑰𝒔 𝒙𝒔 ) + 𝑰𝒑 𝒓𝒑 = 𝒏𝑽𝒔 + 𝒏𝑰𝒔 𝒓𝒔 + 𝒏𝑰𝒔 𝒙𝒔 + 𝑰𝒑 𝒓𝒑 + 𝑰𝒑 𝒙𝒑
From the expanded phasor diagram above:
𝒐𝒂 = 𝑽 𝒑 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝒐𝒂 = 𝒏𝑽𝒔 + 𝒏𝑰𝒔 𝒓𝒔 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹 + 𝒏𝑰𝒔 𝒙𝒔 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹 + 𝑰𝒑 𝒓𝒑 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜷 + 𝑰𝒑 𝒙𝒑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜷 = 𝒏𝑽𝒔 + 𝒏𝑰𝒔 (𝒓𝒔 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹 +
𝒙𝒔 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹) + 𝑰𝒑 𝒓𝒑 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜷 + 𝑰𝒑 𝒙𝒑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜷 ……(i)
In reality, the phase angle difference θ is quite small, thus for the sake of simplicity, both VP and
VS reversed can be approximated to perpendicular to the flux Φ, and hence:
∟ocd=𝛽( approx.). and ∟ecd=𝛿(approxi.)

In reality, once again, since θ is very small, sometimes even less than 1°, then we can
approximate as:
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = 𝟏, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑽 𝒑 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = 𝑽 𝒑
Substituting the above values in (i), we get:

Errors in Voltage Transformer

57
For an ideal voltage transformer, the voltage produced in the secondary winding is an exact
proportion to the primary voltage and are exactly in phase opposition. But in actual PTs this is
not so because of the presence of voltage drops in primary and secondary resistance and also due
the power factor of the burden on secondary. This causes to occurrence of ratio and phase angle
errors in voltage transformers. Let us know in detail.

Errors in Voltage Transformer

Errors in Voltage Transformer

Consider the phasor diagram of potential transformer shown above,

where

Io = No load current

Im = magnetizing component of no load current

Iu = Wattful component of no load current

Es and Ep = Induced voltages in secondary and primary windings respectively

Np and Ns = Number of turns in primary and secondary windings respectively

Ip and Is = Primary current and secondary current

Rp and Rs = Resistances of primary and secondary windings respectively

Xp and Xs = Reactances of primary and secondary windings respectively

β = Phase angle error

The primary induced voltage or EMF Ep is derived by subtracting the primary resistive (IpRp)
and reactive drop (IpXp) from the primary voltage Vp. And also, secondary terminal voltage Vs
is derived by subtracting secondary winding resistance drop (IsRs) and reactance drop (IsXs)
58
vectorially from secondary induced EMF Es. Due to these drops nominal ratio of the potential
transformer is not equal to the actual ratio of the PT, hence introduces a ratio error.

Ratio Error
The ratio error of the potential transformer is defined as the variation in actual ratio of
transformation from nominal ratio.

Percentage Ratio Error = (Kn – R) / R × 100

Where

Kn is the nominal or rated transformation ratio and is

Kn = Rated primary voltage / Rated secondary voltage

Phase Angle Error

In ideal PT, there should not exist any phase angle between the primary voltage and reversed
secondary voltage. But in practice, there exist a phase difference between Vp and Vs reversed (as
we can observe in above figure), thereby, introduces phase angle error. It is defined as the phase
difference between the primary voltage and reversed secondary voltage.

In order to reduce these errors such that the accuracy is improved by designing the transformers
in such a way that they windings have appropriate magnitudes of internal resistance and
reactances. In addition to this, the core should require minimum magnetizing and core loss
components of exciting current.

Applications of Voltage Transformers

 Electrical Metering systems
 Electrical protection systems
 Distance protection of feeders
 Synchronizing generators with grid
 Impedance protection of generators
The class of potential transformers used for metering is called as measurement voltage or
potential transformers. On other hand PTs used for protection called as protection voltage
transformers. In some cases PTs are used for both metering and protection purposes, in such
cases, one secondary winding is connected to metering and other secondary winding is used for
protection.

Resistance measurements
Measurement of resistance is one of the very basic requirements when working with circuits, machines,
transformers, and other equipment.

Resistances can be classified as follows:

1. Low Resistances
All resistances of the order less than 1 Ω may be classified as low resistances. In practice, such
resistances can be found in the copper winding in armatures, ammeter shunts, contacts, switches, etc.
2. Medium Resistances
Resistances in the range 1 Ω to 100 kΩ may be classified as medium resistances. Most of the electrical
apparatus used in practice, electronic circuits, carbon resistance and metal film resistors are found to have
resistance values lying in this range.
3. High Resistances
Resistances higher than 100 kΩ are classified as high resistances. Insulation resistances in electrical
equipment are expected to have resistances above this range. The above classifications are, however, not
rigid, but only form a guideline for the method of measurement to be adopted, which may be different for
different cases.
59
MEASUREMENT OF LOW RESISTANCES

The different methods for measurement of low range resistances are (i) ammeter-voltmeter method, (ii)
potentiometer method, (iii) kelvin double bridge method. In this course we will only consider the ammeter –
voltmeter method.

Ammeter-voltmeter method
This is the simplest and most common method for measurement of low resistances with an accuracy of 1%. The
accuracy of this method is dependent of accuracies of ammeter and voltmeter. In this method, current thought
unknown resistor X under measurement and the voltage drop across it are simultaneously measured with the help of
ammeter and voltmeter. There are two ways of connecting ammeter and voltmeter, and in either case the resistance
of one measuring instrument will affect the measurement in some way.

Case 1
When the voltmeter is connected directly across the resistor, the ammeter measures current flowing through the
unknown resistor X and the voltmeter. In this case:
Current through ammeter = current through unknown resistor (X) + current through voltmeter
Or 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑋 + 𝐼𝑉
Or 𝐼𝑋 = 𝐼 − 𝐼𝑉
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
∴ 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑋𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 = = = 𝑉 = 𝑉
𝐼𝑥 𝐼 − 𝐼𝑉 𝐼 − 𝐼 (1 − ) 𝑅𝑉 𝐼𝑅𝑉
Where , V= voltage reading, Rv=resistance of the voltmeter, I= current indicated by ammeter

Case 2
When the ammeter is connected so that it indicates only the current flowing through the unknown resistance, the
voltmeter measured the voltage drop across the ammeter and the unknown resistance X. in this case:
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅𝐴 + 𝐼𝑋 = 𝐼(𝑅𝐴 + 𝑋)
𝑉
𝑋𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 = − 𝑅𝐴
𝐼
Where , RA=resistance of the ammeter,
Example
The ammeter-voltmeter method is used to measure resistance. With the voltmeter connected across the resistance,
the reading on the ammeter and voltmeter are 0.3 A and 2.4 V respectively. The resistance of the voltmeter is 450 Ω.
Calculate:
1. True value of resistance
2. Percentage error in the value of resistance, if the voltmeter current is ignored.

Solution
Data: I=0.3 A, V=2.4 V, Rv=450 Ω
1. True value of resistance
We know that
𝑉 2.4
𝑋𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 = 𝑉
= 2.4
= 8.14 𝛺
𝐼 (1 − ) 0.3 (1 − )
𝐼𝑅𝑉 0.3∙450
2. Percentage error in the value of resistance
Measured value of unknown resistance when ignoring Iv
𝑉 2.4
0+= = = 8𝛺
𝐼 𝐼0.3
𝑋𝑚 − 𝑋𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝟖 − 𝟖. 𝟏𝟒
∴ 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 = ∙ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = ∙ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = −𝟏. 𝟕𝟐 %, 𝒊𝒆. 𝟏. 𝟕𝟐% 𝒍𝒐𝒘
𝑋𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝟖. 𝟏𝟒

MEASUREMENT OF MEDIUM RESISTANCES

The different methods for measurement of medium range resistances are (i) ohmmeter method, (ii) voltmeter–
ammeter method, (iii) substitution method, and (iv) Wheatstone bridge method. In this module, we will look at the
ohmmeter methods only.

Ohmmeter Method for Measuring Resistance

Ohmmeters are convenient direct reading devices for measurement of approximate resistance of circuit
components without concerning too much about accuracy. This instrument is, however, very popular in the sense
that it can give quick and direct readings for resistance values without any precise adjustments requirements from the
operator. It is also useful in measurement laboratories as an adjunct to a precision bridge. Value of the unknown
60
resistance to be measured is first obtained by the ohmmeter, and this can save lot of time in bridge balancing for
obtaining the final precision value using the bridge. There are two type of ohmmeters namely the series (used for
higher resistance measurements) and shunt (used for lower resistance measurements.

Series ohmmeter
Basic Circuit
An ohmmeter (ohm-meter) is normally part of a volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM) or multifunction meter. Ohmmeters
do not usually exist as individual instruments. The simplest ohmmeter circuit consists of a voltage source connected
in series with a pair of terminals, a standard resistance and a low-current PMMC instrument. Such a circuit is shown
in Figure 3-21 (a). The resistance to be measured (Rx) is connected across terminals A and B. The meter current
indicated by the instrument in Figure 3-21(a) is (battery voltage) /(total series resistance):
𝐸𝑏
𝐼𝑚 =
𝑅𝑥 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑚
When the external resistance is zero (i.e., terminals A and B short-circuited), Equation 3-3 becomes
𝐸𝑏
𝐼𝑚 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑚

If R1 and Rm are selected (or if R1is adjusted) to give FSD when A and B are short-circuited, FSD is marked as
zero ohms. Thus, for Rx = 0, the pointer indicates 0 Ω (see Figure 3-21(b)]. When terminals A and B are open-
circuited, the effective value of resistance Rx is infinity. No meter current flows, and the pointer indicates zero
current. This point (zero current) is marked as infinity on the resistance scale (Figure 3-21(b)].

If a resistance Rx with a value between zero and infinity is connected across terminals A and B, the meter current is
greater than zero but less than FSD. The pointer position on the scale now depends on the relationship between Rx
and R1 + Rm. This is demonstrated by the example below.
Example
The series ohmmeter in Figure 3-21(a) is made up of a 1.5 V battery, a 100 μA meter, and a resistance R1 which
makes (R1 + Rm) = 15 kΩ.
(a) Determine the instrument indication when Rx =0.
(b) Determine how the resistance scale should be marked at 0.5 FSD. 0.25 FSD, and 0.75 FSD.

Solution--
Data: Eb=1.5 V, Im=100 μA, R1+Rm=15 kΩ

61
(a)

𝐸𝑏 1.5 𝑉
𝐼𝑚 = = = 100 𝜇𝐴 (𝐹𝑆𝐷)
𝑅𝑥 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑚 0 + 15 𝑘𝛺
(b) At 0.5 FSD

𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑚,0.5 𝐹𝑆𝐷 = = 50 𝜇𝐴
2
𝐸𝑏
𝑅𝑥 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑚 =
𝐼𝑚
𝐸𝑏 1.5 𝑉
𝑅𝑥 = − (𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑚 ) = − 15 𝑘𝛺 = 15 𝑘𝛺
𝐼𝑚 50 𝜇𝐴

At 0.25 FSD
𝐼𝑚 100 𝜇𝐴
𝐼𝑚,0.25 𝐹𝑆𝐷 = = = 25 𝜇𝐴
4 4
𝐸𝑏
𝑅𝑥 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑚 =
𝐼𝑚
𝐸𝑏 1.5 𝑉
𝑅𝑥 = − (𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑚 ) = − 15 𝑘𝛺 = 45 𝑘𝛺
𝐼𝑚 25 𝜇𝐴

At 0.75 FSD
𝐼𝑚,0.75 𝐹𝑆𝐷 = 0.75 ∙ 100 𝜇𝐴 = 75 𝜇𝐴
𝐸𝑏
𝑅𝑥 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑚 =
𝐼𝑚
𝐸𝑏 1.5 𝑉
𝑅𝑥 = − (𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑚 ) = − 15 𝑘𝛺 = 5 𝑘𝛺
𝐼𝑚 75 𝜇𝐴

The ohmmeter scale is now marked as shown in Figure 3-21(b).

From the example above, note that the measured resistance at center scale is equal to the internal resistance of the
ohmmeter (i.e., Rx =R1 +Rm). This makes sense because at FSD the total resistance is R1 + Rm, and when the
resistance is doubled, Rx + R1 + Rm =2(R1 + Rm), the circuit current is halved.

Ohmmeter with Zero Adjust

The simple ohmmeter described above will operate satisfactorily as long as the battery voltage remains exactly at
1.5 V. When the battery voltage falls (and the output voltage of all batteries fall with use), the instrument scale is no
longer correct. Even if R1 were adjusted to give FSD when terminals A and B are short-circuited, the scale would
still be in error because now midscale would represent a resistance equal to the new value of R1 + Rm. Falling
battery voltage can be taken care of by an adjustable resistor connected in parallel with the meter (R2 in Figure 3-
22).

In Figure 3-22 the battery current Ib splits up into meter current I m and resistor current I2, With terminals A and B
short-circuited, R2 is adjusted to give FSD on the meter. At this time the total circuit resistance is R1 + R2 parallel
with Rm. Since R1 is always very much larger than R2 parallel with Rm the total circuit resistance can be assumed
to equal R1. When a resistance Rx equal to R1 is connected across terminals A and B, the circuit resistance is
doubled and the circuit current is halved. This causes both I2 and Im to be reduced to half of their previous levels

62
(i.e., when A and B were short-circuited). Thus, the midscale measured resistance is again equal to the ohmmeter
internal resistance R1. The equation for the battery current in Figure 3-22 is

𝐸𝑏
𝐼𝑏 = 𝑅2 ∙𝑅𝑚
𝑅𝑥 + 𝑅1 + ( )
𝑅2 +𝑅𝑚
𝑅2 ∙𝑅𝑚
if ( ) ≪ 𝑅1
𝑅2 +𝑅𝑚
𝐸𝑏
𝐼𝑏 =
𝑅𝑥 + 𝑅1
Also, The meter voltage is :
𝑅2 ∙ 𝑅𝑚
𝑉𝑚 = 𝐼𝑏 ∙ ( )
𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑚
Which gives meter current to :
𝑅2 ∙𝑅𝑚
𝐼𝑏 ∙ ( )
𝑅2 +𝑅𝑚
𝐼𝑚 =
𝑅𝑚

ΩEach time the ohmmeter is used, terminals A and B are first short-circuited, and R2 is adjusted for zero-ohm
indication on the scale (i.e., for FSD). If this procedure is followed, then even when the battery voltage falls below
its initial level, the scale remains correct. Example below demonstrates this.

The ohmmeter circuit in Figure 3-22 has Eb = 1.5 V, R1 = 15 kΩ, Rm = 50 Ω, R2 = 50 Ω. and meter FSD = 50 μA.
Determine the ohmmeter scale reading at 0.5 FSD, and determine the new resistance value that R2 must be adjusted
to when Eb falls to l.3 V. Also. recalculate the value of R2 at 0.5 FSD when Eb = 1.3 V.

Solution
At 0.5 FSD with Eb = 1.5 V
𝑉𝑚 = 𝐼𝑚 ∙ 𝑅𝑚 = 25𝜇𝐴 ∙ 50𝛺 = 1.25𝑚𝑉
𝑉𝑚 1.25 𝑚𝑉
𝐼2 = = = 25 𝜇𝐴
𝑅2 50 𝛺
𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼𝑚 = 25 𝜇𝐴 + 25 𝜇𝐴 = 50 𝜇𝐴
𝐸𝑏 1.5 𝑉
𝑅𝑥 + 𝑅1 = = = 30 𝑘𝛺
𝐼𝑏 50 𝜇𝐴
𝐸𝑏
𝑅𝑥 = − 𝑅1 = 30 𝑘𝛺 − 15 𝑘𝛺 = 15 𝑘𝛺
𝐼𝑏
When Rx=0 and Eb=1.3 V
𝐸𝑏 1.3 𝑉
𝐼𝑏 = = = 86.67 𝜇𝐴
𝑅𝑥 + 𝑅1 0 + 15 𝑘𝛺

𝐼2 = 𝐼𝑏 − 𝐼𝑚(𝐹𝑆𝐷) = 86.67 𝜇𝐴 − 50 𝜇𝐴 = 36.67𝜇𝐴

𝑉𝑚 = 𝐼𝑚 ∙ 𝑅𝑚 = 50 𝜇𝐴 ∙ 50𝛺 = 2.5 𝑚𝐴
𝑉𝑚 2.5 𝑚𝑉
𝑅2 = = = 68.18 𝛺
𝐼2 36.67𝜇𝐴
At 0.5 FSD, Eb=1.3 V
𝑉𝑚 = 𝐼𝑚 ∙ 𝑅𝑚 = 25𝜇𝐴 ∙ 50 𝛺 = 1.25𝑚𝑉
𝑉𝑚 1.25 𝑚𝑉
𝐼2 = = = 18.33 𝜇𝐴
𝑅2 68.18 𝛺
𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼𝑚 = 18.33 𝜇𝐴 + 25 𝜇𝐴 = 43.33 𝜇𝐴
𝐸𝑏 1.3 𝑉
𝑅𝑥 + 𝑅1 = = = 30 𝑘𝛺
𝐼𝑏 43.33 𝜇𝐴
𝐸𝑏
𝑅𝑥 = − 𝑅1 = 30 𝑘𝛺 − 15 𝑘𝛺 = 15 𝑘𝛺
𝐼𝑏
Measurement of High resistance
The various methods used for the measurement on high voltage include:
1. Megger method
2. Direct deflection method
3. Loss of charge method
4. Megohm bridge method
In this course we will only cover the use of a megger

MEGGER
63
An ordinary ohmmeter cannot be used to measure resistance of multimillions of ohms, such as the resistance cable
insulation. To adequately test the for insulation break down in cable it is necessary to use much high voltage that
that provided by an ohmmeter. This voltage can be generated in a megger. When taking measurements the voltage is
applied between the conductor and the outside surface of an insulator.
The fig. below show a typical layout of a Megger. The handle driven DC generator supplies the high voltage
necessary for measurement of megger ohms of insulation resistances. Thescale indicated the value of resistance been
measured

Coils A and B are mounted of a movable part and have fixed relationship with each other and can freely turn at the
same time when current is applied to them since they are in a magnetic field.Coli A tends to move the pointer in
counter clock wise direction while coil B move it in a clockwise one. Coil B is connected is connected in series with
R’ and Rx (unknown resistor to be measure). The combination of coil B, R’ and Rx forms a series path between
positive and negative the brushes of the DC generator. Coil A is connected is series with R1 and connected across
the generator.
When the leads are open, no current flows in the coil B , but current flows flow coil A and this makes the pointer to
deflect to infinity, which indicated a resistance too large to be measured.
When a material or component with resistance Rx is connected between the terminals A and B, current flows both
coils and coil B also moves this time, making the pointer to move in a clock wise direction, thus making the pointer
deflect a particular value of resistance. The pointer comes to rest at a position where the torques in the coils is equal,
and this position is dependent on the value of resistance of Rx.

If the leads are shorted, The pointer deflects to zero and the current in coil B is larger. This symbolizes too little of
resistance to be measure. R’ is connected in series with coil B to prevent damage of coil by limiting current in it
when leads are shorted.

To avoid excessive voltage produced by over cranking or the generator, most analog meggers are equipped with
friction clutches. When the generator is cranked faster than the rated speed and output voltage is not permitted to
exceed the rated values. The higher the resistance to be measured, the higher the voltage rating of the required
megger.

When the megger is use, the generator voltage is present at the leads. This can be very dangerous, therefore never
touch the leads while using a megger.

To use a megger to determine wiring insulation, connect one test lead to the insulation and another one to the
conductor. After insulating the wiring from the casing of the megger, crank the generator until the clutch slips, and
note the reading on the scale. Normal isolation should not read infinity. Any small resistance insulation break dawn.

64
Galvanometer
A galvanometer is a device used to detect current. With appropriate modifications its can be converted into
ammeter, milli-ammeter or micro ammeter to measure currents in the order Amperes, milliamperes or micro
amperes respectively. Galvanometers can also be converted into voltmeters.

Construction
The construction of the galvanometer consists of a moving coil placed in between a pair of permanent magnet like in
pmmc type of instruments. The only difference is that on its scale the galvanometer has the zero on the centre and
equal distribution on either sides of the zero position as shown below.

Fig
Principle of operation
When current passes through the coil, a torque acts on it and deflects the pointer. The deflection causes the resorting
torque in the spring attached to the two ends of the coil and the coil attains a steady deflation. The point which is
attached to the coil moves on the scale and gives a reading . the deflection forced torque produced in the coil is
given by the expression :
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 sin 𝑃
Where N- Number of turns pf the coil
I – current through the coil
A – Area of the coil
B – Magnetic intensity of the field
𝑃
− 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃 𝑃ℎ𝑃 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃 𝑃ℎ𝑃 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑃
Because of the soft iron put at the core of the coil, the magnetic field is radial, therefore angle between ‘A’ area of
the coil and ‘B’ magnetic intensity is 90°, which is equal to 1.
∴ 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
Just as in PMMC instruments, the controlling torque produced by spring, hence this torque is directly proportion to
the angle of deflection𝑃, of the coil.
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃
k- Torsion (spring) constant of spring.
65
For steady deflection, (at equilibrium) 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃
∴ 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃
𝑃𝑃
Thus 𝑃 = , 𝑃 ∝ 𝑃,
𝑃𝑃𝑃
The scale of the galvanometer can be appropriately calibrated to measure current. To measure very weak currents of
the order10−11 𝑃. The galvanometer with coils suspended by an elastic fiber between appropriately designed
magnetic poles is used.

Conversion of galvanometer into a voltmeter

As stated earlier, a galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter, this is achieved by connecting a high resistance
in series with the instrument, shown in the fig below.

Fig.
The value of the resistance is dependant of the range of the voltmeter. Since the connection is in series, the current
passing through the galvanometer is the same as that in the resistor.
Total resistance of the voltmeter is:
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃 + 𝑃
𝑃
𝑃𝑃 =
𝑃𝑃 + 𝑃
𝑃
𝑃= − 𝑃𝑃
𝑃𝑃
A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by connecting to it a low resistance resistor (shunt) in parallel
with the galvanometer as shown below.

𝑃𝑃
𝑃=( ) ∙ 𝑃𝑃
𝑃 − 𝑃𝑃
Where I is current through instrument
Ig current through galvanometer
Rg resistance of galvanometer
S is the shunt
66
Electronic instruments:
Electronic instruments, mainly electronic voltmeters, used either transistors or vacuum tubes.
The later one is called vacuum tube voltmeter (VTVM) and the first one is called transistor
voltmeter (TVM). In almost all areas of electronics, VTVM has been replaced by TVM because
of their numerous advantages including:
 TVM, due to the absence of a heating element, no warm-up time is required.
 It is easy to carry because of the transistor's low weight.
 VTVM cannot measure the current because of the very high resistance, whereas because
of the low resistance TVM it can measure the current directly from the circuit.
 VTVMs also cannot measure high frequency signals.
The only downside of TVM over VTVM is that TVM has very low input impedance. But using
the FET (field-effect transistor) on the input stage of the voltmeter overcomes this low
impedance problem, because the FET offers an input impedance almost equal to the vacuum
tube.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Digital instrument

Although electronics are usually more expensive than electrical instruments, but are becoming
increasingly popular due to their various advantages over analogue ones, some of the main
advantages are discussed below:
1. Detection of low-level signals. As mentioned above, analog instruments use PMMC
movement for indication. This movement cannot be designed with a full scale sensitivity of less
than 50 mA. Any measurement using PMMC movement must consume a current of 50 mA of
the measured quantity for it to work for a full scale deflection if conventional voltmeters are
used. This would leads to loading effects a. Electronic voltmeter avoid loading errors by
supplying the power required for instrument operation using eternal circuits like amplifiers. The
amplifiers not only supply power for operation, but also allow you to receive low-level signals
that produce a current of less than 50 mA for full scale deflection, which otherwise cannot be
detected in the absence of amplifiers.

2. High input impedance A Conventional PMMC voltmeter is a robust and accurate instrument,
but it has certain drawbacks. The main problem is that it does not have high sensitivity and high
input resistance. It has a sensitivity of 20 kΩ / V with a range of 0-0.5 V and has an input impedance
of only 10 kΩ at its range of 0.5 V, as a result it has a full scale current of 50 mA, which
significantly loads the measured value. In electronics and communication circuits, even this low
current value may be unacceptable due to the fact that these circuits have very low operating
currents. On the other hand, an electronic voltmeter (EVM) can have an input impedance of 10mΩ
to 100mΩ, with the input resistance remaining constant across all ranges rather than different
across different ranges, EVM gives less load effects.
3. Low power consumption. Electronic voltmeters use the amplifying properties of vacuum tubes
and transistors, and therefore the power required for the operation of the instrument can be supplied
from an auxiliary source. Thus, although the circuit whose voltage is measured controls the sensing
element of the voltmeter, the power derived from the measured circuit is very small or even
insignificant. This can be interpreted as a voltmeter circuit with a very high input impedance. This
feature of the electronic voltmeter is indispensable for measuring voltage in many high-resistance
circuits, such as found in communication equipment.
4. high-frequency range the most important feature of electronic voltmeters is that their reaction
can be almost independent of frequency in the extremely wide limits. Some electronic voltmeters
allow you to measure voltage from DC to the frequency of the order of hundreds of MHz. The
high frequency range can also be associated with the low input capacitance of most electronic
devices. The capacity can be of the order of several pF.
67
5. Better resolution: resolution (minimum reading that can be made) of analog instruments is
limited by the space on the scale marking, as well as the ability of the human operator to read such
small deviations on the scale. If the measured value is displayed directly on the LED or Liquid
crystal display (LCD) panel in the digital instrument panel, the resolution of which is determined
only by the resolution of the analog-to-digital Converter (ADC). Using a 12-bit (or higher) ADC
can make a digital instrument such that it is 0.001 V in the 0-5 V range.

6 Storage facilities. Digital instruments have the added benefit of being able to store readings for
later use. Since the displayed value is obtained through the ADC, the digital data can be easily
stored in the microprocessor or in the PC memory. Such storage can only be accessed in analog
instruments using chart recorders, where the pointer has an ink source that continues to mark
values on the roll of moving paper.

7.Accuracy. Since there are very few moving parts (or even non-moving parts) in digital
instruments, they are usually more accurate than analog instruments. Even the human error
associated with reading these instruments is very less, which increases the accuracy of digital
instruments. However, the overall accuracy of the digital instruments will largely depend on the
accuracy of a large number of individual electronic components used to build the instruments.

In addition, digital instruments are more convenient to use because they are easy to read, take up
less space, suitable for mass production, and sometimes less expensive.

Disadvantages of digital tools

1. The impact on noise is more pronounced in digital instruments more than analog instruments.
Analog instruments, due to inertia of moving parts usually remain insensitive to rapid changes in
noise, while digital instruments continue to exhibit unstable fluctuations in the presence of noise.
2. Analog instruments have higher overload capacity than digital instruments. Sensitive electronic
components used in digital instruments are more susceptible to damage in the event of even short-
term overloads.
3. Digital instruments can sometimes lose their reliability and tend to indicate erratic values due
to faulty electronic components of the circuit or damaged display.
4. Digital instruments and their internal electronic components are very sensitive to external
atmospheric conditions. In the case of high humidity and corrosive atmosphere the internal parts
may be damaged and indicate faulty values.

Digital multi-meter

A digital multimeter is an electronic instrument that can accurately measure DC and AC voltage,
current (DC and AC) and resistance. All values other than DC are first converted to an equivalent
DC voltage by a device, and then measured using a digital voltmeter. The flowchart of the digital
multimeter is shown in figure 10.2. The following describes the procedure for the measurement of
various quantities.

68
Figure 10.2. Block diagram of a digital multimeter.

To measure AC voltage, the input voltage is fed via a calibrated compensated attenuator to the
precision full-wave rectifier circuit, followed by a ripple reduction filter. The resulting dc is fed to
the analog digital Converter (ADC) and subsequently to the display system. Many manufacturers
provide the same attenuator for both AC and DC measurements.

To measure the current, the drop across the internal calibrated shunt is measured directly by the
ADC in the " DC current mode ", and after converting the AC to DC in the"AC current mode".
This drop is often in the range of 200 mV (which corresponds to the full scale).

Due to the lack of ac-dc conversion precision, the accuracy in the AC range is usually 0.2 to 0.5%.
In addition, the measurement range is often limited to about 50Hz at the lower frequency, as the
ripple of the rectified signal becomes an insignificant percentage of the display and therefore leads
to an oscillation of the displayed number. At the higher end of the frequency, degradation of the
ADC Converter characteristics limits accuracy. When measuring alternating current, reading is
often the mean or standard value of the unknown current. Sometimes a current and voltage
Converter can also be used to measure the current, as shown in figure 10.3.

The measured current is applied to the summing connection at the input of the operational
amplifier. The current in the IR feedback resistor is equal to the input current IIN due to the very
high input impedance of the operational amplifier. The current IR causes a voltage drop on one of
the resistors, which is proportional to the input current IIN. Different resistors are used for different
ranges.
69
 To measure resistance the digital multimeter operates by measuring the voltage on the external
connected resistance resulting from the passage of current through it from the calibrated internal
current source. Resistance measurement accuracy is 0.1 to 0.5% depending on the accuracy and
stability of the internal current sources. Accuracy can be correct in the highest range, which is
often between 10 and 20 MΩ. In the lowest range, the full scale can be almost equal to> 200 Ohms
with a resolution of about 0.01 Ohms for a 4½ digit digital meter. In this range of resistance
measurement, the effect of load resistance must be carefully studied.
Temperature Rise
The temperature rise of the current transformer's winding when carrying a rated primary current,
at rated frequency and with rated burden, should not exceed the approximate values given in
Table 2.

Table 2 - Limits of Temperature Rise of Windings

Class of Insulation Max Temperature Rise (Deg. Celsius)
All classes immersed in oil 60
All classes immersed in bituminous
50
compound
Y 45
A 60
E 75
B 85
F 110
H 135
If the current transformer is specified for service at altitudes exceeding 100 m and tested at an
altitude below 1000m, limits of the temperature rise given in this table shall be reduced in the
following amounts for each 100 m excess over 1000m
Classification of according to accuracy CTs
1. Measurement CT’S
A criteria for measurement CT is that they should be accurate over its complete range i.e. from
5% to 125% of normal current. Which means that its magnetizing impedance at low current
levels should be very high, which is done in order to accurate measurement of small currents.
Note that due to non-linear nature of B-H curve, magnetizing impedance is not constant but
varies over the CT's operating range. It is not expected to give linear response during large fault
currents.

2. Protection CT’s
In protection type CT’s there is ultimate requirement that these CT’s should have linear response
up to 20 times the rated current, it should be so as that relay could operate accurately. As in case
of measurement CT’s magnetizing impedance is high at low current levels but for protection
grade CT's magnetizing impedance should be maintained to a large value in the range of the
currents of the order of fault currents.

Sometimes CTs can be used for both purposes i.e. for measurement and protection in such cases
it has to be of required accuracy class to satisfy both accuracy conditions of measurement CTs
and protection CTs. In other words, it has to be accurate for both very small and very large
values of current.
Most commonly CT secondary is always rated in range from 1A to 5A.

We are assuming that CT should have linear response but practically it’s not possible as linear
response is dependent on the net burden on the CT secondary. Net impedance on the secondary
side is assumed as the CT burden.

70
If burden increase on CT then this will leads to increase in voltage, if voltage exceeds the set
limits, then the CT core will saturate and hence linear response will be lost.

Thus we see that CT will give linear response up to 20 times the rated current, there is also an
implicit constraint that the CT burden will be kept to a low value. In general, name-plate rating
specifies a voltage limit on the secondary (e.g., 100 V) up to which linear response is expected.
If the CT burden causes this voltage to be exceeded, CT saturation results.

Classification of CTs

CT’s are classified into two types namely:-

Class T CT
Class C CT
Class T CTs

One or more primary turns are wound on a core in Class T CT as Class T CT is a wound type
CT. These CT’s are associated with high leakage flux in the core. Due to these higher leakage
fluxes, the only way to determine CT performance is by test. Standardized performance curves
cannot be used with these types of CTs.

Figure above shows one such tested and calibrated curve for a CT. The letter ‘B' indicates the
burden in ohms to which the CT is subjected. From curve we will see that when when burden is
less than say 0.1 ohms, CT meets the linear performance criterion.

Now you can see from the curve that as the burden increases to 0.5 ohms, the corresponding
linearity criteria is not met till the end. Now when burden is increased to 4 ohm there is high
deviation from linearity.
Thus it is very clear that keep burden as low as possible so as to attain linearity.

Ratio Error:

CT performance Is measured from the ratio error.

Now what is Ration Error?
The ratio error is the percentage deviation in the current magnitude in the secondary from the
desired value.

It can explained as :- Let secondary current is Is, and actual value is Ip/N, where N is nominal
ratio and Ip is the primary current then ratio error is given by Ip/N-Is X100.
Is
When the CT is not saturated ratio error is due to of magnetizing current IE since Ip/N-Is =Ie.

71
Therefore, % ratio error = Ie/IsX100 .

When there is Saturation in CT then coupling between Primary and Secondary get reduced and
Hence large ratio errors are expected in saturation. The current in the secondary is also phase
shifted.

For measurement grade CTs, there are strict performance requirements on phase angle errors
also.
Error in phase angle measurement affects power factor calculation and ultimately real and
reactive power measurements.

It is expected that the ratio error for protection grade CTs will be maintained within +10%.

Class C CT
Class C CT are more accurate CT’s. Where 'C' letter indicates that the leakage flux is
negligible. These type of CT’s are usually bar and window type CT’s.

In such CTs the leakage flux from the core is very small. Performance of such CT’s can be
evaluated from the standard exciting curves.

Ratio error is maintained within for limits for standard operating conditions for such CT’s.

Voltage rating on the secondary is specified on CT’s for which linear response is guaranteed.
For example, a class C CT specification could be as follows: 500:5 C 100.

This tell us that 500:5 is the CT ratio and C indicate that it’s curve will be linear up to 100 times
rated current provided the burden on the secondary is kept below 100/(5X100) = 0.40 ohm.

72
For class C CTs, standard chart for versus excitation current on the secondary side is available.

This provides the protection engineer data to do more exact calculations e.g., in determining
relaying sensitivity.

73