An AP Physics 1 Research:

Fluid Mechanics
By Charles David C. Pelagio
of Yas American Academy
Grade 11H
Fluid Mechanics
AP Physics 1
by Charles David Pelagio

Abstract

As commonly known, matter is anything that exists with entropy. There are three states of such matter.

Fiveable (2024) reviews these states of matter stating that: solids, are matter wherein its individual atoms

are tightly packed and sometimes with a fixed atomic structure but within its physical characteristics, it

has a fixed shape and a fixed volume due to how tightly packed its atoms are. Gases on the other hand

have very spread out atoms from one another, regarding its physical characteristics, it does not have a

fixed shape nor a fixed volume due to some atoms acting independently from one another. Last but not the

least, Liquids(Fluids). Fluids have atoms that are loosely packed but akin to each other, from a physical

standpoint, they have a fixed volume but no fixed shape as they take the shape of the container they are

put in. This study will focus on the physical dynamics and properties of fluids.

Fluid Mechanics is generally speaking, the branch of physics that deals with fluid thermodynamics and

forces that act upon a fluid. Fluid Mechanics, by all means, makes up a big part of the modern world and

conjures novel ideas and studies that challenge the perception of the average human. Fluid mechanics is

not all clear even with the revolutionary technology of today, one such famous example of this is the

Navier-Stokes equation, one of the 7 Millennium problems that still remain unsolved. It tackles the

movement of fluid substances, as it has been solved in 2 dimensions, it still remains a mystery when

subjected to do the third dimension.

Safe to say, fluid mechanics is a broad subject that tackles many things, as Morrison (2013) states, “Fluid

mechanics is a difficult subject”. It is typically not your run of the mill subjects that you would think of in

Physics but since fluid is found in various applications today – concrete, the human body, hydraulic

pistons and more – the egregious importance of fluid mechanics is unmatched.

Scope of Study

The main focus of this research will revolve among these four topics:

1.1 Internal Structure and Density with regards to fluids;

1.2 Pressure with regards to fluids;

1.3 Fluids and Newton’s laws with regards to fluids;

1.4 Fluids and Conservation laws.

Literature and Studies Review

Fluid Mechanics is an extensive topic when in correlation to the real world as prevailing theories– such as

chaos theory and uncertainty principle– provide insight into the limitless likelihoods of studying this

topic, and yet, this research will tackle a more primitive viewpoint on this topic and a more clear cut view

on fluid mechanics that could be explained in a qualitative manner.

1.1 Internal Structure and Density with regards to fluids

As Fiveable (2024) mentioned previously, the volume of a fluid remains the same but the physical shape

of the fluid is dependent on the shape of the contain that the fluid and therefore cannot retain its own

shape. Visualize a person pouring water into a cylinder-shaped glass. The water will take the shape of said

cylinder-shaped glass, but when poured into a wider bowl, the liquid will not take the shape of the

cylinder as mentioned, it will take upon the shape of the wider, concave bowl.

Malenkov (2009) stated that on the molecular scale, fluids have atoms that are more diffused. In other

words, less compact and more free to move. Which allow the atoms of fluids to work together (like

solids) but still be freely enough to move without being independent from each other (like gases). In turn,

this gives fluids the ability to take the shape of its container but have a fixed volume.
Density is an important part of fluid mechanics. As Fiveable (2024) mentions, they are a key

characteristic of fluids. Density is the ratio of mass to volume. The two terms sound similar but as

LaRoche (2023) defines, Mass is the amount of something that is present within a give space whilst

volume is the total size of the space that is holding that mass within it. A great example would be the

same glass of water as previously mentioned. The mass would refer to the mass of the water which could

be 200ml but the volume would refer to the volume of the glass which could be 300ml. Therefore, since

density is the ratio of mass to volume, it can be represented by the formula seen in the image below:

Image 1.1, The formula for density which is taken from https://senecalearning.com/en-GB/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-2-1-density

The letter above that looks like the letter “p” is the greek letter “rho” which represents density. The

lowercase “m” represents mass and the capital “V” represents the volume. Taken into account the

example mentioned beforehand, if the mass of the water in the glass is 200ml and the volume of the glass

is 300ml then the density of the fluid is 0.667.

This means that fluids with higher density have more mass per unit volume than fluids with lower

densities. From an application standpoint, it can predict how fluids react with one another and how they
would behave in different situations. For example, put some oil within a glass of water and the oil will

float to the top which states that water has a higher density than oil, or in scientific terms, water has a

higher mass per unit volume ratio than oil which is what makes the oil seemingly float on top of the water.

Before continuing, the researcher has decided to regard a few key notes that was mentioned by Fiveable

(2024). Fiveable (2024) notes a key property to simplify major concepts in fluid dynamics and that is the

“Ideal Fluid” and the properties that make it so. In order to assist in problems and calculations in fluid

dynamics, as Smith(1998) notes, the ideal fluid must be incompressible; its density should remain

constant under pressure, and has Zero viscosity; implying that it flows without resistance or friction. With

these notes in mind, the research will continue with the same limitations.

1.2 Pressure with regards to Fluids

Pressure is a fundamental aspect in all of physics. As Fiveable (2024) notes, pressure measures how

concentrated a force is on an object. Simply, it’s calculated by dividing force by area and it has a crucial

impact on fluid properties and mechanics. With context to fluids, fluid pressure is reliant on particle

interactions and varies by the depth of a liquid. Understanding the value of pressure within fluids means

the ability to understand the shallowest waters of mangroves to the deepest depths of place like the

mariana trench.

Fiveable (2024) mentions that pressure is a force by unit area ratio. It measures the concentration of force

over an area. This means that the bigger the force and the smaller the area, regarding that the force is over

a small area, then the pressure will be larger and when the force is smaller but the area is big, the force

would be more spread out which leads to a smaller overall pressure.

Force is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction of this magnitude. On the other

hand, pressure is a scalar quantity, this means that it simply has magnitude and no specific orientation of

direction. This property of pressure basically states that pressure is evenly distributed on a surface like of

a solid, but in the context of fluids, it is evenly distributed throughout the whole fluid.

For the sake of the research, are you still reading this? The use of incompressible liquids will remain at

play. These are liquids that have mostly a constant volume and density even when subjected under

pressure. Great examples of these such fluids are water, oil and honey.

Fiveable (2024) puts fluid pressure into the spotlight, mentioning that fluid pressure arises from the

individual interactions of particles among a surface as each particle of its own exerts a miniscule force.

That means that the more particle collisions that happen, the more the pressure with external forces that

affect these particle collision such as velocity, temperature and fluid density.

When discussing fluid pressure, there are three main parts in the general formula that are taken into

account. Fiveable (2024) clearly shows this as these three parts are Absolute Pressure (AP), Reference

Pressure(RP) and Gauge Pressure (GP). Absolute Pressure refers to the total sum of the Reference

Pressure and Gauge Pressure. Reference pressure can be seen in a formula as “P0” and is often

Atmospheric pressure or “Patm” with a constant value of the Earth’s Atmospheric pressure. Gauge pressure

is represented in the equation as “pgh” where “p” refers to the density, the “g” referring to gravity and the

“h” referring to height. A positive gauge pressure refers to pressure above atmospheric pressure and

negative gauge pressure refers to a vacuum or a pressure below the atmospheric pressure.

When discussing vertical fluid pressure, the main pressure to look out for is gauge pressure. It includes

the already mentioned density, gravity, and height all in one equation to calculate gauge pressure. This

pressure increases linearly with depth as height is the only non-constant variable with gravity remaining
constant and density remaining constant while only depending on the liquid density itself. With that in

mind, it means that at the surface of the water, the gauge pressure is zero since the height would be 0, but

the lower you get, the higher the gauge pressure will be on a linear scale.

The applications of this knowledge on pressure allows for well known sea expeditions that are planned

years in advance. Knowing how pressure works in deep depths allow for these expeditions to be manned

or unmanned safely and to gather more information on the ecosystem of the oceans far beyond what the

naked human eye can ever see.

1.3 Fluids and Newton’s Laws with regards to Fluids

Newton’s famous three laws affect all sorts of matter and fluids are no exception to this phenomenon. As

Fiveable (2024) states: like solids, the individual particles of a fluid are affected by Newton’s laws. This

phenomenon is seen in internal and external forces on the fluid and provides insight to another

characteristic of a fluids, buoyancy, or specifically speaking, buoyant force. With all of this combined, the

physics of these work in tandem with Archimedes’ principle.

Fiveable (2024) shines light on the nitty gritty of fluids and Newton’s laws, stating that the laws describe

their acceleration, net force and other interactions. Fluid particles experience forces and accelerations just

like solid objects. Yet, the motion of these particles are also influenced by properties of the fluid and other

particles. Take a flowing river, water particles that are flowing down this river are affected by surrounding

particles, external objects and the properties of the water. Although it is important to note that on the

macroscopic scale of fluids in systems, there are more factors that can play a part in the acceleration and

forces acted upon the particles of the fluid such as gravity, pressure gradients, and surface forces.
A key part of fluid mechanics is the presence of a buoyant force. As Rowland (2006) notes, buoyancy

force is much like an up-thrusted force on an object immersed in a fluid with regards to how pressure

works within the same said fluid. Fiveable (2024) points out that buoyancy force acts vertically upward

on an object that is immersed within a fluid whilst counteracting the object’s weight– the object's weight

is its mass multiplied by gravity which provides a downward force which in this case is buoyancy.

Fiveable(2024) also points out that this upward force of a fluid is caused by the fluid pressure which

increases with depth, which means that the buoyancy force is higher on the bottom of the object than on

the top and the buoyancy force is higher the lower the object is in the fluid. Take a ping pong ball for

example, when placed on the bottom of the pool, it rises up quickly until it reaches the top of the water.

The buoyant force is due to the collective forces of the multiple particles acting upon the immersed

object. As Fiveable (2024) mentions, each fluid particle exerts a force on the object due to the pressure of

the fluid. The net force from all fluid particles on the object’s surface results in the buoyant force.

With all this in mind, Archimedes’ principle plays a big part in a system of a fluid and an object. Clarified

by Learning (2021), the principle states that the buoyant force on an object equals the weight of the fluid

it displaces. With a formula as seen below:

Formula of the buoyancy force with regards to the weight of object immersed within the fluid. https://pressbooks.nscc.ca/heatlightsound/chapter/11-7-archimedes-principle/

The formula includes FB which refers to the buoyant force and wfl, which is the weight of the object

immersed in the fluid but also the weight of the fluid that the object displaces even noting that the

principle is valid in general for any object in any fluid whether partially or totally submerged. The weight

of the displaced fluid can also be calculated by using p; which is fluid density, V; which is the volume of

the displaced fluid, and g; which refers to gravity.

1.4 Fluids and Conservation laws

Fluids and conservation laws are the equivalent of mathematical axioms. Fiveable (2024) points out that

fluids and conservation laws form the backbone of fluid dynamics. It helps to shed light on pressure

difference, continuity equations and energy conservation in fluids as it is crucial to fluid dynamics which,

in turn, helps people analyze real-world systems, be able to predict fluid behaviour (with famous

conjectures/equations like the Navier-Stokes equation) and designing hydraulic systems and more.
Fluids are ubiquitous and multifaceted, but fluids are also very random which requires the need for an

“Ideal” fluid. The next topics will talk about incompressible fluids and their flow.

Fluid flow occurs when there is a pressure difference that exists between two locations, much like a ball

entering a tube and exiting the tube with no changes in the matter of the ball. Cross-sectional area(s) and

fluid speed determines the rate at which matter flows towards a certain direction or location, with larger

areas and faster speeds resulting in higher flow rates. Conservation of mass flow rate between two cross

sectional areas is best described by the continuity equation that can be seen below:

Conservation of mass flow rate within the continuity equation as seen above. https://youtu.be/qKqWWG9qyn8?si=4iApZCThIq1plFy8

The cross-sectional areas can be seen with the use of A1 and A2 , with their respective velocities being V1

and V2 . These same incompressible fluids main constant density, so the volume flow rate remains the

same throughout all points in the system. Narrower cross-sections result in an increased fluid velocity to

maintain the constant flow rate like a pipe that has a bigger diameter on one end and a smaller diameter

on the other end.

Continuity equations for fluids represent mass conservation in fluid dynamics with its own respective

equation as seen below:

Mass equating to density, area and velocity. https://slideplayer.com/slide/6614205/

With regards to an incompressible fluid, density would remain constant so mass flow rate would depend

only on cross sectional area and velocity. This also applies to steady state flow where fluid properties at

any point would remain constant as shown in the image regarding the relationship between to cross

sectional areas.

Fivable (2024) says that there are countless energy differences in fluid flow. Whilst taking into account

that there is a difference in gravitational potential energy between two points in a fluid which lead to

differences in kinetic energy and pressure which are governed by conservation laws. With the above

context mentioned, it is concluded that fluids at a higher elevation has greater gravitational potential

energy compared to fluid at a lower elevation, when the fluid flows downward, gravitational potential

energy converts into kinetic energy which increases the fluid’s velocity. With regards to pressure, pressure

changes with height due to the weight of the fluid column above. Conservation of mechanical energy also

governs the total energy (gravitational poten energy, kinetic energy and pressure) which remains constant

along a streamline in an ideal, steady-state flow like laminar flow. With this taken into account, are you

still reading Mr. Ferguson?

Fiveable (2024) also shows the conservation of mechanical in fluid flow through Bernoulli’s equation that

can be seen in the image below:

Learning all about Bernoulli’s equation and its applications. https://praxilabs.com/en/blog/2022/06/22/bernoulli-equation-and-applications/

The equation includes pressure (P), fluid density (p), gravitational acceleration (g), height (y) and velocity

within two points in a fluid system where each term represents a specific form of energy per unit volume:

pressure energy(P), gravitational potential energy (pgy) and kinetic energy (1/2pv2). The equation is

viable within the limitations of the ideal fluid– steady, incompressible, and inviscid. The equation applies

to various fluid flow scenarios with faster-moving fluid experiencing lower pressure while slower-moving

fluid experiencing higher pressure.

The last axiom-like concept of fluid conservation laws is Torricelli’s theorem. The theorem relates the exit

velocity of a fluid from an opening to the height difference between the opening and the fluid’s surface.

The equation is seen below:

Deriving Torricelli’s law: Pressure, Viscosity and more. https://www.physicsforums.com/threads/deriving-torricellis-law-pressure-viscosity-more.466095/

It is derived from the conservation of energy principles, assuming the usage of an ideal fluid. The exit

velocity (v) depends on gravitational acceleration (g) and height difference (Δy) and can be seen in the

equation: v = sqr(2gΔy). The equation applies to any fluid leaks from tanks or reservoirs and predicts the

speed at which the fluid escapes from a hole in any sort of container and concludes that deeper holes

result in higher exit velocities due to increased gravitational potential energy conversion.

Conclusion

Fluid mechanics is the general basis of fluid dynamics and governs the general laws that provide

limitations in the study of fluid dynamics. The concept of the “Ideal” fluid is akin to other concepts like

general dynamics such as disregarding friction in movement systems or disregarding air resistance in

projectile motion.

It is the various applications of fluid mechanics in our daily lives that proves our understanding of the

world. The applications of fluid mechanics has also extended to gases and how not only solids work in

our world but also how fluids and gases works and a better, conceptual and intellectual understanding of

how the world can be understood in theorems and equations with the help of fluid mechanics.

It extends to applications in quantum mechanics (with quantum field fluctuations) and quantum dynamics

(talking about superposition especially when fluids are used to understand quantum superposition) and

applications to one of the famous millennial problems, the Navier-Stokes equations (with regards to

finding the state of a viscous fluid with relation to its motion). It extends from solving the smallest of

atoms to the biggest of problems and that is simply the beauty of knowledge.
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