PART TWO GCC121 INFORMATION LITERACY LECTURE NOTES

Introduction to Information Literacy

1.1 Defining Information

 Definition: The American Library Association (1987) defines information as:

o “…all ideas, facts, and imaginative works of the mind which have been
communicated, recorded, published and/or distributed formally or informally in
any format.”
 Key Aspects:
o Encompasses a wide range of content (ideas, facts, creative works).
o Includes both formal and informal communication.
o Exists in various formats (print, digital, etc.).

1.2 Definition of Information Literacy

 Core Concept: The ability to recognize when information is needed, and to locate,
evaluate, and use that information effectively.
 Key Definitions:
o Presidential Committee on Information Literacy: “recognize when
information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively
the needed information.”
o The Prague Declaration (2003): expands the definition to include:
 Identifying information needs.
 Understanding information organization.
 Identifying and locating relevant sources.
 Critically evaluating sources.
 Sharing information.
 Knowledge of research techniques.

o Information literacy is the base for lifelong learning.

o Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education
(2000/2004):
 Determining the nature and extent of information needed.
 Accessing needed information effectively and efficiently.
 Evaluating information and its sources critically.
 Using information effectively for a specific purpose.
 Understanding ethical and legal issues surrounding information use.
o Alexandria Proclamation of 2005 (UNESCO):
 Recognizing information needs.
 Locating and evaluating information quality.
  Storing and retrieving information.
 Using information ethically.
 Applying information to create and communicate knowledge.

1.2.1 Importance of Information Literacy in the Contemporary Environment

 Information Overload: Vast amounts of information available in diverse formats.

 Varied Quality: Not all information is reliable or accurate.
 Constant Growth: The volume of information continues to increase.
 Technological Advancements: Rapid evolution of technologies for accessing and
manipulating information.

1.3 Capabilities of an Information Literate Individual

 Effective and efficient information access.

 Critical and competent information evaluation.
 Accurate and creative information use.
 Independent learning and pursuit of personal interests.
 Commitment to excellence in information seeking.

1.4 Differentiating Information Literacy and Information Technology Literacy

| Information Literacy

Information Literacy:

 Focus:
o Emphasizes the ability to find, evaluate, and use information effectively.
o Concerns itself with the content of information, regardless of the format.
o Involves critical thinking, analysis, and synthesis of information.
o Deals with understanding how information is organized, and the ethical and legal
aspects of information use.
 Key Skills:
o Identifying information needs.
o Locating relevant sources.
o Evaluating source credibility.
o Organizing and synthesizing information.
o Using information ethically and legally.
 Broader Perspective:
o It is about the ability to learn.
o it is relavent across all mediums of information.

Information Technology Literacy:

 Focus:
o Emphasizes the ability to use technology tools and systems effectively.
 o Concerns itself with the hardware and software used to access, process, and
communicate information.
o Involves proficiency in using computers, software applications, and digital
devices.
 Key Skills:
o Operating computer systems and software.
o Using digital communication tools.
o Navigating online environments.
o Understanding basic hardware and software concepts.
 Tool Focused:
o It is about the ability to use the tools that allow for the handling of information.
Introduction to the Internet

Introduction:

 The Internet has revolutionized teaching, learning, research, and communication.

 Internet terminology is now commonplace in academic environments.
 Libraries utilize the Internet for access to electronic and print resources.

Objectives:

 Define and differentiate the Internet and the World Wide Web.
 Identify Internet applications and services.
 Highlight Internet uses in academia.

1.1 Definition of the Internet:

 A global system of interconnected computer networks.

 Enables user-to-user communication and data transfer.
 A "network of networks" linking private, public, academic, and business networks.
 Relies on an international telecommunications backbone.
 Decentralized: no central ownership or governing authority.
 Origin: U.S. Defense Department's research data sharing.

1.2 Overview (Brief History):

 Started in the 1960s as a tool for government researchers.

 Early challenges: large, immobile computers; data exchange limitations.
 1969: Stanford and UCLA computers connected, forming the first Internet hosts.
 Cold War influence: Sputnik launch prompted the U.S. to develop resilient
communication systems.
 ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network): precursor to the Internet.
 1983: Official "birthday" of the Internet; adoption of TCP/IP (Transfer Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol).
o TCP/IP enabled different networks to communicate.

1.3 Connecting to the Internet:

 1.3.1. Computer:
o Up-to-date operating system.
o Adequate RAM (e.g., 64 MB minimum).
o Sufficient free disk space (e.g., 10 MB minimum).
o Processor (e.g., 486 or Pentium minimum).
 o Sound card and speakers/headphones.
 1.3.2. Software:
o Connection software (from Internet Service Provider).
o Web browser (e.g., Microsoft Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator, Chrome,
Firefox).
o Plug-ins (for multimedia content).
 1.3.3. Internet Connection:
o Dial-up (modem and telephone line).
o Broadband (dedicated network connection).
o Cable (cable modem and Ethernet card).
o Satellite.
o ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network).
o Wireless (Wi-Fi, etc.).

1.4 The World Wide Web (WWW):

 Most widely used Internet service.

 System of interlinked hypertext documents.
 Accessed via web browsers.
 Consists of:
o Visible/Public Web (search engine-indexed content).
o Invisible/Deep Web (password-protected, database-driven content).
 1.4.1. The Visible or Public Web:
o publicly availible web pages.
o contains various media.
 1.4.2. The Invisible Web or Deep Web:
o Searchable databases.
o Dynamically generated web pages.

1.5 Web Browsers:

 Software for locating and viewing web information.

 Examples: Firefox, Google Chrome, Internet Explorer, Opera.
 4.5.1. Plug-ins:
o Software that extends browser functionality.
o Example: Adobe Acrobat Reader (for PDFs).

1.6 URLs (Uniform Resource Locators):

 Web addresses that point to specific resources.

 Structure: protocol, domain name, file path.
 Example:
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/recordsmanagement/pdf/news_oct03.pdf
 Explanation of URL components.
 Common organizational domains (.com, .edu, .gov, etc.).
 Geographical domains (.uk, .za, etc.).
  Common file extensions (.html, .jpg, .pdf, etc.).

1.7 Websites:

 Collection of web pages.

 1.7.1. Types of Websites:
o Personal websites.
o File-sharing websites.
o Social websites.
o Mobile device websites.
o Blogging websites.
o Informational websites.
o Online business brochure/catalog websites.
o E-commerce websites.

1.8 Internet Services:

 Email.
 Telnet.
 Usenet news.
 LISTSERVs.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol).
 Video conferencing.
 Blogs and wikis.
 Podcasting.
 Internet Relay Chat (IRC).
 Search engines.
 Web 2.0.

1.9 Common Uses of the Internet:

 Communication.
 Information searching.
 Education/e-learning.
 Shopping.
 Entertainment.
 1.9.1. Advantages and Disadvantages of using the Internet.
o A table displaying both advantages and disadvantages.

Key Distinction:

 Internet: hardware infrastructure.

 World Wide Web: software application on the Internet.

Activities and Exercises:

  Steps to start a web browser.
 Creating an email account.
 Email usage exercises.
 Examples of different website types.

Access Tools and Information Retrieval

5.1 Introduction

 There are various access tools available for information retrieval in both print and
electronic formats.
 These include Online Public Access Catalogues (OPACs), search engines, portals,
gateways, databases, institutional repositories, and library websites.
 The main focus is to demonstrate how these tools aid in information retrieval.

5.2 Learning Objectives

1. To define access tools

2. To identify various access tools
3. To be able to formulate a search strategy
4. To retrieve accurate and relevant information based on the access tools

5.3 Library Websites

 Academic library websites mainly function as gateways to sources and resources.

 They resemble characteristics of a portal.
 Using these resources is helpful for studies.
o 5.3.1 The Library Catalogue
 The Library Catalogue is a database of all the information resources in the
library.
 It is a general tool for locating or searching information resources.
 It helps to identify and locate books in the collection, including reference
sources and periodicals.
 The catalogue could be a paper card book or a computerized catalogue,
often referred to as an Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC).
 In most universities, the catalogue is computerized and searchable on the
Internet.
o 5.3.2 Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC)
 The OPAC is an online bibliographic database of all the information
resources in the library.
 These resources include both print and electronic.
 The most basic function of the OPAC is the ability to browse the entire
library collection.
 It can be used to look for something specific or general.
 The default mode is the basic search function, but there is also an
advanced search option.
  The advanced search screen allows one to conduct a multiple term search,
while the basic search only offers one entry box.
 Multiple term searches are helpful if one is searching for something
specific and wants to be as precise as possible.
o 5.3.3 OPAC Search Options
 To search the database, click on Search OPAC, then choose from the
available search points/access points.
 The search options are: Author, Title, Keyword, Journal, ISSN/ISBN, and
Call Number searches.
 (a) Keyword
 Type keyword(s) or phrase(s) and click on Go to search.
 This type of search retrieves the largest number of results
because the system searches all indexes at once.
 For example, the phrase CHEMISTRY will retrieve records
with the words CHEMISTRY in any field, and also the
words in any field in the same record.
 (b) Author
 If one knows the author’s full name, one can conduct an
Author (last name first) search.
 Always enter the author’s last name, followed by the first
name.
 For example, if one wants to search the Online Catalog for
works by Shimmer Chinodya, one would select Author
(last name first) on the drop-down menu and type Chinodya
Shimmer in the search box.
 If no matching author name is found in the catalog, the
system will provide an alphabetical listing of authors
nearest the spelling entered.
 (c) Title
 Each information source has a title which is also used to
locate the information source using the OPAC.
 Select title from the drop-down menu and enter all or part
of the title into the search box.
 (d) Subject
 The subject refers to some form of controlled keyword.
 Librarians use agreed and standardized keywords or
phrases known as subjects or subject headings.
 Enter a subject phrase or a subject word(s) in any order and
select subject from the drop-down menu.
 The system will return records which include the search
term(s) in the subject headings attached to those records.
 If the word(s) or phrase is not found in any subject
headings, the system will return an alphabetical list of
subject headings nearest the spelling entered.
o 5.3.4 Other functions of OPAC
 My Millennium
  Suggest a purchase
 Make a general suggestion
o 5.3.5 Advantages of Using OPAC

1. It is specific, i.e., shows the actual location of the item.

2. It shows the status of the book (is it available or not).
3. It is fast and efficient.
4. It enables you to carry out simultaneous searches.
5. No geographical boundaries (remote access).
6. It enables you to limit your search to a particular section of the library.
 Activity

1. Give a title and ask students to retrieve a class number, location, and status of the
given title.
2. Using their assignments, make students retrieve relevant sources to answer the
question.

5.4 Search Engines

 A web search engine is designed to search for information on the World Wide Web.
 The search results are generally presented in a list of results often referred to as search
engine results pages (SERPs) or hits.
 The information may consist of web pages, images, information, and other types of files.
o 5.4.1 How does a search engine work?
 A search engine operates in the following order:
 Web crawling
 Indexing
 Searching
 Web search engines work by storing information about many web pages,
which they retrieve from the internet.
 These pages are retrieved by a Web crawler (sometimes also known as a
spider)—an automated Web browser which follows every link on the site.
 The contents of each page are then analyzed to determine how it should be
indexed (for example, words can be extracted from the titles, page content,
and headings).
 Data about web pages are stored in an index database for use in later
queries.
 The purpose of an index is to allow information to be found as quickly as
possible.
 When a user enters a query into a search engine (typically by using
keywords), the engine examines its index and provides a listing of best-
matching web pages according to its criteria, usually with a short summary
containing the document's title and sometimes parts of the text.
 NB: It is important to remember that when one is using a search engine,
one is NOT searching the entire web as it exists at this moment. One is
 actually searching a portion of the web, captured in a fixed index created
at an earlier date.
 Popular Known Search Engines
 Google (www.google.com)
 Altavista (www.altavista.com)
 Yahoo (www.yahoo.com)
 Ask (www.ask.com)
 MSN Search (www.msn.com)
 Exalead (www.exalead.com)
 Gigablast (www.gigablast.com)
o 5.4.2 Types of search engine
 Search engines can be classified according to structure, content, and or
size.
 For the purposes of this module, search engines are classified according to
content.
 (a) General Search Engines
 A general search engine is a search engine that covers the
overall Web, using its own spider to collect Web pages for
its own index.
 When to use a general search engine:
 When one has a well-defined topic or idea to
research
 When one’s topic is obscure
 When one is looking for a specific site
 When one wants to search the full text of millions
of Web pages
 When one wants to retrieve a large number of Web
sites on one’s topic
 When one wants to search for particular types of
documents, sites, file types, languages, date last
modified, geographical location, etc.
 Examples of general search engines:
 Google (www.google.com)
 Bing (www.bing.com)
 Yahoo! (www.yahoo.com)
 Gigablast (www.gigablast.com)
 Exalead (www.exalead.com)
 (b) Meta Search Engines
 A Meta search engine searches multiple search engines
from a single search page.
 Meta search engines enable users to enter search criteria
once and access several search engines simultaneously.
 Meta search engines operate on the premise that the Web is
too large for any one search engine to index it all and that
more comprehensive search results can be obtained by
combining the results from several search engines.
  This also may save the user from having to use multiple
search engines separately.
 Meta search engines work in various ways.
 With some, a single, simultaneous search retrieves results
from multiple sources, usually with the duplicates removed.
 Others offer a separate search of multiple content sources,
allowing you to select the source(s) you want for each
search.
 Results retrieved by these engines can be highly relevant,
since they are usually grabbing the first items from the
relevancy-ranked list of results returned by the individual
search engines.
 Keep in mind that complex searches, such as field searches,
are usually not available.
 When to use a meta search engine:
 When one wants to retrieve a relatively small
number of relevant results
 When one’s topic is obscure
 When one is not having luck finding what you want
 When one wants the convenience of searching a
variety of different content sources from one search
page
 Examples of meta search engines:
 DogPile (www.dogpile.com)
 Metacrawler (www.matacrawler.com)
 Search .com (www.search.com)
 Clusty (www.clusty.com)
 Mamma (www.mamma.com)
 (c) Directories
 Directories use subject headings to categorize their
information, e.g., business management could be a heading.
 Examples of web directories are Lycos and Yahoo.
 Directories usually contain links (pointers) to sites that
have got the information one is looking for.
 Examples:
 Yahoo Directory (www.yahoo.com)
 Open Directory (www.dmoz.org)
 Open Science Directory
(www.opensciencedirectory.net/)
 Directory of Institutional Repositories
(www.opendoar.org)
 Directory of Open Access Journals (www.doaj.org)
 (d) Specialist/Vertical Search Engines
 A specialist searches a specific subject, industry, topic, type
of content (e.g., travel, movies, images, blogs, and live
events), piece of data, geographical location, and so on.
  It may help to think of vertical search as a search for a
particular niche.
 Some of this content cannot be found, or is difficult to find,
on general search engines.
 To find a vertical/specialist search engine, one can use a
general search engine and try to find a search site dedicated
to a particular type of content, for example, medical search,
job search, and so on.
 When to use a specialist/vertical search engine:
 When one’s topic is focused on a specific topic,
industry, content type, geographical location,
language, etc.
 When one is having difficulty locating what they
want on general, meta, or concept categorizing
search engines
 Examples of specialist/vertical search engines:
 Health Sciences: PubMed
(www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.pubmed)
 Sciences: World Wide Science
(http://worldwidescience.org)
 Full Text Scholarly articles: Google Scholar
(http://scholar.google.com/schhp?hl=en)
 Images search: Picsearch (www.picsearch.com)
 News search engines: Newslookup.com
(http://www.newslookup.com/)
 Social networking: FriendFeed Search
(http://friendfeed.com/search)
o 5.4.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of using search engines
 Advantages:

1.Best Suited for complex keyword/concept searches

2.Currency of information made possible by regular addition
3.Searches can be limited to a period of time, fields, source type, etc.
4.Currency of information, made possible by regular addition by web
spiders
5. Exhaustive information can be retrieved (with a lot of patience)
 Disadvantages:
1. False positives
2. Dead links/redundant links
3. Spamming
4. Search engines vary in terms of searching techniques
5. Higher ranking of paying sites
6. Time-consuming
 Activities
o What do you think are the advantages of using specialized/vertical search engines
such as Google Scholar?
 o Look up for information on Climate Change on both Google Search Engine and
Google Scholar. What are the differences in the types of sources on these
engines?
o Where would you start looking for search engines specifically for general
reference works?

5.5 Gateways

 Gateways are websites that serve as a single point of access to collections of information
sources and resources or pathways to definite information.
 Portal and gateway are often used interchangeably; however, gateways do not always
have the same features as portals.
o 5.5.1 Common features of a gateway
 Quality controlled catalogues of online resources
 Subject-based entrances to quality assessed internet resources
 Classified subject keywords
 You can browse by subject or search by keyword
 Information gateways are going for online resources what librarians do for
books.
 They are built by humans
o Examples of Gateways
 Language: http://www.ilovelanguages.com/
 Health Information: http://medlineplus.gov
 Sciences information: http://worldwidescience.org/
 WorldWideScience.org is a global science gateway—accelerating
scientific discovery and progress through a multilateral partnership to
enable federated searching of national and international scientific
databases and portals.
 Activity
o Explain why a student should use an information subject-based gateway rather
than a search engine.

5.6 Portals

 A portal is a website that serves as a gateway or a main entry point ('cyber door') on the
internet to a specific field-of-interest or an industry.
 A portal provides at least four essential services:
1. search engine(s)
2. email
3. links to other related sites
4. personalized content.
 It may also provide facilities such as chat, members list, free downloads, etc.

o Examples of Portals
 AOL http://www.aol.com/
 iGoogle http://www.google.com/ig
  HINARI http://www.who.int/hinari/en/
 UNESCO Portals http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-
URL_ID=1501&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html

5.7 Databases

 5.7.1 What is a database?

o A database is a collection of data or information that is stored in records in
electronic format.
o These may be representation of information or they may contain full text of the
source as well.
o Databases are organized in ways that support the finding of information from
books, journal articles people and conferences.
o Records in databases have fields such as title field, author field, and language
field.
o The UZ OPAC is a typical example of an online database.
 5.7.2 Types of Online/Specialized/Research Databases
o Bibliographic Databases
 Bibliographic databases contain records/representations of information
sources.
 It does not include a complete text of the publication.
 A record typically includes the bibliographic information that enables you
to retrieve or trace the information source such as a book.
 Some bibliographic databases also give you an abstract.
 E.g., OPAC
o Full-Text Databases
 A full-text database contains a complete text of journal articles, chapters,
etc.
 When searching full-text databases, you do not need to make any further
effort to trace the publication.
 You can print or save the copy.
 E.g., Springer Link
o Numeric Databases
 These databases provide mostly numeric data (numbers) in chart or table
format.
 In some cases, they provide raw data (survey results, scientific studies,
etc.) that can be downloaded to your computer, so that you can analyze it
and create your own reports.
o Hybrid
 Quite often databases contain more than one data type, such as a
combination of bibliographic records with full-text, or a directory with
multimedia (audio or image files).

5.8 Online Journal

  Online journals are available in electronic format on the WWW and usually on a
subscription basis.
 Some of the online journals can have a print counterpart.
o 5.8.1 Types of Online Journals
 Subscription journals
 Free Open Access (OA) Journals

Search Strategies

 5.10.1 Introduction
o The web is a huge information resource characterized by rapid dissemination of
information, which leads to information overload.
o It is critical to develop searching skills of constructing and refining information
searches in this era of information overload.
o This section covers how information is represented and the principles and
techniques for constructing effective and efficient searches.
o You will learn how to construct a search query by choosing correct search terms
and combining search terms using Boolean logic.
 5.10.2 Search strategy
o A search strategy is a systematic plan of conducting a search.
 5.10.3 Planning your Search
o Before you start to search for information, it is essential to think about what you
want to actually find.
o Taking time to plan your search will improve the accuracy of your search and the
quality of the information you find.
o The primary aim in planning a search is to describe a clear unambiguous question
in order to define the topic.
o The process of planning a search strategy will help clarify your thinking about
your topic, and ensure that you are looking for information appropriate to your
task.
o You are more likely to search efficiently if you take a methodical approach.
 5.10.4 Concept identification
o Retrieval of information involves matching your information needs with the
information that is available in search engines, databases, etc.
o So, when you are searching for information, you are trying to match the words
you are using to describe your information need with the words in a document on
the web.
o If the words in your query do not match the words in the document or document
representation, then the document will not be retrieved or a wrong document will
be retrieved.
o The following is a step-by-step process of conducting a search:
 Step 1: Define your information need
 First, look at the question or project specification you have
chosen/been given and make sure you fully understand it.
  Before you can find any information for your project or question,
you must understand fully what is being asked.
 Are there any unfamiliar terms? If you're not sure about the
meaning of any word, name, place, etc., then look it up before you
start.
 The library has a range of subject dictionaries and encyclopedias
for you to use.
 Alternatively, discuss the project with your friend/Supervisor.
 Example: You have been asked to find information on the topic:
“Health implication on water pollution!”
 Step 2: Identify the main concepts or ideas in your topic
 Once you are sure you know the meaning of the question/project
specification, one of the most important steps is to work out which
are the main words or phrases, known as keywords or key phrases.
 Keywords and key phrases indicate what the project or question is
really about.
 They provide initial search terms for finding information.
 It is important to spot them all if you are going to answer questions
correctly.
 Using the wrong keywords means you will get the wrong
information.
 Not using all the keywords means you will not get enough
information, or you get the wrong type of information.
 When identifying keywords, look for the major concepts, but not
the other, extraneous words used in the original question/topic,
e.g., “investigate,” “cause by,” “compare,” etc.
 Example: Health implications on water pollution?
 Health
 Water
 Pollution
 Diseases
 Rivers
 Contamination
 Step 3: Find alternate words for your main concepts
 Identifying the major concepts is an excellent start, but there’s no
guarantee that the database will have indexed using the words that
you have identified, even if they are on exactly the topic you’re
interested in.
 Therefore, to ensure you find all the information about your topic,
for each concept, you need to identify as many different words and
phrases that might be used to describe it as you can.
 Think of broader terms which will help you find more
general information.
 Think of narrower terms to help you find more specific
information.
  Think of synonyms or related terms to make sure you don't
miss any information by ignoring words that mean the
same or related things.
 N.B. You can use the database Help (look at the Thesaurus,
Controlled Vocabulary, Keywords used in useful articles, etc.)
 Example: a) Health … diseases…. illness…. bacterial infection b)
Water…… Dams……… Rivers…… Wells
 Synonyms and Related Terms
 Thinking of synonyms and related terms makes sure you
don’t miss out on any potentially useful articles, e.g., the
database may have indexed a relevant article using a
different term from the one you initially thought of.
 Not all words have synonyms, e.g., where a term is so
specific it is the only term that can be used to describe the
subject.
 However, most terms have synonyms or related concepts.
 Synonyms include foreign terms or variant
spellings, such as American English.
 They also include technical terms, jargon, or
acronyms.
 Related terms may be branches of the same topic, or can be
similar but quite separate topics.
 These may or may not be relevant, depending on the focus
of your research.
 If you don't take the time to think of all the possible
synonyms or related terms for your subject, you may miss
much relevant information.
 It's a good idea to keep track of all your terms, e.g., in a
structured table or perhaps using a ‘mind-map,’ you would
then decide which of these terms, if any, you want to use.
 5.10.5 Mind Map
o Mind Map is a diagram used to represent words & ideas.
o An image-centered diagram that helps to generate, visualize, structure, and
classify ideas.
o Linked and arranged radially around a central key word or idea (or as branches
stemming from a central key word).
o Represents semantic or other connections between portions of information.
o It encourages a brainstorming approach.
o Helps you identify what you know & classify knowledge.
o Diagram of a mind map (omitted for brevity)
o Mind mapping helps to identify:
 Key terms / phrases associated with ‘problem’
 Broad words / phrases or terms
 Narrow words / phrases or terms
 Link to Synonyms (interchangeable words)
 Alternative spellings
  Plurals, etc.
 Step Four: Creating your search statement
 5.10.6 Truncation and Wildcards
o When you want to search for multiple forms of the same root/stem word, or for
different spellings of words, then you may be able to use truncation/wildcards in
your search statement.
o You will have to check with the individual resources, as symbols,
implementation, and availability will vary, however, commonly * is used to
indicate many characters and ? is used to indicate a single character, e.g.:
 A search for comput* searches for all forms of the word with comput at
the root, including compute, computable, computer, computers,
computing, computation…
 A search for organi?ation, would search for both organisation and
Organization.
 Some resources will truncate terms automatically (e.g., in Inspec ‘auto-
stemming’) which means that a search for ‘management’ will also find
results with managing, managed, manager, manage, managers, etc.
 Remember to de-select this option if this is not what you want.
 5.10.7 Boolean logic
o Search terms may be combined using Boolean logic, so that the most relevant
results are returned.
o Most online catalogs and databases will have a default operator, and if you type in
keywords without specifying an operator/s, it will automatically use the default.
o Three logical commands/operators are available in most search software – OR,
AND, NOT.
o Some databases use other operators, check the Help facilities.
 (i) OR
 The Boolean OR command can be used in the search statement to
expand retrieval by including synonyms and closely related terms.
 OR: Returns results that contain either of the words you enter.
 This may be given as an “any of the words” option.
 (ii) AND
 The AND command is used to narrow search results.
 Each time another concept is added using "and" the search
becomes more specific.
 AND: Returns results that contain all the words you enter.
 This may be given as an “all of the words” option.
 (iii) NOT
 The NOT command is used to exclude unwanted records from
search results.
 It is useful for differentiating two unrelated uses of the same
keyword.
 It can help to explain how these work graphically.
 In the diagrams, below, the box represents all the articles in the
database, whilst circles “a” and “b” represent articles that include
keyword “a” and “b”, respectively.
  Retrieved results are shown in the shaded area.
 Diagram: (Omitted for brevity)
 5.10.8 Phrase searching
o You may also be able to search for an exact phrase.
o This may be done by selecting the “exact phrase” option, or by specifying the
phrase yourself (this is usually denoted by the use of quotation marks).
o “Operating system” – returns records that contain both operating and system
immediately adjacent to each other.
 5.10.9 Stop words
o In order to save space or to speed up searches, most search engines don't store
extremely common words (e.g., the, an, in, etc.).
o These are known as "stop words." If you need to search for a topic that contains
stop words, consult the resource help.
 5.10.10 Your search statement
o It is not often the case that you will have to type in your actual search statement;
rather, you will use the fields available in the search interface to formulate quite
complicated searches.
o Databases come with a range of tools that make preparing thorough searches an
easier task, but there is no standard method by which searchable resources
interpret your search terms.
o This may vary with each resource.
o You should always check with the resource help facilities.
 Step Five - start searching
o What sort of information do I need?
 There are various ways of searching for information on a topic.
 Once you have your search statement/s, it is worth thinking again, exactly
what you are looking for:
 Previous research in the area?
 A range of viewpoints on your topic?
 Work by a particular author?
 A definition?
 Asking yourself these questions can help you to decide what sort of
resource is most appropriate for you to search.
 Furthermore, the nature of your query will determine how you proceed
with your initial search.
 If you know exactly the record/document/article you wish to
retrieve, then using all the information you have will save you time
searching unwanted results.
 Alternatively, if you want an overview of all information relevant
to a certain topic, then it may be beneficial to use no more than two
of your search terms.
 The results from the initial search will be a good indication of how
to proceed.
 Step Six – evaluate your search results
 o As results are retrieved, search statements can be modified to expand retrieval by
including broader terms and related terms or to reduce retrieval by the substitution
of narrower terms, or by using the databases filtering features.
o Every time you run a new search, evaluate the results and improve the search
again.
 5.10.11 Too many articles?
o Use more specific phrases to narrow the search down to exactly what you need.
o Limit your search to restrict retrieval to entries that meet specific requirements.
o E.g., specify which fields the search is performed in, or specify the:
 author name
 journal name
 title
 keywords
 abstract
 full text
 volume
 document type
 issue
 a specific date or date range
o Certain resources will offer more advanced search options, which offer more
features to limit/target your search.
 5.10.12 Too few articles?
o Use some more general search terms or
o Add more synonyms for search terms (use the Thesaurus for help)
o This should give you a much better chance of finding articles with the keyword
you’re looking for.
 Step Seven - saving searches/creating alerts
o Once you are happy with your search results, you may want to save your search.
o This has two possible benefits:
 Next time you visit the resource, you can run your saved search/s. This
will save you time.
 If the resource offers an ‘email alert’ facility, you will automatically be
emailed when new articles, which match your search criteria, have been
added to the database (you will have to register for this service as you will
need to provide details of your email address).
o Each resource will differ, so please consult the Help facility for further guidance.
 Step Eight - taking references
o Note all references in full as you find them, even if you are not sure how useful
they might be.
 Some resources offer a ‘download’ facility, which allows you to export
selected references either as .txt files, or to various reference management
software.
 It may be helpful to familiarize yourself with such software (e.g.,
EndNote).
 o Keep a note of where you find your references - you may need this if you apply
for an inter-library loan or when you want to suggest a book for purchases to the
library.
o If you take a photocopy, make sure that you keep a note of the publication details
(journal title, issue, and volume number) from which it was taken, in case you
wish to cite it.
o It can be very difficult to check back later.
 5.10.13 Points to Remember
o It takes time and effort to find information.
o DO
 Define your subject and your objectives.
 Decide how comprehensive the search will be.
 Do you want everything on your subject?
 Do you require information from a specific time period only?
 Choose the right search tool for your purposes.
 Consult the online Help to produce the best search results.
 Keep a systematic record of the search terms and searches you carry out
and revise your search strategy until you find the information you want.
 Remember that just because an article is on the database, it doesn’t mean
that it is in the Library and that we have access to the full-text online.
 But also, just because a database does not link to the full-text online, does
not mean to say we do not have access to the full-text online – always
check the Library Catalogue if you are unsure, or ask a member of Library
staff.
o DON'T
 Use vague keywords - it will take a very long time to process your query,
and will not give you much targeted results.
 Choosing a more precise topic, and appropriate keywords, will retrieve a
more manageable and targeted set of results.
 Misspell keywords.
 Don't expect to find the information you need if you search for
things like "technical" or "committee."
 Overlook alternative spellings.
 For example, if you want to find out about an American
Organisation, this is likely to be Organization.
 Activity

1. Why is it important to analyze an information need in great detail before

constructing a query?
2. Why is it important to use Boolean operators correctly? What are the implications
of confusing the “AND” and the “OR” operators?
3. What is the best way to truncate the word "computer" in order to search for
variant words: computers, computing, computerized? Give an example of a mind
mapping software.
 5.2 Search Tools in a Document
 o 5.2.1 Table of Contents
 It is a list of the parts of a book or document organized in the order in
which the parts appear in the document.
 The contents usually includes the titles or descriptions of the first-level
headers, such as chapter titles in longer works, and often includes second-
level or section titles within the chapters as well, and occasionally even
third-level titles.
 Printed tables of contents indicate page numbers where each part starts,
while online ones offer links to go to each part.
 In some cases, tables of contents contain a high-quality description of the
chapter's but usually first-level header's section content rather than
subheadings.
 Therefore, the contents page provides an excellent overview of the
usefulness of a book.
 It is helpful not only for pointing to the specific location (pages) where to
get the required information but also for the detailed information on what
the book has.
o 5.2.2 Index
 It is a list of words or phrases ('headings') and associated pointers
('locators') to where useful material relating to that heading can be found
in a document.

Plagiarism, Referencing, and Citation

7.1 Introduction

 Building on Existing Knowledge: University-level academic work involves advancing

knowledge by building upon the work of others.
 Academic Integrity:
o Honesty and accuracy in creating and communicating academic products.
o Trustworthy conduct, including avoiding cheating and misrepresentation.
o The pursuit of scholarly activity in an open, honest, and responsible manner.
o A fundamental guiding principle for all academic activities.
 Focus: This unit emphasizes the legal and ethical aspects of information use.

7.2 Learning Objectives

 Define academic integrity in terms of plagiarism, referencing, and citation.

 Explain the reasons for citing and referencing information.
 Explain what constitutes plagiarism and how to avoid it.
 Elucidate citation and citation styles recommended at the University of Zimbabwe.

7.3 Plagiarism Defined

 Merriam-Webster Definition:
o Stealing and passing off another's ideas or words as one's own.
 o Using another's production without crediting the source.
o Committing literary theft.
o Presenting an existing source's idea or product as new and original.
 University of Manchester Definition:
o "Plagiarism is the theft or use of someone else's work without proper
acknowledgement, presenting the material as if it were one's own."
o "the adoption or reproduction of ideas, words, or statements of another person as
one’s own without proper acknowledgment.” Nova Southeastern University NSU
Law Code, p. 2.
 Other Definitions:
o Dishonesty.
o Lying.
o Stealing someone's idea.
o Cheating.
o Disrespecting oneself and the academic community.
o Copyright infringement.
 MLA Handbook Definition:
o "To use another person’s ideas or expressions in your writing without
acknowledging the source is to plagiarise. Plagiarism, then constitutes intellectual
theft and often carries severe penalties, ranging from failure in a course to
expulsion from the school” [Modern Language Association), from the MLA
handbook for Research Papers, 4th ed.]
 Inadvertent Plagiarism: It's possible to plagiarize unintentionally.
 Conclusion: Plagiarism eliminates intellectual work and is the opposite of critical
thinking.

7.4 Types of Plagiarism

 Two Broad Categories:

o Intentional/Semi-Aware.
o Unintentional/Accidental.
 7.4.1 Unintentional Plagiarism:
o Failure to acknowledge sources unknowingly.
o Reasons:
 Poor understanding of referencing and plagiarism.
 "Surface" conceptions of learning as reproduction.
 Failure to understand the role of academic tasks.
 Carelessness in note-taking.
 Careless paraphrasing.
 Poor documentation.
 Quoting excessively.
 Failure to use your own voice.
 7.4.2 Intentional Plagiarism:
o Failure to acknowledge sources knowingly.
o Reasons:
 Time constraints.
  Perceived ease of plagiarism.
 Poor time management.
 Pressure to succeed.
 Lack of language proficiency.
 Fear of failure.
 Laziness.
 Peer complicity.
 Competitiveness.
 Belief in not being caught.
 Perception of minor consequences.
 Indifference to the course.
 Temptation due to the internet.
 Copying a friend’s work.
 Buying or borrowing papers.
 Cutting and pasting from electronic sources without documentation.

7.5 Types of Plagiarism (Specific Examples)

 7.5.1 Copy and Paste: Direct copying without citation.

 7.5.2 Style Plagiarism: Mimicking the source's sentence or paragraph structure.
 7.5.3 Word Switch: Changing a few words without proper citation.
 7.5.4 Metaphor Plagiarism: Using another's metaphors without credit.
 7.5.5 Idea Plagiarism: Failing to attribute an author's ideas.
 7.5.6 "The Potluck Paper": Combining content from multiple sources with minor
adjustments.
 7.5.7 "The Poor Disguise": Changing keywords and phrases but retaining the source's
content.
 7.5.8 "The Labour of Laziness": Paraphrasing extensively instead of creating original
work.
 7.5.9 "The Self-Stealer": Reusing one's own previous work without permission.
 7.5.10 "The Forgotten Footnote": Omitting specific source information.
 7.5.11 "The Misinformer": Providing inaccurate source information.
 7.5.12 "The Too-Perfect Paraphrase": Citing the source but not using quotation marks
for direct quotes.
 7.5.13 "The Resourceful Citer": Citing all sources but lacking original work.

7.6 How to Avoid Plagiarism

 Start with your own research questions or thesis.

 Keep accurate records of sources.
 Avoid excessive quoting.
 Understand how to quote, paraphrase, and summarize.
 Do not use sources you don't understand.
 Use a consistent citation style.
 Review your work for potential plagiarism.
 Cite sources when in doubt.
  Good note taking.
 Keep bibliography current.
 Number bibliography items, and link to notes.

7.7 Referencing

 7.7.1 What is Referencing?

o Acknowledging the sources used in your work.
o Enabling readers to locate original materials.
o Accuracy and consistency are crucial.
 7.7.2 References are Used to:
o Enable source location.
o Support arguments and provide credibility.
o Show the scope of research.
o Acknowledge sources to avoid plagiarism.

7.8 Citation

 7.8.1 What is a Citation?

o A reference to a published work or source.
o Provides identifying information.
 7.8.2 Why Cite Sources?
o To learn from others.
o To formulate opinions.
o To support ideas.
o To show prior work.
o To give credit to authors.
o To allow readers to find sources.
o To inform lecturers of your process.
o To avoid plagiarism and copyright infringement.
 7.8.3 What to Cite:
o Other's ideas or words.
o Direct quotes.
o Paraphrases and summaries.
o Secondary sources.

7.9 Media and Images

 Cite images and videos.

 Obtain permission when necessary.
 Respect copyright.

7.10 What NOT to Cite

 Your own work.

 Common knowledge.
  Knowledge common to the field.
 Common expressions.

7.11 How to Cite

 Use the title page for reference details.

 Only include edition info when it is not the first edition.
 7.11.1 Components of a standard citation.
 7.11.2 The basic components of a citation.
o Books: Author (or editor), (Year) Title, Publisher, Place of publication.
o Journal Articles: Author, Year, Article Title, Journal Title, Volume No., Issue
No., Pages.
o Web sites: Author (or Company or Organisation), web page Title, URL, Date
(posted or revisited) Date retrieved.
o Images: Artist name, Title of the work, Date it was created, repository (or
museum or owner) City or country of origin, Dimensions of the work, Material or
Medium.
o Image in book, provide book citation and page number.
o Online image, web citation and image identifier.

7.12 Citation Styles

 Various styles exist (APA, MLA, Chicago, Harvard).

 Consistency is crucial.
 Examples of each style are provided, with formating for books, journals, and websites