Data Communication and Networking

Data communications is the transfer of computer information from one location to another using
electrical or optical systems, known as data communications networks.
 Data communications networks collect data from devices like microcomputers and send it
to a central server, which can be a more powerful computer. They can also send data back
to the devices or perform a mix of both.
Benefits:
 These networks enhance the efficiency of computer use and improve business operations
by enabling faster information flow.
 They also support various communication services, allowing users to interact through
email, chat, and video streaming.

Basic Components:
 Server (Host Computer): This is where data and software are stored. It could be a
microcomputer or a mainframe. The server provides the resources that clients need to
access.
 Client: This is the user’s device (like a microcomputer or terminal) that allows people to
access the network and the server's data and applications.
 Circuit: This is the pathway through which messages travel. It can be a cable (like
copper or fiber-optic) or wireless transmission.

Types of networks based on their geographic scope

1. Local Area Networks (LANs):
 LANs cover a small geographic area, like a single building or campus.
 They are used to connect computers and devices within close proximity, allowing for fast
communication and resource sharing.

2. Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs):

 MANs cover a larger area than LANs but are smaller than WANs, typically a city or a
large campus.
 They are designed to connect multiple LANs within a specific geographic area.
 3. Wide Area Networks (WANs):
 WANs cover large geographic areas, potentially spanning cities, countries, or even
continents.
 They connect multiple LANs and MANs, allowing for communication over long
distances.

NETWORK MODELS
All data communications networks serve the same fundamental purpose: to transfer messages
from a sender to a receiver. However, different networks can use various hardware and software
to achieve this.

Layered Approach:
 Data communications networks can be analyzed using a layered approach, allowing
different hardware and software to work together efficiently.
 To effectively manage the complexity of networks, we can break down communication
functions into layers.
 Each layer can be defined separately, allowing different vendors to create hardware and
software for specific layers.
 By organizing networks into layers, different pieces of hardware and software can work
together seamlessly, contributing to the overall functionality of the network.

The two most important network models are:

o Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model:
o Internet Model / TCP/IP Model

Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model (OSI Model)

A theoretical framework that defines seven layers of network functions, from physical
connections to application-level interactions.
The OSI model is a framework that standardizes how different networking systems communicate
with each other. It was developed in the late 1970s by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) to create common standards for computer-to-computer communication.
Layer 1: Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for transmitting raw data bits (0s and 1s) over a communication
medium.

Key Functions:
 It defines how bits are sent across the network, including:
o The voltage levels representing 0s and 1s.
o The speed of transmission (how many bits can be sent per second).
o The physical characteristics of cables and connectors used (like types of wires
and plugs).

 Physical layer technologies include Ethernet cables, fiber-optic cables, and wireless
transmission methods.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer

The data link layer ensures reliable communication over the physical layer by managing how
data is packaged and transmitted.
Key Functions:
 Error Management: It transforms the raw bit stream from the physical layer into a
format that is free from transmission errors for the layers above. This includes:
o Error Detection and Correction: Identifying and fixing issues with damaged,
lost, or duplicate messages.
 Message Framing: It defines where messages begin and end, creating boundaries for
data packets.
 Flow Control: It manages how devices communicate to prevent collisions, ensuring that
only one device transmits at a time.

Protocols at this layer include Ethernet for wired connections and Wi-Fi for wireless
connections.

Layer 3: Network Layer

The network layer is responsible for routing data between devices across multiple networks.
Key Functions:
  Routing: It determines the best path for a message to travel from the sender to the
receiver, considering factors like network congestion and distance.
 Addressing: It assigns logical addresses (like IP addresses) to devices and can translate
these addresses to ensure the data reaches the correct destination.
Common protocols at this layer include Internet Protocol (IP) for addressing and routing packets
across the internet.

Layer 4: Transport Layer

The transport layer ensures reliable communication between the sender and receiver by
managing data transfer sessions.
Key Functions:
 Connection Management: It establishes, maintains, and terminates logical connections
for data transfer between devices.
 Segmentation: If a large message needs to be sent, it breaks it down into smaller packets
for easier transmission.
 Packet Tracking: It ensures all packets are received and reassembled correctly at the
destination, eliminating duplicates.
 Flow Control: It regulates the data flow to prevent overwhelming the receiving device
with too many messages at once.
 Error Checking: While primary error control is handled by the data link layer, the
transport layer can also perform error checks.
Common protocols at this layer include Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which provides
reliable communication, and User Datagram Protocol (UDP), which is faster but less reliable.

Layer 5: Session Layer

 The session layer manages and controls the sessions between applications on different
devices, ensuring they can communicate effectively.
Key Functions:
 Session Management: It establishes, maintains, and terminates sessions, which are
ongoing interactions between applications.
 Service Arrangement: It ensures that necessary services (like logging in, file transfers,
and security checks) are set up for the session participants.
  Orderly Termination: It provides a structured way to end sessions and can also allow
for premature termination if needed.
 Error Recovery: It may include redundancy features to help recover from issues that
disrupt the transport layer connection.
 Session Accounting: It keeps track of session usage to ensure the correct parties are
billed for services used.
Common protocols at this layer include NetBIOS and RPC (Remote Procedure Call), which
facilitate communication between applications.

Layer 6: Presentation Layer

The presentation layer prepares data for the user, ensuring it’s in a readable and usable
format regardless of the underlying systems.
Key Functions:
 Data Formatting: It formats data so that applications can present it correctly to users,
accommodating different types of devices and interfaces.
 Data Translation: It translates between different data formats (e.g., converting a text file
to a different character encoding).
 Data Compression: It compresses data to reduce size for faster transmission and storage.
 Encryption: It may handle encryption to secure data before it’s sent over the network.
Common formats and protocols include JPEG for images, ASCII for text, and SSL/TLS for
secure data transmission.

Layer 7: Application Layer

The application layer is the interface through which users access network services and
applications.
Key Functions:
 User Interface: It provides the tools and utilities needed for application programs to
communicate over the network.
 Message Handling: Each application determines how to send messages and what actions
to take when messages are received.
 Network Services: It includes various network-specific applications, such as those for
monitoring network performance and managing network resources.
Common protocols at this layer include HTTP (for web browsing), SMTP (for email), and FTP
(for file transfer).
Data Transmission
Data transmission is the process of sending digital or analog data over communication channels
like wires, radio waves, or fiber optics. It enables communication between devices, typically in a
network. Transmission methods vary depending on the medium, the nature of the data, and the
required speed or distance.

Types of Data Transmission

1. Analog Transmission:
o Involves the transmission of continuous signals, which vary in amplitude, frequency,
or phase.
o Used in traditional telephony, radio broadcasting, etc.

NB:
Amplitude (in relation to signals) is the height or strength of a signal. It is height of the
wave (from the middle to the top or bottom). It shows how strong or intense the signal is .
It is the maximum distance the wave moves from its resting position. Higher amplitude
means a stronger signal, while lower amplitude means a weaker signal.
Frequency: How many waves pass a point in a second. Frequency is how many times a
signal repeats in one second. Higher frequency means more cycles per second, and lower
frequency means fewer cycles. It’s a key factor in determining the speed of data
transmission in communication systems.
A wave is a movement that carries energy through space or matter.

2. Digital Transmission:
o Involves discrete signals (bits: 0s and 1s).
o More noise-resistant and widely used in modern communication systems like the
internet.
Transmission Modes
Transmission mode refers to the way data is transferred between devices in a communication
system
1. Simplex:
o One-way communication. Data flows in only one direction (e.g., TV
broadcasting).
2. Half-Duplex:
o Two-way communication, but only one party can transmit at a time (e.g., walkie-
talkies).
3. Full-Duplex:
o Simultaneous two-way communication. Both parties can transmit and receive at
the same time (e.g., telephone).

Transmission Media
Transmission media are the physical pathways that carry data from one device to another in a
communication system. They can be categorized into two main types:
Guided Transmission Media (Wired)
Guided media use physical pathways to transmit data, allowing for controlled and direct
communication. Common types include:
1. Twisted Pair Cable:
o Consists of pairs of wires twisted together.
o Commonly used in telephone lines and local area networks (LANs).
2. Coaxial Cable:
o Contains a central conductor, an insulating layer, a metallic shield, and an outer
cover.
o Used for cable television and broadband internet.
3. Fiber Optic Cable:
o Transmits data as light through thin strands of glass or plastic.
 o Offers high-speed data transfer and is resistant to electromagnetic interference.

Unguided Transmission Media (Wireless)

Unguided media transmit data without physical pathways, using electromagnetic waves to carry
signals through the air. Common types include:
1. Radio Waves:
o Used for various wireless communications, including Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and
mobile networks.
2. Microwaves:
o Used for point-to-point communication and satellite transmissions, typically in a
line-of-sight configuration.
3. Infrared:
o Used for short-range communications, such as remote controls and some wireless
devices.

Twisted Pair Cable

Twisted pair cable is a type of electrical cable that consists of pairs of insulated copper wires
twisted together.
It is primarily used for transmitting data and voice in telecommunication and computer
networking.
 It typically consists of four pairs, with each pair twisted to reduce electromagnetic
interference (EMI).
 Each wire is insulated to prevent crosstalk and interference from other cables.
Types of Twisted Pair Cable
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): No additional shielding; used in most LANs.
2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Has a shield to protect against EMI; used in environments
with high interference.

Categories of Twisted Pair Cables

 Category 1: Voice communication (e.g., telephone).
  Category 2: Data transmission up to 4 Mbps.
 Category 3: Used for 10 Mbps networks (e.g., 10BASE-T Ethernet).
 Category 4: Supports data rates up to 16 Mbps.
 Category 5: Supports data rates up to 100 Mbps (e.g., 100BASE-T Ethernet).
 Category 5e: Supports data transmission speeds up to 1000 Mbps (1 Gbps). Enhanced
version of Cat 5; reduces crosstalk
 Category 6: Supports up to 10 Gbps for short distances.
 Category 6a: Augmented version of Cat 6; supports 10 Gbps over longer distances.
 Category 7: Supports high-speed data rates up to 10 Gbps with shielding for each pair.

Advantages
 Cost-Effective: Generally cheaper than other types of cables, like coaxial or fiber optic.
 Easy Installation: Flexible and easy to work with, making installation straightforward.
 Compatibility: Works well with a variety of networking technologies (e.g., Ethernet).

Disadvantages
 Limited Bandwidth: Not suitable for long-distance high-speed data transmission.
 Susceptible to Interference: Especially UTP, which can be affected by external
electromagnetic interference.
 Distance Limitations: Signal quality diminishes over long distances (typically over 100
meters, (328 feet) for Ethernet).

Applications
 Local Area Networks (LANs): Commonly used in Ethernet networks.
 Telephone Systems: Used in traditional telephone lines.
 Data Centers: Interconnecting devices within a limited area.

RJ-45 Pin Configuration for Twisted Pair Cables

The RJ-45 connector is widely used for Ethernet networking and is designed to accommodate
twisted pair cables. Below is the pinout for the RJ-45 connector, showing the arrangement of
wires according to the T568A and T568B standards.

Pairing: Pins 1 and 2 form one pair (for transmitting data), while pins 3 and 6 form another pair
(for receiving data).
Usage: The unused pins (4, 5, 7, and 8) are not typically used in standard 10/100 Mbps Ethernet
networks but can be used for other purposes or higher-speed connections.

Straight-Through and Crossover Cables

Straight-through and crossover cables are types of Ethernet cables used to connect devices in a
network. They differ in their wiring configuration and applications. Here’s a detailed
comparison:

1. Straight-Through Cable

Definition:

A straight-through cable has the same wiring configuration on both ends, following either the
T568A or T568B standard.

Pin Configuration:

 Both ends are wired according to the same standard (T568A or T568B).

Uses:

 Connecting Different Devices:

o Used to connect devices of different types, such as:
 Computer to Switch: Connecting a PC or laptop to a network switch or
hub.
 Router to Switch: Connecting a router to a switch or hub.
 Access Point to Switch: Connecting a wireless access point to a switch.

2. Crossover Cable

Definition:

A crossover cable has a different wiring configuration at each end, allowing the transmission and
receiving pairs to connect directly to each other.

Pin Configuration:

 One end is wired as T568A, and the other end is wired as T568B.

Uses:

 Connecting Similar Devices:

o Used to connect devices of the same type, such as:
 Computer to Computer: Connecting two computers directly without a
switch or hub.
 Switch to Switch: Connecting two network switches directly.
 Router to Router: Connecting two routers directly.