CE3240 Data Communication and Networks

Week 6

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Bandwidth Utilization
➢ In real life, we have links with limited bandwidths.
➢ Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of available bandwidth to achieve
specific goals.
➢ However, the meaning of “wise” may depend on the application.
➢ Sometimes we need to combine several low-bandwidth channels to
make use of one channel with a larger bandwidth.
➢ Sometimes we need to expand the bandwidth of a channel to achieve
goals such as privacy and antijamming.
➢ Thus, the two broad categories of bandwidth utilization are:
multiplexing and spreading.

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Multiplexing

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Multiplexing
➢ Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is greater
than the band width needs of the devices, the link can be shared.
➢ Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous
transmission of multiple signals across a single data link.
➢ Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX)
that combines n input lines to generate a single output line i.e. many-
to-one.
➢ Demultiplexing is the reverse process of multiplexing achieved by
using a device called demultiplexer (DEMUX) i.e. one-to-many.

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 ➢ In a multiplexed system, n lines share the bandwidth of one link.
➢ Link refers to the physical path, channel refers to the portion of a link that
carries a transmission between a given pair of lines.
➢ The ‘n’ input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and multiplexer
combines to form a composite signals.

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Categories of multiplexing

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
➢ Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technique that can be applied when
the bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the combined bandwidths of the signals
to be transmitted.
➢ In FDM, signals generated by each sending device modulate different carrier
frequencies.
➢ These modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that can be
transported by the link.
➢ Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to accommodate the
modulated signal.
➢ These bandwidth ranges are the channels through which the various signals travel.
➢ Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth-guard bands-to prevent
signals from overlapping.

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
➢Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to accommodate the modulated signal.
➢These bandwidth ranges are the channels through which the various signals travel.
➢Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth-guard bands-to prevent signals from
overlapping.

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Demultiplexing

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM)
➢ In WDM different signals are optical or light signals that are transmitted through optical
fiber.
➢ Various light waves from different sources are combined to form a composite light
signal that is transmitted across the channel to the receiver.
➢ At the receiver side, this composite light signal is broken into different light waves by
Demultiplexer.
➢ This combining and the splitting of light waves is done by using a PRISM.
➢ Very narrow bands of light from different sources are combined to make a wider band of
light.
➢ At the receiver, the signals are separated by the demultiplexer.

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Wavelength-Division Multiplexing and
Demultiplexing

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
➢ A multiplexing technique by which multiple data signals can be
transmitted over a common communication channel in different time
slots is known as Time Division Multiplexing (TDM).
➢ It allows the division of the overall time domain into various fixed length
time slots is known as time slot or slice.
➢ The users get complete channel bandwidth to send signals but for a
fixed time slot.
➢ Here the time domain is divided into several recurrent slots of fixed
length, and each signal is allotted a time slot on a round-robin basis.

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Time-Division Multiplexing and
Demultiplexing

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Transmission Media

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Transmission Media
➢ Transmission media is a pathway that carries the information from sender to receiver.
➢ We use different types of cables or waves to transmit data.
➢ Data is transmitted normally through electrical or electromagnetic signals.
➢ Transmission media are located below the physical layer.
➢ Computers use signals to represent data.
➢ Signals are transmitted in form of electromagnetic energy.

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Classification of Transmission media

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Guided Media

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Twisted-pair cable
➢ A twisted pair consists of two conductors
➢ Copper based with plastic insulation, twisted together.
➢ Provide protection against cross talk or interference (noise).
➢ One wire use to carry signals to the receiver
➢ Second wire used as a ground reference
➢ Number of twists per unit length determines the quality of cable.

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Twisted-pair cable
➢ In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires,
interference (noise) and crosstalk may affect both wires and create
unwanted signals.
➢ If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not
the same in both wires because they are at different locations relative to
the noise or crosstalk sources (e,g., one is closer and the other is
farther).
➢ This results in a difference at the receiver.
➢ By twisting the pairs, a balance is maintained.

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Twisted-pair cable categories

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 UTP versus STP
➢ The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is
referred to as unshielded twisted-pair (UTP).
➢ STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh covering that encases each
pair of insulated conductors.
➢ Although metal casing improves the quality of cable by preventing the
penetration of noise or crosstalk, it is bulkier and more expensive.

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Coaxial Cable
➢ Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than
those in twisted pair cable, in part because the two media are
constructed quite differently.
➢ Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid
or stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath,
which is, in turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a
combination of the two.
➢ The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and
as the second conductor, which completes the circuit.
➢ This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the
whole cable is protected by a plastic.

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Coaxial Cable

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Fiber-Optic Cable
➢ A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in
the form of light.
➢ Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single
uniform substance.
➢ If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters another
substance (of a different density), the ray changes direction.

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Unguided Media

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Unguided Media: Wireless
➢ Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a
physical conductor.
➢ This type of communication is often referred to as wireless
communication.
➢ Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus are
available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving them.

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Wireless Transmission Waves

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Radio Wave
➢ Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and
television, and paging systems.
➢ Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1
GHz are normally called radio waves.
➢ However, the behavior of the waves, rather than the frequencies, is a
better criterion for classification.
➢ Radio waves, for the most part, are omnidirectional.
➢ When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all
directions.
➢ This means that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be
aligned.

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Omnidirectional Antenna
➢ Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send out signals in all
directions.

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Microwaves
➢ Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as cellular
telephones, satellite networks, and wireless LANs.
➢ Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are
called microwaves.
➢ Microwaves are unidirectional.
➢ When an antenna transmits microwave waves, they can be narrowly
focused.
➢ This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned.

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Characteristics of microwave propagation
➢ Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the
mounted antennas need to be in direct sight of each other, towers that
are far apart need to be very tall. The curvature of the earth as well as
other blocking obstacles do not allow two short towers to communicate
by using microwaves. Repeaters are often needed for long distance
communication.
➢ Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This
characteristic can be a disadvantage if receivers are inside buildings.
➢ The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz. Therefore,
wider sub-bands can be assigned, and a high data rate is possible
➢ Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from authorities.

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Unidirectional Antenna
➢ Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out signals in one
direction.
➢ Two types of antennas are used for microwave communications: the
parabolic dish and the horn.

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

 Infrared
➢ Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths from 1 mm to
770 nm), can be used for short-range communication.
➢ Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls.
➢ This advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one system and
another; a short-range communication system in one room cannot be affected by
another system in the next room.
➢ When we use our infrared remote control, we do not interfere with the use of the
remote by our neighbors.
➢ However, this same characteristic makes infrared signals useless for long-range
communication.
➢ In addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside a building because the sun's rays
contain infrared waves that can interfere with the communication.

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali

CE3240 Data Communication and Networks Engr. Zaib Un Nisa Ali