On the basis of the latest new syllabus of SEE

Illustrated

OPTIONAL
MATHEMATICS
8
Author
Ashok Dangol
M.Ed. (Maths), TU

Allied Publication Pvt. Ltd.

Sitapaila, Kathmandu, Nepal
Ph. No.: 01-4288827
Illustrated
OPTIONAL MATHEMATICS
Class 8

No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted by any means (electronic,

photocopy, recording or otherwise) without prior written permission from the author. Any
breach of this condition will entail legal action and prosecution.

Special Thanks : Arjun Maharjan

Hari Ram Dangol

Contributors : Binod Kumar Yadav

Santosh Gupta
Med Nath Sapkota
Ghan Shyam Datta Joshi

Copyright © : The Publisher

First Edition : 2073

Second Edition : 2074 (Reprint)

Third Edition : 2075 (Revised and updated)

Book Layout : icon Design House (9849098999)

Printed at : Nepal
Preface

Illustrated Optional Mathematics is a textbook of Optional Mathematics for class 8. It

covers the latest syllabus prepared by CDC/GON (2074). It fully covers the basic knowledge
for the upper classes' optional mathematics on the basis of the latest syllabus prepared by
CDC/GON (2074). It has been designed with a new approach for the students of English
Medium private and public schools. This book is the product of my many years teaching
experience in secondary, higher secondary and college mathematics. I have also followed
the suggestions of my respectable teacher Dr. H. B. Maharjan, Professor in the Department
of Mathematics Education, Central Department of Education, University Campus, TU,
Kirtipur, Nepal. It is expected that this book will be beneficial to both teachers and students.

Unique Features of this book:

This book focuses on students’ activities and facilitates teachers for planning
teaching leaning activities.
Two colours have been well arranged in presenting Units, Lesson, Topics, Illustrated
Examples, Exercise and Answers, etc.
Every unit begins with specific objectives to be learned knowledge, skill, etc. from
the entire unit by the students, the content details of the unit in the title of What do
you learn and pre-requisite and refreshment of topic studied in previous classes to
forward the unit in the title of Are you ready? for test construction or frame work
of question pattern.
Each topic of each unit starts with Learning Objectives that inform to the students
about the learning targets that will change their behaviour positively.
Systematic step by step cleared presentation with simple language back up with
reasonable and diagrammatic suitable examples for each topic according to the
pre-knowledge of the students.
Important terms, definitions, formulae, rules, principles, and key points are
highlighted with colour.
Sufficiently all types of Illustrated Examples from simple to complex with suitable
figures and reasons have been worked out in each topic with guidelines.
Each Exercise has been arranged with the parallel questions and problems from
simple to complex order systematically.
Answers are provided at the end of each exercise.
In Yellow Pages:
Glossary, the word bank with meaning of important mathematical and technical
words, list of formulae, definitions, principles, key points, are included for facilitating
students to revise the chapter.
Home Assignment with Project Work exercise paper as self-practice to the students
at home or work in group.
Sample Unit Test papers of the full mark 20/24 according as lesson weightage are
provided at the end of the book that is easily put out to test the students' ability.
A set of Model Question is provided.
Students' CAS Record Form has been included to record the students' activities and
improvements in the classroom under Continuous Assignment System (CAS).
It is very much hoped that with all these above features, this book will be found really fruitful
to the teachers and students alike. Also, I hope this book will support to fulfil partially the
General Objectives of Basic Level Education (BLE) in mathematics.

My thanks to all members of Allied Publication Pvt. Ltd., Kathmandu, Nepal for the
publication of this book. I would like to extend my sincere thanks to the teachers and the
students who helped me to verify the answers and to check the manuscript of this book and
Mr. Nareshwar Gautam for language correction and Prof. Dr. Hira Bahadur Maharjan
and Prof. Dr. Lekhnath Sharma for editing and genuine cooperation for the successful
completion of this book. Moreover, much more thanks to the all teachers, students, and
Mr. Phadindra Phuyal who gave me valuable suggestions for the correction and revision. I
do not forget to confer sincere gratitude to respectable teacher L. Mr. Nanda Kumar Joshi
and Mr. Shree Prasad Koirala, who inspired me to devote myself to show the needs of
Mathematics in Education faculty in higher level.
Finally, any criticisms and suggestions from the readers will be furnished gladly so that it
may appear with revised form in the coming editions and will be gratefully and thankfully
acknowledged and honoured.

2074 Falgun 17
Facebook: ashokdangol37@yahoo.com
Author
 Illustrated Optional Mathematics - 8 Author: Ashok Dangol

CONTENTS

UNIT-1: ALGEBRA 1
1.1 Ordered Pair and Cartesian Product 2
1.1 (A) Ordered Pair 2
1.1 (B) Cartesian Product of Two Sets 4
1.2 Relation 8
1.2 (A) Introduction 8
1.2 (B) Methods of Representation of Relation 13
1.3 Function 17
1.3 (A) Introduction 17
1.3 (B) Methods Representation of Function 22
1.4 Polynomial 25
1.4 (A) Introduction 25
1.4 (B) Operations on Polynomials 28
1.5 Sequence and Series 39
UNIT-2: LIMIT 47
2.1 Numerical Sequence 48
2.2 Sum of Infinite Series 53
2.3 Limit of Function 56
UNIT-3: MATRIX 59
3.1 Basics of Matrix 60
3.1 (A) Introduction 60
3.1 (B) Types of Matrices 64
3.2 Operations on Matrices 67
3.2 (A) Addition, Subtraction and Scalar Multiplication of Matrix 67
3.2 (B) Transpose of Matrix 71
UNIT-4: COORDINATE GEOMETRY 73
4.1 Distance Between Two Points 74
4.1 (A) Introduction 74
4.1 (B) Distance Formula 78
4.1 (C) Applications of Distance Formula 82
4.2 Locus 85
4.3 Section Formulae 89
4.4 Equation of Straight Line 94
4.4 (A) Slope or Gradient of Straight Line 94
4.4 (B) Equation of Straight Line 98
UNIT-5: TRIGONOMETRY 101
5.1 Measurement of Angle 102
5.1 (A) Introduction 102
5.1 (B) Centesimal System (Grade Measure) 106
5.1 (C) Circular System (Radian Measure) 111
5.2 Trigonometric Ratios 116
5.2 (A) Trigonometric Ratios 116
5.2 (B) Relation between Trigonometric Ratios 121
5.2 (C) Trigonometric Identities 126
5. 2 (D) Values of Trigonometric Ratios of Standard Angles 129
5.3 Solution of Right-Angled Triangle 134
5.3 (A) Right-angled Triangle and Its Solution 134
5.3 (B) Height and Distance 137
UNIT-6: VECTOR 143
6.1 Basics of Vector 144
6.1 (A) Introduction 144
6.1 (B) Types of Vectors 150
6.2 Operations on Vectors 155
UNIT-7: TRANSFORMATION 159
7.1 Translation 160
7.2 Reflection 165
7.3 Rotation 171
7.4 Enlargement 177
UNIT-8: STATISTICS 181
8.1 Partition Values 182
8.1 (A) Median 182
8.1 (B) Quartiles 187
8.2 Dispersion 192
8.2 (A) Range 192
8.2 (B) Quartile Deviation 197

Appendix - A Glossary 203

Appendix - B Home Assessment 214
Appendix - C BLE Model Question Set 233
Appendix - D Unit Test Papers 235
Appendix - E Student's CAS Record Form 242
 1
Algebra
UNIT
ALGEBRA
An ounce of algebra is worth of a ton of verbal argument. – J. B. S. Haldane

Specific Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
”” introduce the ordered pair and Cartesian product with their representations.
”” introduce relation and function with their components and representations.
”” define surd and identify the types of surd.
”” perform the operations on surds.
”” define polynomial and perform the operations on polynomials.
”” define sequence and series, and their types.
”” find the general term of the sequence.

What do you learn ?

Ordered pair and Cartesian Product - Ordered pair and equality of ordered pairs
- Cartesian product and its representations
Relation - Relation and its components - Representations of relation
Function - Function and its components - Representations of function
Surd - Introduction and its laws and types - Comparison and operations on surds
- Rationalization of surds
Polynomial - Polynomials and their degree and types - Operations on polynomials
Sequence and Series - Sequence and series and their types - General term of sequence

Are you ready ?

� Coordinate points � Components of ordered pair � Table, graph and tree diagram
� Relation between two items � Set of numbers � Domestic machine
� Real number system � Root of number � Operations on numbers/terms
� Algebraic formulae � Variable, constant and terms � Algebraic expressions
� Laws of indices � Systematic pattern of numbers � Specific term of set of numbers

Historical Background
The word “Algebra” derived from the Arabic word Al-Jabr “science of restoration
and balancing”, comes from the treatise written in 820 by the medieval Persian
mathematician, Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi. The treatise was
provided for the systematic solution of linear and quadratic equations. He wrote
one of the first Arabic Algebra, a systematic expose of the basic theory of equations,
with both examples and proofs. He is the father of Algebra.
Pythagoras of Samos (Around 500BC) was introduced irrational number as 2
in work of right-angled triangle with 1 unit legs. Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) Al-Khwarizmi

introduced the concept of a function and was the first to write f(x). He also introduced the modern
notation for the trigonometric functions, the letter e for the base of natural logarithm (now also
known as Euler’s number), the Greek letter π for summation. The use of the Greek letter Σ to denote
 1
the ratio of a circle’s circumference to its diagonal was also popularized by Euler.
 ORDERED PAIR AND CARTESIAN
1.1
Algebra

PRODUCT
1.1 (A) Ordered Pair
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
”” define ordered pair.
”” solve the problems related to equal ordered pairs.

Consider A = {1, 2} in which 1 and 2 are the elements of the

set A. Such a set is called a pair. We can write the set as {1, 2} Y
= {2, 1}, because there is not necessary to arrange the elements
in order. If we consider the element 1 in first position and 2 in
second position then the set {1, 2} is changed in ordered form
as (1, 2). So, {1, 2} ≠ (1, 2). The ordered form of the pair of
(1,2)
elements 1 and 2 in (1, 2) is known as an ordered pair. Also, (1,
2) ≠ (2, 1) because in (1, 2), 1 is in the first position and 2 in the (2,1)
second position, but in (2, 1), 2 is in the first position and 1 is in X
O
the second position. They are shown in the adjoining graph.

A pair of objects separated by comma and enclosed by parenthesis (small brackets) occurring
in a special order, is called an ordered pair. In the ordered pair (x, y), x is called the first
component or x-component and y the second component or y-component.

6 1 12 4
Let us consider two ordered pairs , and , .
2 3 4 12
Can you write them in simplest form?
6 1 1 12 4 1
, = 3, and , = 3,
2 3 3 4 12 3
6 1 12 4
Hence, they are equal. i.e., , = ,
2 3 4 12
If two ordered pairs have equal components with the same order then they are called equal
ordered pairs.

Note: (i) If x = a and y = b in two ordered pairs (x, y) and (a, b) then (x, y) = (a, b).
(ii) If (x, y) = (a, b) then we can equate the corresponding components of equal ordered
pairs, i.e., x = a and y = b.

2 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 Algebra
Example - 1 If (2x + y, 2y – 1) = (2, y + 1) then find values of x and y.
Solution: Here, (2x + y, 2y – 1) = (2, y + 1)
Equating the corresponding components of equal ordered pairs, we get
2x + y = 2 ……. (i) and 2y – 1 = y + 1 ………(ii)
From (ii), 2y – y = 1 + 1 or, y = 2.
Substituting the value of y in eqn (i), we get
2x + 2 = 2 or, 2x = 2 – 2 or, x = 0 = 0
2
∴ x = 0 and y = 2.
Example - 2 For what values of a and b, (2a + b, a – b) is equal to (2, 1)?
Solution: Suppose (2a + b, a – b) = (2, 1) I know, the
Then, 2a + b = 2 …. (i) and a – b = 1 ….. (ii) corresponding
Adding the eqns (i) and (ii), we get components are equal in
2a + b = 2 the equal ordered pairs.
+a– b=1
3a = 3
3a = 3 or, a = 3 ∴ a = 1.
3
Putting a = 1 in eq (ii), we have
n

1 – b = 1 or, 1 – 1 = b ∴ b = 0.
Thus, (2a + b, a – b) is equal to (2, 1) for a = 1 and b = 0.
“Alternatively”
Here, we can suppose that (2a + b, a – b) = (2, 1). Then,
2a + b = 2 or, b = 2 – 2a ………. (i) and a – b = 1 ……… (ii)
Putting the value of b in eqn (ii), we get
a – (2 – 2a) = 1 or, a – 2 + 2a = 1 or, 3a = 3 or, a = 1.
Substituting the value of a in eq (i), we get
n

b = 2 – 2×1 = 2 – 2 = 0.
Thus, the required values of a and b are 1 and 0 respectively.

EXERCISE - 1.1 (A)

1. Define order pair.
2. Which of the following sets are ordered pairs?
(a) {1, 2} (b) {2, 3) (c) (a, b) (d) (4, 5}
(e) (a, b, c) (f) {x, y} (g) {1, 2, 4} (h) (Ram, Hari)

Ordered Pair and Cartesian Product 3

 3. Write the first and second components of the following ordered pairs and plot them in the graph:
(a) (2, 3) (b) (2, – 4) (c) (0, 5) (d) (– 4, 5)
Algebra

4. What are equal ordered pairs?

5. In which condition the ordered pairs (x, y) and (a, b) are equal?
6. Which of the following ordered pairs are equal?
(a) (3, 2) and (2, 3) (b) (1, 1) and (1, 1)
4 1 8 25 35 55 10 25
(c) , 3 and , (d) , and ,
1 2 4 10 7 11 2 5
7. What are the values of x and y in (x, y) = (– 2, 4)?
8. Find the values of x, y, p, q, a and b from the following conditions:
(a) (2x + 1, 2y – 1) = (3, 1) (b) (4p, 3) = (8, 6q) (c) (x2 – 1, 1 + y2) = (3, 10)
(d) (2x , 2) = (32, 3y – 10) (e) (4p , 5) = (32, q – 20) (f) (a + b, 3) = (5, b3 – 24)
2 2 3 2

(g) (p + 3q, 1) = (1, p – 3q) (h) (x + y, 2x + 3y) = (1, 2) (i) (3x + 1, –3y) = (5 – x, 6x)
9. Write all possible ordered pairs from each of the following sets:
(a) A = {2, 5} (b) B = {a, b} (c) C = {2, 4, 6} (d) D = {a, b, c, d}

ANSWERS
1, 3, 4 & 5. Show to your teacher. 2. (c), (h) 6. (b), (d) 7. (a) –2, 4
8. (a) 1, 1 (b) 2, 1/2 (c) ±2, ±3 (d) ±4, ±2 (e) ±2, ±5 (f) 2, 3 (g) 1, 0 (h) 1, 0 (i) 1, -2
9. (a) (2, 5), (5, 2) (b) (a, b), (b, a) (c) (2, 4), (2, 6), (4, 6), (4, 2), (6, 2), (6, 4)
(d) (a, b), (a, c), (a, d), (b, c), (b, d), (c, d) (b, a), (c, a), (d, a), (c, b), (d, b), (d, c)

1.1 (B) Cartesian Product of Two Sets

Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
”” define Cartesian product.
”” find the Cartesian product of two sets in different ways.

Consider two non-empty sets A = {1, 2} and B = {3, 4, 5}. All the possible ordered pairs can be
constructed from the set A to the set B as given below:
Set A Set B Ordered Pairs
3 (1, 3) Oh! we can make
1 4 (1, 4) six ordered pairs
5 (1, 5) from A to B.
3 (2, 3)
2 4 (2, 4)
5 (2, 5)
Here, the set of all possible ordered pairs is {(1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5)}.

4 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

This set of all possible ordered pairs from A to B is known as Cartesian product.
Therefore, A × B = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5)}.

Algebra
The set of all possible ordered pairs obtained from two non-empty sets A and B is called the
Cartesian product from A to B. It is denoted by A × B and is defined by
A × B = {(x, y) : x ∈ A, y ∈ B}.
It is also known as the cross product from A to B.

Also, construct the Cartesian product from the set B to the set A as given below:

Set B Set A Ordered Pairs

Yes, the product of the
1 (3, 1)
3 no. of elements in A & B
2 (3, 2)
is equal to the no. of the
1 (4, 1)
4 ordered pairs in A × B.
2 (4, 2)
i.e., 2 × 3 = 6 = 3 × 2.
1 (5, 1)
5
2 (5, 2)

Here, the set of all possible ordered pairs is {(3, 1), (3, 2), (4, 1), (4, 2), (5, 1), (5, 2)}.
Therefore, B × A = {(3, 1), (3, 2), (4, 1), (4, 2), (5, 1), (5, 2)}.
Hence, it is clear that A × B ≠ B × A.
Note: (i) The Cartesian product A × B is not equal to the Cartesian product B×A because,
in A×B, the first component of the ordered pairs is taken from A and the second
component from B, but, in B × A, the first component of the ordered pairs is taken
from B and the second component from A.
(ii) Although A × B ≠ B × A, but the number of ordered pairs in A×B and B×A are
the same which is denoted by n(A × B) = n(B × A) as shown in the above Cartesian
products. Also, it is seen that if the sets A and B are finite sets, the product of the
number of elements in A and B are equal to the numbers of ordered pairs in A × B
or B × A. i.e., n(A × B) = n(A) × n(B) = n(B × A).
(iii) If any one of the sets of Cartesian product is null set, it will be also a null set.
For example, if A = {1, 2} and B = { }, then A × B = {1, 2} × { } = { } and
B×A = { }×{1, 2} = { }.
Representation of Cartesian Product
The representation of Cartesian product A × B of two non-empty sets A and B is given table.
SN Name of Method Representation of A × B
1 Set of ordered pairs A × B = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5)}
Standard Description
2 A×B = {(x, y): x ∈ A, y ∈ B}
(using a rule of formula)

Ordered Pair and Cartesian Product 5

 3 (1, 3)
1 4 (1, 4)
Algebra

5 (1, 5)
3 Tree diagram 3 (2, 3)
2 4 (2, 4)
5 (2, 5)
Sets B
Elements 3 4 5
4 Table
A 1 (1, 2) (1, 4) (1, 5)
2 (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5)

1 3
5 Mapping diagram 4
2 5
Y
(1,5) (2,5)
(1,4) (2,4)
Lattice diagram or graph or
6 (1,3) (2,3)
Cartesian plane

X
O

Example - 1 If A = {a, b} and B = {x, y, z}, prove that A×B ≠ B×A. Show them in table and
mapping diagram.
Solution: Here, A = {a, b} and B = {x, y, z}
Now, A × B = {a, b} × {x, y, z} = {(a, x), (a, y), (a, z), (b, x), (b, y), (b, z)}
and B × A = {x, y, z} × {a, b} = {(x, a), (x, b), (y, a), (y, b), (z, a),(z, b)}
Showing A × B and B × A in the tables;
Sets B Sets A
Elements x y z Elements a b
A a (a, x) (a, y) (a, z) x (x, a) (x, b)
B
b (b, x) (b, y) (b, z) y (y, a) (y, b)
z (z, a) (z, b)
Showing A × B and B × A in mapping diagrams;
A×B B×A
a x x a
y y
b z z b
A B B A
6 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8
 EXERCISE - 1.1 (B)

Algebra
1. What is cartesian product?
2. Which of the following are true?
(a) A × B = B × A (b) A × B ≠ B × A
(c) n(A × B) = n(A) × n(B) (d) n(A × B) ≠ n(B × A)
3. Write down the set of the ordered pairs of the following mapping diagrams:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3 a p a 1 4 3 2
4 q b 2 4 3
5 b r c 3 5 5 4

4. Find the Cartesian product of the following two sets which are defined as:
(a) A × B = {(x, y): x ∈ A = {a, c, e}, y ∈ B = {p, q}}
(b) P × Q = {(a, b): a ∈ P = {1, 2}, b ∈ Q = {m, n, l}}
5. (a) If A = {–1, 2} and B = {1, –2}, find A × B and B × A. Are A × B and B × A equal?
(b) If P = {x : 4 ≤ x ≤ 5, x ∈ N} and Q = {x : 7 ≤ x < 10, x ∈ N} then find P × Q and Q × P
and show that P × Q ≠ Q × P.
6. If A = {2, 3}, B = {1, 2, 3} and C = {4, 5}, find the following product and show them in
table and lattice diagram.
(a) A × B (b) B × C (c) C × A (d) C × B
7. If P = {4, 5}, Q = {5, 6} and R = {1, 5, 7}, find the following Cartesian products and show
them in tree diagram and mapping diagram.
(a) P × R (b) R × Q (c) P × Q (d) Q × R
ANSWERS
1 & 2. Consult with teacher.
3. (a) {(3, a), (3, b), (4, a), (4, b), (5, a), (5, b)}
(b) {(p, a), (p, b), (p, c), (q, a), (q, b), (q, c), (r, a), (r, b), (r, c)}
(c) {(1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 4), (3, 5)}
(d) {(3,2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4), (5, 2) ,(5, 3) , (5, 4)}
4. (a) {(a, p), (a, q), (c, p), (c, q), (e, p), (e, q)} (b) {(1, m), (1, n), (1, l), (2, m), (2, n), (2, l)}
5. (a) {(–1, 1), (–1, –2), (2, 1), (2, –2)}, No (b) {(4, 7), (4, 8), (4, 9), (5, 7), (5, 8), (5, 9)}
6. (a) {(2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)} and show to your teacher.
(b) {(1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 4), (3, 5)} and show to your teacher.
(c) {(4, 2), (4, 3), (5, 2), (5, 3)} and show to your teacher.
(d) {(4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3)} and show to your teacher.
7. (a) {(4, 1), (4, 5), (4, 7), (5, 1), (5, 5), (5, 7)} and show to your teacher.
(b) {(1, 5), (1, 6), (5, 5), (5, 6), (7, 5), (7, 6)} and show to your teacher.
(c) {(4, 5), (4, 6), (5, 5), (5, 6) and show to your teacher.
(d) {(5, 1), (5, 5), (5, 7), (6, 1), (6, 5), (6, 7)} and show to your teacher.

Ordered Pair and Cartesian Product 7

 1.2
Algebra

RELATION

1.2 (A) Introduction

Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
”” define relation. ”” find domain and range of the relation.

Study the following statements:

(i) Buddha was the son of Suddhodhan.
(ii) Kathmandu is the capital of Nepal.
(iii) 4 is the square root of 16.
(iv) 30 is the multiple of 6.
All these statements express the relationship between two objects. The phrases “was the son of”,
“is the capital of”, “is the square root of” and “is the multiple of” are the relations which explain
the established relation between two objects. (i.e., persons, places, numbers). Thus, we can say
that relation means an association of two objects according to the property possessed by them.
Now, let us consider the sets A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 3, 4}. Then,
A × B = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4)}.
We select the subsets from A × B as,
(i) x-component is “same or equal” to y-component, R1 = {(2, 2), (3, 3)}.
(ii) x-component is “the square root of” y-component, R2 = {(2, 4)}.
(iii) x-component is “greater than” y-component, R3 = {(3, 2)}.
(iv) x-component is “less than” y-component, R4 = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 4)}.
Similarly, we can form other many subsets.
Now, tabulate the above expression as below:
Subsets of A×B Property possessed Relation
R1 x=y “is equal to”
R2 x= y “is the square root of”
R3 x>y “is greater than”
R4 x<y “is less than”
Similarly, we can form many relations from the Cartesian product of two non-empty sets.

8 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 A subset of the Cartesian product of two non-empty sets is said to be a relation if A and B
are two non-empty sets then the relation from A to B is denoted by R: A → B and is defined

Algebra
as R = {(x, y):x∈A, y∈B}⊆ A×B.
It is the operating way of every element as in the case of sequence. Observe the following pattern
of sequence:
If we put any real number in the adjoining operating machine then we get,
1+2=3 1 A
3+2=5 Oh! Interesting rule.
5+2=7 Machine
+2
6+2=8 3
7+2=9 B
………..
Here, ‘+2’ is the relation which connects the input and output. So, the relation of ‘+2’ can be
written as:
R = {(1, 3), (3, 5), (5, 7), (6, 8), (7, 9), …………. }.
= {(x, y) : y = x + 2, x ∈ A, y ∈ B}

Domain and Range of a Relation

Consider the relation R = {1, 1), (2, 8), (3, 27), (4, 64)}. Now, separate x-component and
y-component of a relation R in the table below:

Ordered Pair x-component y-component

(1, 1) 1 1

(2, 8) 2 8

(3, 27) 3 27
(4, 64) 4 64

Here, the set of x-components is {1, 2, 3, 4} and the set of y-components is {1, 8, 27, 64}. Thus,
the set of x-components as input of R is considered as the domain of R and the set of y-components
as output of R is considered as the range of R.
The set of all the first components of the ordered pairs of a relation R is called its
domain. It is symbolically written as,
Domain(D) = {x: (x, y) ∈ R}.
Similarly, the set of all the second components of the ordered pairs of a relation R
is called the range of R. It is symbolically written as,
Range(Re) = {y: (x, y) ∈ R}.

Relation 9
Algebra

Example - 1 If A = {2, 4, 8} and B = {5, 7, 11}, find the set of ordered pairs in the relation
R “is less than” from A to B.
Solution: Here, A = {2, 4, 8} and B = {5, 7, 11}.
Now, making tree diagram for the Cartesian product from A to B, we get
Set A Set B Ordered Pairs
5 (2, 5)
2 7 (2, 7)
11 (2, 11)
5 (4, 5)
4 7 (4, 7)
11 (4, 11)
5 (8, 5)
8 7 (8, 7)
11 (8, 11)

“Alternatively”
Making table for A×B, we have
Sets B
Elements 5 7 11
2 (2, 5) (2, 7) (2, 11)
A
4 (4, 5) (4, 7) (4, 11)
8 (8, 5) (8, 7) (8, 11)
From the above tree diagram or table the set of ordered pairs whose x-component
“is less than” y-component is {(2, 5), (2, 7), (2, 11), (4, 5), (4, 7), (4, 11), (8, 11)}.
∴ The required relation is R = {(2, 5), (2, 7), (2, 11), (4, 5), (4, 7), (4, 11), (8, 11)}.
Example - 2 If A = {–2, 0, 4, 5} and B = {2, 3, 7}, find the relation R so that x + y = 7, where
x ∈ A and y ∈ B.
Solution: A = {–2, 0, 4, 5} and B = {2, 3, 7}.
Now, the required relation R so that x + y = 7, where x ∈ A and y ∈ B, is
R = {(0, 7), (4, 3), (5, 2)}.
Example - 3 Write down the sets of all ordered pairs of a relation,
R = {(x, y): y = 3x – 1, x∈{1, 3, 5}}.
Solution: Here, R = {(x, y): y = 3x – 1, x∈{1, 3, 5}}.
Now,

10 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 If x = 1, then y = 3 × 1 – 1 = 2.
If x = 3, then y = 3 × 3 – 1 = 8.

Algebra
If x = 5, then y = 3 × 5 – 1 = 14.
Thus, the required set of all ordered pairs of the relation R is {(1, 2), (3, 8), (5, 14)}.
Example - 4 If the relation R = {(2, 5), (4, 7), (6, 9), (8, 11)} then find the domain and range of R.
Solution: Given,
The relation, R = {(2, 5), (4, 7), (6, 9), (8, 11)}.
Now, we have
The domain of R = the set of the first elements of all ordered pairs of R = {2, 4, 6, 8}.
The range of R = the set of second elements of all ordered pairs of R = {5, 7, 9, 11}.
Example - 5 If the range of a relation R = {(x, y): y = 3x + 4} is {7, 10, 13}, find the domain
of R and write the relation in the form of ordered pairs.
Solution: Here, the relation R = {(x, y): y = 3x + 4}.
The range of R = {7, 10, 13}. i.e., y ∈ {7, 10, 13}
3
Now, If y = 7, then 7 = 3x + 4 or, 7 – 4 = 3x or, x = 3 = 1.
6
If y = 10, then 10 = 3x + 4 or, 3x = 10 – 4 or, x = 3 = 2.
9
If y = 13, then 13 = 3x + 4 or, 3x = 13 – 4 or, x = 3 = 3.
Thus, the domain of R is {1, 2, 3} and the relation R is {(1, 7), (2, 10), (3, 13)}.
Example - 6 Find the domain and range of the given mapping diagram. R
3 7
Solution: (a) Here, from the given mapping diagram, 2 6
The relation of R = {(3, 7), (2, 6), (1, 5)}. 1 5
Now, The domain of R = The set of the first components of all ordered pairs of R
(The set of the elements in the first set of R)
= {3, 2, 1}.
The range of R = The set of the second components of all ordered pairs of R
(The set of the elements in the second set of R)
= {5, 6, 7}.

EXERCISE - 1.2 (A)

1. (a) What is relation?
(b) What are the domain and range of a relation?
2. If A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {4, 5, 6}, which of the following sets of ordered pairs are relation
from A and B?
(a) {(2, 4), (3, 6), (4, 5)} (b) {(2, 5), (3, 4), (4, 6), (5, 4)}
(c) {(2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6)} (d) {(5, 2), (4, 3), (6, 3), (6, 2), (4, 3)}

Relation 11
 3. If A = {–1, 0, 1} and B = {1, 0}, find A × B and the set of ordered pairs of the following relations.
(a) “is less than” (b) “ is equal to ” (c) “is greater than” (d) “is the square of ”
Algebra

4. If P = {3, 4, 5, 6} and Q = {2, 3, 6, 8}, find the following relation R.

(a) “is twice of ” (b) “ is half of ” (c) “is more by 2 than” (d) “is less by 3 than”
5. (a) If M = {16, 20, 24, 28} and N = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, R is the relation “is four times of ”,
find the element of R from M to N.
(b) If A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} B = {0, 1, 8, 27, 64} and the relation R is defined by “is the
cubic root of ” then find the set of all ordered pairs from A to B.
6. If A = {0, 2, 3, 4} and B = {6, 7, 8, 9}, find the relation R from A to B for the following
conditions.
(a) x + y = 9 (b) y = 2x + 2 (c) y – x = 3 (d) x2 = y + 2
7. Find the domain and range of the following relations.
(a) R1 = {(1, 4), (2, 6), (3, 8), (4, 10)} (b) R2 = {(3, –2), (5, 0), (7, 2), (9, 4)}
1
(c) R3 = {(x, y): x ∈{2, 4, 6, 8}, y ∈{1, 2, 4} and y = 2x}
(d) R4 = {(x, y): x ∈{0, 1, 2, 4}, y ∈{3, 4, 5, 6} and y = x + 2}
(e) R5 = {(x, y): x ∈ A, y ∈ B and x = 2y – 1}, where A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3}
8. Find the range of the following relations by using the given domain.
(a) R1 = {(x, y): y = 4x + 1}, Domain = {0, 1, 2}
(b) R2 = {(x, y): x = 2y + 2}, Domain = {8, 4, 2}
(c) R3 = {(x, y): y = 2x2 – x + 1}, Domain = {3, 1, 0}
9. Find the domain of the following relations for the given range.
(a) R1 = {(x, y): y = 2x – 3}, Range = {3, 5, 9}
(b) R2 = {(x, y): 2x + 3y = 4}, Range = {2, 4, 6}
(c) R3 = {(x, y): x = 2y2 – 5}, Range = {0, 1, 2}

ANSWERS
2. (a), (c) 3. {(– 1, 1), (– 1, 0), (0, 1), (0, 0), (1, 1), (1, 0)}
(a) {(– 1, 1), (– 1, 0), (0, 1)} (b) {(0, 0), (1, 1)} (c) {(1, 0)} (d) {(0, 0), (1, 1)}
4. (a) {(4, 2), (6, 3)} (b) {(3, 6), (4, 8)} (c) {(4, 2), (5, 3)} (d) {(3, 6), (5, 8)}
5. (a) R = {(16, 4), (20, 5), (24, 6), (28, 7)} (b) R = {(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 8), (3, 27), (4, 64)}
6. (a) {(0, 9), (2, 7), (3, 6)} (b) {(2, 6), (3, 8)} (c) {(3, 6), (4, 7)} (d) {(3, 7)}
7. (a) Domain = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Range = {4, 6, 8, 10}
(b) Domain = {3, 5, 7, 9}, Range = {– 2, 0, 2, 4} (c) Domain = {2, 4, 8}, Range = {1, 2, 4}
(d) Domain = {1, 2, 4}, Range = {3, 4, 6} (e) Domain = {1, 3, 5}, Range = {1, 2, 3}
8. (a) {1, 5, 9}, (b) {3, 1, 0}, (c) {16, 2, 1} 9. (a) {3, 4, 6}, (b) {– 1, – 4, – 7}, (c) {– 5, – 3, 3}

12 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

1.2 (B) Methods of Representation of Relation

Algebra
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
”” represent the relation in different ways. ”” compute the inverse of the relation.

Consider two non–empty sets A = {2, 4, 8} and B = {1, 2, 4}. Then the relation “is doubled of”
from the set A to the set B can be represented by the following ways:
SN Name of Ways Notations
1 Set of ordered pairs (Roster form) R = {(2, 1), (4, 2), (8, 4)}
2 Set builder form (Description method) R = {(x, y): x = 2y, x ∈ A, y∈B}
A 2 4 8
3 Tabulation method
B 1 2 4
R
2 1
4 Mapping or arrow diagram 4 2
8 4
Y

5 Graph

O X

Inverse of Relation
Consider a relation “is the cubic root of ” R = {(2, 8), (3, 27), (4, 64)}.
What are the domain and range of R? Domain R Range

The domain of R = {2, 3, 4} and the range of R = {8, 27, 64}. 2 8

3 27
What would be the relation when the elements of domain 4 64
and range of R are interchanged? Can you do easily?
Range Domain
F = R–1
Thus, the domain of R will be {8, 27, 64} and the range, {2, 3, 4}.
What relation would be formed by using these domain and range? The new relation will be formed
F = {(8, 2), (27, 3), (64, 4)}. This is the relation F “is the cube of ” that is the opposite relation of
the given relation R. Yes, the new relation obtaining by the above process is known as the inverse
of the given relation.
The relation obtained by interchanging the domain and range of a relation R to each other, is
called an inverse relation of R. It is denoted by R–1 and is defined by;
If R = {(x, y): x ∈ A, y ∈ B} for two non-empty sets A and B then
R–1 = {(y, x): y ∈ B, x ∈ A}.

Relation 13
Algebra

Example - 1 If A = {3, 6, 12, 16}, B = {1, 2, 4} and the relation R:A → B is defined by “is
thrice of”, represent the relation R by the following ways.
(a) Set of ordered pairs (Roster method) (b) Set builder form
(c) Tabulation form (d) Mapping diagram (e) Graphical Method
Solution: Here, A = {3, 6, 12, 16} and B = {1, 2, 4}.
Now, the relation R: A→B is defined by ‘is thrice of’ and representing in the following
ways:
(a) Set of ordered pairs (Roster method); R = {(3, 1), (6, 2), (12, 4)}.
(b) Set builder form; R = {(x, y): x∈A, y∈B and x = 3y}.
(c) Tabulation Method;
A 3 6 12
B 1 2 4
(d) Mapping diagram; (e) Graphical Method;
Y
R

3 1
6 2
12 4 X
O

Example - 2 If the relation R = {(2, 5), (4, 7), (6, 9 ), (8, 11)} then find the inverse of R.
Solution: Given, the relation, R = {(2, 5), (4, 7), (6, 9), (8, 11)}.
Here, the domain of R = {2, 4, 6, 8} and the range of R = {5, 7, 9, 11}.
Now, interchanging the domain (x) and range (y), we get
The inverse of R, R–1 = {(5, 2), (7, 4), (9, 6), (11, 8)}.
Example - 3 If the range of a relation R = {(x, y): y = 3x + 4} is {7, 10, 13}, find the inverse of R.
Solution: Here, the relation R = {(x, y): y = 3x + 4}.
The range of R = {7, 10, 13}. i.e., y ∈ {7, 10, 13}
3
Now, if y = 7, then 7 = 3x + 4 or, 7 – 4 = 3x or, x = 3 =1.
6
If y = 10, then 10 = 3x + 4 or, 3x = 10 – 4 or, x = 3 =2.
9
If y = 13, then 13 = 3x + 4 or, 3x = 13 – 4 or, x = 3 = 3.
∴ The domain of R = {1, 2, 3} are the relation R = {(1, 7), (2, 10), (3, 13)}.
Again, interchanging the role of x and y, we get
The inverse of R, R–1 = {(7, 1), (10, 2), (13, 3)}.

14 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 Example - 4 Find inverse of the following mapping diagram. R
Solution: Here, from the given mapping diagram, 3 7

Algebra
The relation of R = {(3, 7), (2, 6), (1, 5)}. 2 6
1 5
The domain of R = {3, 2, 1} and the range of R = {5, 6, 7}.
Now, interchanging the domain and range of R, we get
The inverse relation of R, R–1 = {(7, 3), (6, 2), (5, 1)}.

EXERCISE - 1.2 (B)

1. (a) Write down the name of methods of representation of a relation.
(b) Define inverse relation.
2. If P = {12, 13, 16, 17, 20}, Q = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and a relation R : P → Q is defined by “is
double of ” represent the relation R by the following methods.
(a) Roster Method (b) Set-builder method (c) Tabulation method
(d) Mapping diagram (e) Graphical Method.
3. Write down the following relation in the set builder form.
(a) R1 = {(3, 4), (4, 5), (5, 6), (6, 7), (7, 8)} (b) R2 = {(2, 4), (3, 9), (4, 16), (5, 25)}
Y
(c) A 4 6 8 10 (d) A
R
B
(e)
B 9 11 13 15 1 2 X' X
5 3 O
6 4
4. Find the domain, range and inverse of the following relation: Y'
(a) R1 = {(–2, 4), (0, 6), (2, 8), (4, 10)} (b) R2 = {(3, 4), (5, 6), (7, 8), (9, 10)}
1
(c) R3 = {(x, y): x ∈{1, 3, 4, 8}, y ∈{2, 3, 4} and y = 2 x}
(d) R4 = {(x, y): x ∈{0, 1, 2, 4}, y∈{3, 4, 5, 6} and x = y – 2}
(e) R5 = {(x, y): x ∈ A, y ∈ B and x = 2y – 1}, where A = {6, 7, 9, 11} and B = {4, 5, 6}.
5. Find the domain, range and inverse of the following relations.
(a) A –2 –1 0 2 4 6 (b) P 2 4 6 8
B 4 1 0 4 16 36 Q 13 23 33 43
(c) A
R
B (d) A
R
B How many ordered
1 3 8 pairs are there in
4 6 4 10 each numbers?
5 7 5 12
(e) Y (f) Y

X' X X' O X
O
Y' Y'

Relation 15
 6. (a) If M = {16, 20, 24, 28} and N = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, R is the relation “is four times of ”, find
the elements of R from M to N and the inverse of R.
Algebra

(b) If A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {0, 1, 8, 27, 64} and the relation R is defined by “is the
cubic root of ” then find the set of all ordered pairs from A to B and its inverse.
7. If A = {0, 2, 3, 4} and B = {6, 7, 8, 9}, find the relation R from A to B for the following
condition. Also, find the inverse relation in each condition.
(a) x + y = 9 (b) y = 2x + 2 (c) y – x = 3 (d) x2 = y + 2
8. Write down the set of all ordered pairs of the relation R = {(x, y)} and R-1 in the following
conditions.
(a) y = 3x + 2, x ∈ {–1, 0, 1, 2} (b) y = 5x – 4, x ∈ {1, 3, 5}
(c) x – y = 3, y ∈ {– 6, – 4, – 2, 0} (d) x = y2 – 2, x ∈ {2, 7, 14; x ∈ N}
(e) y – x2 = 5, y ∈ {5, 6, 9, 14; x ∈ N} (f) x = y3 – 1, x ∈ {– 1, 0, 7; x ∈ N}.

ANSWERS
2. (a) {(12, 6), (16, 8), (20, 10} (b) {(x, y): x ∈ P, y ∈ Q and x = 2y}
(c), (d) & (e) Show to your teacher.
3. (a) {(x, y): y = x + 1, x ∈ N and y ∈ N} (b) {(x, y): x = y, x ∈ N and y ∈ N}
(c) {(x, y): y = x + 5, x ∈ N and y ∈ N}
(d) {(x, y): x ∈ C, y ∈ D; C = {5, 6} & D = {2, 3, 4}}
(e) {(x, y):y = x – 2, x ∈ Z and y ∈ Z}
4. (a) Domain = {–2, 0, 2, 4}, Range = {4, 6, 8, 10}; R–1 = {(4, –2), (6, 0), (8, 2),(10, 4)}
(b) Domain = {3, 5, 7, 9}, Range = {4, 6, 8, 10}; R–1 = {(4, 3), (6, 5), (8, 7), (10, 9)}
(c) Domain = {4, 8}, Range = {2, 4}; R–1 = {(2, 4), (4, 8)}
(d) Domain = {1, 2, 4}, Range = {3, 4, 6}; R–1 = {(3, 1), (4, 2), (6, 4)}
(e) Domain = {7, 9, 11}, Range = {4, 5, 6}; R–1 = {(4, 7), (5, 9), (6, 11)}
5. (a) Domain = {–2, –1, 0, 2, 4, 6}, Range = {4, 1, 0, 16, 36};
R-1 = {(4, –2), (1, –1), (0, 0), (4, 2), (16, 4), (36, 6)}
(b) Domain = {2, 4, 6, 8}, Range = {13, 23, 33, 43}; R–1 = {(13, 2), (23, 4),(33, 6),(43, 8)}
(c) Domain = {1, 4, 5}, Range = {3, 6, 7}; R–1 = {(3, 1), (6, 4),(7, 5)}
(d) Domain = {4, 5}, Range = {8, 10}; R–1 = {(8, 4), (10, 5)}
(e) Domain = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Range = {1, 2, 3, 4}; R–1 = {(1, 1), (2, 2),(3, 3), (4, 4)}
(f) Domain = {–1, –2, –3, – 4}, Range = {0, 1, 2, 3}; R–1 = {(0, – 4), (1, –3), (2, –2), (3, –1)}
6. (a) R = {(16, 4), (20, 5), (24, 6), (28, 7)}; R–1 = {(4, 16), (5, 20), (6, 24), (7, 28)}
(b) R = {(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 8), (3, 27), (4, 64)}; R–1 = {(0, 0), (1, 1), (8, 2), (27, 3), (64, 4)}
7. (a) {(0, 9), (2, 7), (3, 6)}; R–1 = {(9, 0), (7, 2), (6, 3)} (b) {(2, 6), (3, 8)}; R–1 ={(6, 2) (8, 3)}
(c) {(3, 6), (4, 7)}; R-1 ={(6, 3), (7, 4)} (d) {(3, 7)}; R–1 = {(7, 3)}
8. (a) R = {(–1, –1), (0, 2), (1, 5), (2, 8)}; R = {(–1, –1), (2, 0), (5, 1), (8, 2)}
–1

(b) R = {(1, 1), (3, 11), (5, 21)}; R–1 = {(1, 1), (11, 3), (21, 5)}
(c) R = {(–3, –6), (–1, – 4), (1, –2), (3, 0)}; R–1 = {(– 6, –3), (– 4, –1), (–2, 1), (0, 3)}
(d) R = {(2, 2), (7, 3), (14, 4)}; R–1 = {(2, 2), (3, 7), (4, 14)}
(e) R = {(0, 5), (1, 6), (2, 9), (3, 14)}; R–1 = {(5, 0), (6, 1), (9, 2), (14, 3)}
(f) R = {(–1, 0), (0, 1), (7, 2)}; R–1 = {(0, –1), (1, 0), (2, 7)}

16 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 1.3
1.1 FUNCTION

Algebra
1.3 (A) Introduction
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
”” define function. ”” find domain, co-domain, range, image and pre-image of the function.

Consider two sets A = {–1, 0, 1} and B = {0, 1, 2}. Now the Cartesian product from A to B is
represented in the table and the mapping (or arrow) diagram below:
Sets B R
A B
Elements 0 1 2
–1 (–1, 0) (–1, 1) (–1, 2) –1 0
A 0 1
0 (0, 0) (0, 1) (0, 2)
1 (1, 0) (1, 1) (1, 2) 1 2

Here, A × B = The set of the all possible ordered pairs from A to B

= {(– 1, 0), (– 1, 1), (– 1, 2), (0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 2), (1, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2)}.
Let us define the following relation and study them carefully.
(i) R1 = {(– 1, 0), (0, 1), (1, 2)}.
(ii) R2 = {(– 1, 1), (0, 0), (1, 1)}.
(iii) R3 = {(0, 2), (– 1, 1)}.
(iv) R4 = {(– 1, 0), (– 1, 1), (1, 2), (0, 2)}.
These relations can be represented in the following mapping diagrams.
R1 R2 R3 R4
A B A B A B A B
–1 0 –1 0 –1 0 –1 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
Diagram (i) Diagram (ii) Diagram (iii) Diagram (iv)
Here, in the mapping diagram (i) of R1, each of the set A is separated paired with exactly one
element of the set B under the relation or rule “is less than 1”, that is, the element as input is less
than 1 of the element as output. Thus, the element of output is greater than 1 of the elements of
input as shown in the adjoining operating machine.
R1
Therefore, the output = the input + 1. x A A B

i.e., y = x + 1. x+1
Operation R1 B x
x+1 =y
This relation R1 is a function.
In the mapping diagram (ii) of R2, each element of the set A is mapped with any element of the set

Function 17
 B under the relation “is square root”. So, the elements as output are square of the element as input.
R2
Algebra

Therefore, the output = square of the input. x A A B

i.e., y = x .
2

x x2=y
This relation R2 is also a function. Operation R2 B
x 2

But, in the mapping diagram (iii) of R3, each element of the set A is mapped with any element of
the set B although the relation “is less than 2”. There is left the element 1 in the set A. So, it is
not completed relation.
This relation R3 is not a function.
In the mapping diagram (iv) of R4, more than one elements, 0 and 1 of the set A is mapped with
any element of the set B which is true, and only one element –1 of A is also mapped with more
than one element (i.e., 0 and 1) of B, which is not accepted in the case of function.
This relation R4 is also not a function. x A
Every element of the first set is associated with a unique element of
the second set is known as function. If A and B are two non-empty Function f B
f(x)
sets then the relation f which pairs each element of A with unique f
element of B is called a function from A to B. It is denoted by f:A→B A B
or A→B and read as a function f from A to B. Also, the function is f(x)
usually denoted by f, g, h, etc. If x is the variable of the domain then x =y
its range is denoted by f(x), g(x), h(x), etc.

Note: (i) For a function, there is not left any element in the first set, but there is no effect to
leave any element in the second set under a rule.
(ii) For a function, more than one element of the first set is paired with only one element
of the second set under a rule, but only one element of the first set is mapped with
more than one element of the second set, then it is not a function.

Domain, Co-domain and Range of Function

Look at the adjoining mapping diagram. All the elements of the set A are paired with the unique
element of the set B, and the element 4 is left in B. But, it is a function. So, the set of all the
elements of A is called a domain and the set of all the elements of B is called a co-domain in the
function f. But the set of all the elements of A is associated with only the elements 1, 2 and 3, but
not 4, in B, is called a range of the function f. Therefore, f
A B
The domain of f = {a, b, c, d}.
a 1
The co-domain f = {1, 2, 3, 4}. b 2
The range of f = {1, 2, 3}. c 3
Clearly, the range is the subset of the co-domain of the function f. d 4
A set of all elements of the first set of a function is called its domain and a set of all elements
of the second set is called its co-domain. A set of all the elements of the second set assigned to
the elements of the first set of the function is called its range.

18 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

Image and Pre-image of Function

Algebra
Look at the adjoining mapping diagram of the function f : A → B. The
elements 2, 3 and 4 of the set A are mapped with the elements 8, 27 and f
A B
64 of the set B respectively. That is, the element 2 has the corresponding 2 8
element 8 of B under the function f, so f:2 → 8, or f(2) = 8. Similarly, 3 27
f(3) = 27 and f(4) = 64. Now, it is clear that 8 is the image of 2. Similarly, 4 64
27 is the image of 3 and 64 is the image of 4. Conversely, 2 is the pre-
image of 8 and so on. So, the set of images is called the range and the set
of pre-images is called the domain of the function f.

The elements in the range of a function f are called the images of f and the elements in the
domain of f are called the pre-images of f.

In the above example; the image of f = {8, 27, 64} and the pre-image of f = {2, 3, 4}.

Example - 1 Which of the following diagrams represents a function? Give reason.

(a) f (b) g (c) h
A B M N P Q
a 1 4
4 1
b 2 1 5
5 2
c 3 2 6
6 3
d 4 3 7

Solution: (a) Every element of the set A has an image in the set B. So, it is function.
(b) The element 1 has two images 4 and 5. For the function, pre-image must
have a unique image. So, it is not a function.
(c) The element 6 of the set P has no image in the set Q. Every elements of domain
needs to be mapped with an image in co-domain. So, it is not a function.
Example - 2 Which of the following relations is function? Give reason.
(a) {(2, 3), (4, 5), (6, 7), (7, 8)} (b) {(1, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (4, 5)
Solution: (a) Here, {(2, 3), (4, 5), (6, 7), (7, 8)}.
This relation is function because the different first components of all ordered
pairs are mapped with the different second components under the rule of “is
less than 1”.
(b) {(1, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (4, 5)}
This relation is not a function because the first components of two ordered pairs
are repeated.

Function 19
 Example - 3 Find the domain, co-domain and range of the function f
A B
as shown in the mapping diagram.
Algebra

–3
Solution: From the given mapping diagram of the function f, –1 1
The domain of f = The set of all elements of A. 1 3
= {–1, 1, 3}. 3 5
The co-domain of f = The set of all elements of B = {–3, 1, 3, 5}.
The range of f = The set of mapped elements from A in B = { 1, 3, 5}.
Example - 4 If the function f(x) = 3x – 4 and its domain (D) = {0, 1, 2, 3} then find its range.
Solution: Given, f(x) = 3x - 4 and its domain (D) = {0, 1, 2, 3}.
Now,
If x = 0, then f(0) = 3 × 0 – 4 = – 4. If x = 1, then f(1) = 3 × 1 – 4 = – 1.
If x = 2, then f(2) = 3 × 2 – 4 = 2. If x = 3, then f(3) = 3 × 3 – 4 = 5.
∴ The required range of the function f is {– 4, –1, 2, 5}.
Example - 5 Find the pre-image of 100 and the image of 1000 under the function
35x – 500
f: x → 100 .
35x – 500 35x – 500
Solution: Given, the function f: x → 100 i.e., f(x) = 100
Now,
The image of f, f (x) = 100
35x – 500

∴ 100 = 100 or, 10000 = 3x – 500
10500
or, 10000 + 500 = 35x or, x= 35 = 300.
Hence, the pre-image of 100 is 300.
Again, the pre-image of f, x = 1000.
35 × 1000 – 500 34500
∴ f(1000) = 100 = 100 = 345.

Hence, the image of 1000 is 345.

EXERCISE - 1.3 (A)

1. What is function?
2. Which of the following diagrams represent a function? Give reason.
(a) f (b) g (c) h (d) k

1 –1 4 5 1 -1
2 4
3 1 -2 -1 0 1
4 16
5 8 -7 0
5 25
-13
20 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8
3. Which of the following relations are functions? Give reason.
(a) {(2, 1), (4, 2), (6, 3), (10, 5)}, (b) {(0, – 1), (1, 2), (2, 5), (2, 7)},

Algebra
(c) {(2, 4), (3, 4), (4, 4), (5, 4)}, (d) {(2, 3), (4, 5), (4, 6), (5, 7), (8, 9)}.
4. Define the following terms:
(a) Domain (b) Range (c) Co-domain (d) Image (e) Pre-image
5. Find the domain and range of the following functions:
(a) f = {(0, 0), (1, 2), (2, 8), (3, 18)} (b) g = {(8, 10), (5, 7), (3, 5), (– 3, – 1)}
(c) h = {(p, a), (q, b), (r, c), (s, d)} (d) k = {(3, 5), (6, 6), (7, 10), (12, 14)}
6. Find the domain, co-domain and range of the following functions:
(a) f (b) g (c) h (d) k

4 6 2 1
p 10 1 7
5 9 5 6
q 12 2 11
6 12 7 4
r 14 •15
15 8 7
7. (a) If the domain of the function f(x) = 3x + 5 is {–1, 2, 4}, find the range of f.
(b) If {3, 4, 5} is the domain of the function f : x→ 2x – 1 then find the range of f.
3x + 2
(c) Find the elements of the range of the function f(x) = 4 , x ∈ {0, 2, 6, 10}.
8. (a) If the range of the function g(x) = 3x + 2 is {2, 5, 11, 17}, find its domain.
2x + 3
(b) If {3, 1, –1, –3} is the range of the function f(x) = 5 then find its domain.
(c) Find the elements of the domain of the function f(x) = 2x – 1 if the elements of its
range are 7, 9, 13 and 15.
9. (a) Find the image of -2 under the function f(x) = 2x - 1.
3x + 1
(b) Which element in the range has pre-image 8 under the function f : x → 5 ?
x –1
2
(c) The function f is defined as f : x → 2 . If the pre-image of f is 5, find its image.
10. (a) Find the pre-image of 10 under the function f : x → 3x+1.
4x + 5
(b) Which element in the domain has image -1 under the function f(x) = 3 ?
(c) What is the pre-image of 1 in the function f(x) = x – 1?
ANSWERS
2. (a), (c) 3. (a), (c)
5. (a) Domain = {0, 1, 2, 3}, Range = {0, 2, 8, 18} (b) Domain = {8, 5, 3,–3}, Range = {10, 7, 5, –1}
(c) Domain = {p, q, r, s}, Range = {a, b,c, d} (d) Domain= {3, 6, 7, 12}, Range = {5, 6, 10, 14}
6. (a) Domain = {p, q, r}, Co-domain = {10, 12, 14}, Range = {10, 12, 14}.
(b) Domain = {1, 2}, Co-domain = {7, 11, 15}, Range = {7, 11}.
(c) Domain = {4, 5, 6}, Co-domain = {6, 9, 12, 15}, Range = {9, 15}.
(d) Domain = {2, 5, 7, 8}, Co-domain = {1, 4, 6, 7}, Range = {1, 6, 4, 7}.
7. (a) {2, 11, 17} (b) {5, 7, 9} (c) {1/2, 2, 5, 8}
8. (a) {0, 1, 3, 5} (b) {6, 1, – 4, – 9} (c) {4, 5, 7, 8}
9. (a) – 5 (b) 5 (c) 12 10. (a) 3 (b) – 2 (c) 4

Function 21
 1.3 (B) Methods Representation of Function
Algebra

Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
”” represent the function in various ways. ”” find the value of the function.

Consider A = {4, 8, 12, 16}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8} and the function f “is twice of” from A to B then the
function f : A → B can be represented in the following ways:

SN Method Notation
1 Roster form f = {(4, 2), (8, 4), (12, 6), (16, 8)}
2 Set builder form f = {(x, y): x = 2y}

3 By formula x
y=2

A 4 8 12 16
4 Tabulation form
B 2 4 6 8
f
A B
4 2
5 Mapping diagram 8 4
12 6
16 8

6 Graphical method

X
O

Value of Function
Let us consider a function f(x) = 2x – 3 and we put x = 1,
then f(1) = 2 × 1 – 3 = 2 – 3 = - 1.
The value of f(1) is – 1, that is, -1 is the image of 1, or 1 is the pre-image of – 1. Similarly,
If x = 2, then f(2) = 2 × 2 – 3 = 1, that is, 1 is the image of 2, or 2 is the pre-image of 1.
If f is a function and (a, b) is in f, then we write f(a) = b,
where f(a) is called the value of the function at a.

22 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 Algebra
Example - 1 If A = {1, 3, 5, 7} and B = {3, 9, 15, 21} and the function f is defined by f : A→B
such that f(x) = 3x. Then,
(a) Write down the function f by using:
(i) the set of ordered pairs (ii) the set builder form.
(b) Draw an arrow diagram and a graph showing the function f.
Solution: Given, A = {1, 3, 5, 7} and B = {3, 9, 15, 21} and the function as
f : A → B such that f(x) = 3x.
Now, (a) If x = 1 then f(1) = 3 × 1 = 3. If x = 3, then f(3) = 3 × 3 = 9.
If x = 5 then f(5) = 3 × 5 = 15. If x = 7, then f(7) = 3 × 7 = 21.
∴ (i) f = {(1, 3), (3, 9), (5, 15), (7, 21)}.
(ii) f = {(x, y): x∈A, y∈B and y = 3x}. Y
(b) Drawing an arrow diagram and a graph
showing the function f as given below;
f

1 3
3 9
5 15
7 21

f(a + h) – f(a) O X
Example - 2 If f(x) = x2 then find h .
Solution: Given, f(x) = x2
Now,

f(a + h) = (a + h)2 = a2 + 2ah + h2 and f(a) = a2

f(a + h) – f(a) a2 + 2ah + h2 – a2
∴ h = h
h (2a + h)
= h = 2a + h.
Example - 3 Prove that f(a) = f(–a), if f(x) = x4 – 2x2 + 3.
Solution: Given, f(x) = x4 – 2x2 + 3
Now, f(a) = a4 – 2a2 + 3 and
f(– a) = (– a)4 – 2(– a)2 + 3 = a4 – 2a2 + 3

Hence, f(a) = f(– a) . Proved.

Function 23
 EXERCISE - 1.3 (B)
Algebra

1. Define the following methods of representation of a function:

(a) Roster form (b) Set-builder form (c) Formulae (d) Tabulation form
2. If A = {–1, 0, 3, 5}, B ={1, 4, 13, 19} and the function f is defined by f : A → B such that
f(x) = 3x + 4.
(a) Write down the function by using (i) roster form and (ii) set builder form.
(b) Draw a mapping diagram and a graph by showing the function f.

3. What is functional value?

4. If the function f is given by f(x) = 4x – 3, find the following:

(a) f(– 2) (b) f(0) (c) f(2 + h)
f(2 + h) – f(2)
(d) f(2) (e) h
5. If the function f is defined as f : x→x2 – 2, find the following:
(a) f(x2) (b) [f(x)]2 (c) f(– x)
(d) f(x – 1) (e) f(x + 5)

6. (a) If f(x) = x4 – 2 then prove that f(a) = f(–a).

(b) Show that f(a) = f(– a) if the function f is defined as f(x) = 2x4 – 2x2 – 3.

ANSWERS
2. (a) (i) {(– 1, 1), (0, 4), (3, 13), (5, 19)} (ii) {(x, y): x ∈ A, y ∈ B and y = 3x + 4}
(b) Show to your teacher.
4. (a) – 11 (b) –3 (c) 4h + 5 (d) 5 (e) 4
5. (a) x –2
4
(b) x – 4x + 4 (c) x – 2
4 2 2
(d) x – 2x – 1 (e) x2 + 10x + 23
2

24 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 1.4
1.1 POLYNOMIAL

Algebra
1.4 (A) Introduction
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
”” identify the polynomial and its degree. ”” classify the types of polynomials.

Consider an algebraic expression 3x2 – x + 4. This expression has three terms 3x2, x and 4. The
term 3x2 has constant 3, which is called numerical coefficient of x2 and the variable x2 is called
literal coefficient of 3, has non–negative integer as power 2. Similarly, the term x has numerical
coefficient 1 and the variable x has the power 1and the term 4 has only constant term 4. So, the
algebraic expression 3x2 – x + 4 is an example of polynomial.
An algebraic expression having non-negative integer as the power of variable in each term is
called a polynomial.

So, can you identify the following expressions as polynomial or not?

(i) 3x3 – 5x2 + 7 (ii) 5x4y – 3x3y2 + xy3 – 2y2 (iii) 2x–2 – 3xy + 1
2 1 5
(iv) 3 x + 3x + 1 (v) 4 x3 – 3x3 + 2 (vi) 2 x3y3 – 3xy + 5
Here, (i), (ii) and (vi) are only polynomials but not others. Why?
The polynomial in variable x of n degree can be generalized in the form as,
anxn–1 + an–1xn–1 + an–2xn–2 + ……….. + a2x2 + a1x1 + a0x0,
where an ≠ 0 and a0, a1, a2,……, an–2, an–1, an are constants, n is non–negative integer. This form of
polynomial is called standard form that is also called standard polynomial. It has the following
features:
(i) The power (exponent) of each variable in each term is always non–negative integer
(whole number).
(ii) The coefficient of each term is as rational number.
(iii) No term of a polynomial has a variable as its denominator.
(iv) Terms are arranged either descending or ascending order of powers of variable.

Degree of Polynomial
Observe the power or exponent of the variables of the terms in the following polynomials:
(i) 2x2y – 3xy + 1 (ii) 3x5y + 2x3y2 + 3x2y2 + 4xy + 5.
Now, what are the total powers of the variables in each term of these polynomials?

Polynomial 25
 Here, the polynomial (i), the sum of powers in 2x2y =2+1=3
Algebra

the sum of powers in 3xy =1+1=2

the sum of powers in 1 =0
the polynomial (ii), the sum of powers in 3x5y =5+1=6
the sum of powers in 3x3y2 = 3 + 2 = 5
the sum of powers in 3x2y2 = 2 + 2 = 4
the sum of powers in 4xy =1+1=2
the sum of powers in 5 =0
Which are the highest powers in the polynomial (i) and (ii) respectively?
The polynomial (i) has the highest power 3, so its degree is 3. The polynomial (ii) has the highest
power 6, so its degree is 6.
The highest power (or exponent) of the variables of the terms of a polynomial is known as the
degree of the polynomial.

Types of Polynomials
There are some types of polynomials. They are represented in the table below.
Types Definition Examples
1. Monomial A polynomial having only one term. 2x , 3xy, 4x2y2z, etc.
2

2. Binomial A polynomial having only two terms. 2x2 + 1, 3x2y + xy2, etc.
3. Trinomial A polynomial having only three terms. 3x2y + xy – 2, etc.
A polynomial having only one constant 2
4. Constant Polynomial 2, –3, , etc.
term. 3
A polynomial in which all the numerical 0.x2 + 0.x + 0,
5. Zero Polynomial
coefficients are zero. 0.t3 + 0.t2 – 0, etc.

Example - 1 Which of the following expressions are polynomials? Give reason.

2 2
(a) 3x4 – x2 + 2; (b) 4x3 + 3x2 + 4.
3
2
Solutions: (a) The expression 3x4 – 3x2 + 2 is a polynomial because it has non-negative
integer as the power in the variables.
2
(b) The expression 4x3 + 3x2 + 4 is not a polynomial because it has fractional
power in the variable.

26 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 Example - 2 Rewrite the polynomial 3x + 3x4 – 3x3 – 3x2 + 5x5 + 1 in the standard form.
Also, find its degree.

Algebra
Solution: Given, 3x + 3x4 – 3x3 – 3x2 + 5x5 + 1.
Arranging the polynomial in the standard form, we get
5x5 + 3x4 – 3x3 – 3x2 + 3x + 1
The highest power of the variable among all terms is 5. Therefore, the degree of
the polynomial is 5.
Example - 3 If the polynomial p(x) be 3x3y + 4x2y2 + 5xy3 + 2 then,
(a) What is the numerical coefficient of x2y2?
How easy !
(b) What is the literal coefficient of y3?
(c) Write the constant term.
Solutions: Given, p(x) = 3x3y + 4x2y2 + 5xy3 + 2.
Now, (a) The numerical coefficient of x2y2 is 4.
(b) The literal coefficient of y3 is x.
(c) The constant term is 2.
Example - 4 Separate the following polynomial as monomial, binomial and trinomial.
(a) 3x + 1 (b) 3x2 – x – 1 (c) 2x2yz
Solutions: Separating the given polynomials as follows.
Monomial Binomial Trinomial
2x2yz 3x + 1 3x2 – x – 1

EXERCISE - 1.4 (A)

1. (a) What is polynomial?

(b) Write the standard form of polynomial.
(c) What is the degree of polynomial?
2. Define the following:
(a) Monomial (b) Binomial (c) Trinomial
(d) Constant Polynomial (e) Zero Polynomial
3. Which of the following expressions are polynomials? Justify your answer.

(a) x3 + 2x2 – x + 1 (b) 2 x – 1 (c) 7

1 3 4
(d) x2 + –5 (e) x + 2x2 – 5x (f) x–2 + 2x–1 + 7
x2 4
4. Rewrite the following polynomials in standard form and find their degrees:
(a) 4x3 – 2x + 5 + 5x4 – 3x2 (b) 5x3 – x5 + 4x + 1
2 1
(c) x – x3 + 2x2 + 4x4 (d) x4 + 4x3 – 5x7 + 1
3 2
Polynomial 27
 5. If the polynomial f(x) be 5x4y + 3x2y2 – 2xy3 + 5 then,
(a) write the numerical coefficient of x2y2.
Algebra

(b) what is the literal coefficient of x4?

(c) what is the literal coefficient of y2?
(d) write the constant term.
(e) write down the degree of f(x).
6. Classify the following polynomials as monomial, binomial or trinomial.
(a) 2x + 1 (b) 4x3 – 2x + 1 (c) 2x2yz
(d) 3ay2 + 3by (e) 2abxy2 (f) 3x2y + 4xy2 – 5
7. Find the degree of the following polynomials.
(a) 3x2y2z (b) 2x2y2 + 3xy + 1 (c) 2
(d) 3x4y2 + 3x3y + 2 (e) 3x2y2z2 + 2x5y2 + 2 (f) 5x + 3

ANSWERS
3. (a), (c), (e)
4. (a) 5x4 + 4x3 – 3x2 – 2x + 5 (b) – x5 + 0.x4 + 5x3 + 0.x2 + 4x + 1
1 2
(c) 4x4 – x3 + 2x2 + x (d) –5x7 + 4x3 + x4 + 0.x + 1
2 3
5. (a) 3 (b) y (c) x2 (d) 5 (e) 5
6. Monomials: (c) & (e); Binomials: (a) & (d) Trinomials: (b) & (f)
7. (a) 5 (b) 4 (c) 0 (d) 6 (e) 7 (f) 1

1.4 (B) Operations on Polynomials

Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
”” add and subtract the polynomials . ”” multiply and divide the polynomials

There are four fundamental operations (+, –, ×, ÷) on polynomials. The operating processes of the
polynomials are as follows:

Sum or Addition of Polynomials

Consider two polynomials p(x) = 3x + 1 and q(x) = 2x + 3, then the sum (or addition) of p(x) and
q(x) is denoted by p(x) + q(x) and is added by,
p(x) + q(x) = (3x + 1) + (2x + 3) = 3x + 2x + 1 + 3 = 5x + 4.

28 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 It is also added in vertical method as given below,
3x + 1

Algebra
+ 2x + 3
5x + 4
∴ p(x) + q(x) = 5x + 4.
Similarly, for the polynomials f(x) = 3x2 + 2x + 1 and g(x) = 5x2 + 3x + 3, the sum of f(x) and g(x)
is as follows,
Horizontal Method Vertical Method
f(x) + g(x) 3x2 + 2x + 1
= 3x2 + 2x + 1 + 5x2 + 3x + 3 + 5x2 + 3x + 3
= 8x2 + 5x + 4 8x2 + 5x + 4
∴ f(x) + g(x) = 8x2 + 5x + 4
Thus, the sum of polynomials is also polynomial and its degree is equal to the degree of the given
polynomials.

Difference or Subtraction of Polynomials:

Let us consider two polynomials p(x) = 5x – 2 and q(x) = 4x + 2. Then q(x) is subtracted from p(x),
i.e., the difference between p(x) and q(x) which is denoted by p(x) – q(x) and is subtracting by
p(x) – q(x) = (5x – 2) – (4x + 2)
= 5x – 2 – 4x – 2
= 5x – 4x – (2 + 2) = x – 4.
It is also subtracting in vertical method as given below:
5x – 2
– 4x ± 2
x–4
∴ p(x) – q(x) = x – 4.
Similarly, for the polynomials f(x) = 4x2 – 3x + 2 and g(x) = 2x2 + 5x – 4, the difference between
f(x) and g(x) is given as,
Horizontal Method Vertical Method
f(x) – g(x) 4x2 – 3x + 2
= (4x2 – 3x + 2) – (2x2 + 5x – 4) – 2x2 ± 5x 4
= 4x2 – 3x + 2 – 2x2 – 5x + 4 2x2 – 8x + 6
= 2x2 – 8x + 6.
∴ f(x) – g(x) = 2x2 – 8x + 6.
Thus, the difference of polynomials is also polynomial and its degree is less than or equal to the
degree of the given polynomials.

Polynomial 29
 Product or Multiplication of Polynomials
Let p(x) = (3x + 1) and q(x) = (2x – 3) be two polynomials, then their product is denoted by
Algebra

p(x).q(x) or p(x)×q(x) and is given by,

p(x).q(x) = (3x + 1) × (2x – 3)
= 3x(2x – 3) + 1(2x – 3) = 6x2 – 9x + 2x – 3 = 6x2 – 7x – 3.
It is also multiplied in vertical method as given below.
3x + 1
× 2x – 3
6x2 + 2x
+ – 9x – 3
6x2 – 7x – 3.
∴ p(x).q(x) = 6x2 – 7x – 3.
Similarly, for the polynomials f(x) = (3x2 + x – 2) and g(x) = (2x2 – 3x + 5), the product of f(x)
and g(x) is given below,
Horizontal Method Vertical Method
= f(x) × g(x) = (3x2 + x – 2) × (2x2 – 3x + 5) 3x2 + x – 2
= 6x4 – 9x3 + 15x2 + 2x3 – 3x2 + 5x – 4x2 + 6x – 10 × 2x2 – 3x + 5
6x4 + 2x3 – 4x2
= 6x4 – 7x3 + 8x2 + 11x – 10.
– 9x3 – 3x2 + 6x
+ 15x2 + 5x – 10
6x4 – 7x3 + 8x2 + 11x –10
∴ f(x) . g(x) = 6x4 – 7x3 + 8x2 + 11x – 10
Thus, the product of polynomial is also polynomial, but its degree is equal to the sum of the
degrees of the given polynomials.
Laws of Exponent for Multiplication
The following laws of exponents are useful while multiplying the polynomials:
Laws Examples
1. x ×x =x
m n m+n
x × x = 3 = x5
3 2 3+2

2. (xm)n = xmn = (xn)m (x3)2 = x6 = (x2)3

Rules of signs (+ and –) for multiplication
The following rules of signs (+ and –) are useful while multiplying the polynomials.
Rules Examples
1. (+) × (+) = (+) x × y = xy
2. (+) × (–) = (–) x × (–y) = – xy
3. (–) × (+) = (–) – x × y = – xy
4. (–) × (–) = (+) – x × (–y) = xy

30 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

Division of polynomials

Algebra
Consider the polynomials p(x) = 2x2 + 4x and q(x) = 2x, then p(x) is divided by q(x),
p(x)
i.e., p(x) ÷ q(x) or and is given by,
q(x)
p(x) 2x2 + 4x 2x2 4x
= = + =x+2
q(x) 2x 2x 2x
It is also represented in usual or long division method;

Divisor x+2 Quotient

2x 2x + 4x
2
Dividend
–2x2

4x
– 4x
0 Remainder

Similarly, if the polynomials are p(x) = 8x3 + 10x2 + 9x + 3 and d(x) = 2x + 1,

then p(x) ÷ d(x) can be solved by the following method:
Divisor, d(x) 4x2 + 3x +3 Quotient, q(x)
2x + 1 8x3 + 10x2 + 9x +3 Dividend, p(x)
–8x ± 4x
3 2

6x2 + 9x + 3
– 6x2 ± 3x
6x + 3
– 6x ± 3
× Remainder, r(x)

∴ p(x) ÷ d(x) = 4x2 + 3x + 3.

Thus, the quotient while dividing the one polynomial (higher degree) by another (smaller degree)
is also polynomial, but its degree is the difference of the degrees of divisor and dividend.

Laws of Exponent for Division

The following laws of exponents are useful while dividing the polynomials:
Laws Examples

xm x4
1. xn
= xm ÷ xn = xm – n
x2
= x4 – 2 = x2

n mn m 3 2×3 6
xm x xn x2 x x
2. ym = y = yn y2 = y = y

Polynomial 31
 Rules of signs (+ and –) for division
Algebra

The following rules of signs (+ and –) are useful while division of the polynomial:
Rules Examples
1. (+) ÷ (+) = (+) 2x ÷ 2x = x
2

2. (+) ÷ (–) = (–) 2x2 ÷ (–2x) = – x

3. (–) ÷ (+) = (–) –2x2 ÷ 2x = – x
4. (–) ÷ (–) = (+) –2x2 ÷ (–2x) = x

Example - 1 Add the following polynomials.

p(x) = 2x3 + 2x2 – 1, q(x) = 3x2 – 4x + 5 and r(x) = 2x3 – 4x2 – 5x + 4.
Solution: Here, p(x) = 2x3 + 2x2 – 1, q(x) = 3x2 – 4x + 5 and r(x) = 2x3 – 4x2 – 5x + 4.
Now,
p(x) + q(x) + r(x) = (2x3 + 2x2 – 1) + (3x2 – 4x + 5) + (2x3 – 4x2 – 5x + 4)
= 2x3 + 2x2 – 1 + 3x2 – 4x + 5 + 2x3 – 4x2 – 5x + 4
= 4x3 + x2 – 9x + 8.
“Alternatively”
2x3 + 2x2 – 1
3x2 – 4x + 5
(+) 2x3 – 4x2 – 5x + 4
4x3 + x2 – 9x + 8
∴ p(x) + q(x) + r(x) = 4x3 + x2 – 9x + 8.
Example - 2 If f(x) = 3x4 – 3x3 + x2 + 2 and g(x) = 2x4 + x3 – 4x2 + x – 3 then subtract g(x)
from f(x).
Solution: Here, f(x) = 3x4 – 3x3 + x2 + 2 and g(x) = 2x4 + x3 – 4x2 + x – 3.
Now, f(x) – g(x) = (3x4 – 3x3 + x2 + 2) – (2x4 + x3 – 4x2 + x – 3)
= 3x4 – 3x3 + x2 + 2 – 2x4 – x3 + 4x2 – x + 3
= 3x4 – 2x4 – 3x3 – x3 + x2 + 4x2 – x + 3 + 2
= x4 – 4x3 + 5x2 – x + 5.
“Alternatively”
3x4 – 3x3 + x2 +2
– 2x4 ± x3  4x2 ± x  3
x4 – 4x3 + 5x2 – x + 5
∴ f(x) – g(x) = x4 – 4x3 + 5x2 – x + 5.

32 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

Example - 3 What must be added to 2x3 – 2xy + 4y2 to get 4x3 + 4xy – 3y2?
Solution:

Algebra
Suppose p(x) is to be added polynomial then,
(2x3– 2xy+4y2 ) + p(x) = 4x3 + 4xy – 3y2
or, p(x) = (4x3 + 4xy – 3y2) – (2x3– 2xy + 4y2 )
= 4x3+ 4xy – 3y2 – 2x3 + 2xy – 4y2
= 4x3 – 2x3 + 4xy + 2xy – 3y2 – 4y2

= 2x3 + 6xy – 7y3.
Hence, 2x3 + 6xy – 7y3 must be added.
Example - 4 What must be subtracted from 3a3b2 – 2a2b3 + 2ab to get 2a3b2 + 2a2b3 – 2ab?
Solution: Suppose p(x) is to be subtracted polynomial then,
3a3b2 – 2a2b3 + 2ab – p(x) = 2a3b2 + 2a2b3 – 2ab
or, 3a3b2 – 4a2b3 + 2ab – 2a3b2 – 2a2b3 + 2ab = p(x)
or, p(x) = 3a3b2 – 2a3b2 – 4a2b3 – 2a2b3 + 2ab + 2ab = a3b2 – 6a2b3 + 4ab.
Example - 5 Multiply the polynomials p(x) = (3x2 – 3x + 4) by q(x) = (3x3 + 2x).
Solution: Given, p(x) = (3x2 – 3x + 4) and q(x) = (3x3 + 2x)
“Alternatively”
Now, 3x – 3x + 4 2

= q(x).p(x) = (3x + 2x) . (3x – 3x + 4) × 53x +4 2x 3

2
p(x).q(x) 3 2
9x – 9x + 12x
= 3x3(3x2 – 3x + 4) + 2x(3x2 – 3x + 4) 6x3 – 6x2 + 8x
= 9x – 9x + 12x + 6x – 6x + 8x
5 4 3 3 2 9x – 9x + 18x3 – 6x2 + 8x.
5 4

= 9x5 – 9x4 + 18x3 – 6x2 + 8x.

Example - 6 What must be multiplied to p(x) = x3 – 2x + 2 to get q(x) = 2x4 + 3x3 – 4x2 – 2x + 6?

Solution: Suppose r(x) is to be multiplied to p(x), then p(x).r(x) = q(x)

q (x)
or, r(x) = = q(x) ÷ p(x).
p (x)
Now,
2x + 3
x3 – 2x + 2 2x4 + 3x3 – 4x2 – 2x + 6
–2x4  4x2 ± 4x
3x 3
– 6x + 6
– 3x 3
 6x ± 6
×
∴ The required polynomial is (2x + 3).

Polynomial 33
 EXERCISE - 1.4 (B)
Algebra

1. If p(x) and q(x) are two polynomials of third degree, what is the degree of the sum of p(x)
and q(x)?
2. Add the following polynomials and find their degrees:
(a) 2x and 4x (b) 5x + 1 and 4x + 3
(c) 2x2 + 3x + 1 and 2x2 + 3 (d) 3x3 – x and 2x3 – 2x2 + 1
3. Find the sum of the polynomials p(x) and q(x) if,
(a) p(x) = 3x2 – 3x + 1 and q(x) = 5x2 + 4x – 1
(b) p(x) = 5x3 + 4x2 + x and q(x) = 3x3 – x + 1
2 1 2 1 2 1
(c) p(x) = 3x3 – 3 x2 + 3x + 1 and q(x) = 3x3 + 3x2 + 3 x + 3
(d) p(x) = 3x2 – 4x + 3 and q(x) = 2x3 - 2x2 + 4x + 2.
4. If f(x) and g(x) are two polynomials of second degree, write the degree of f(x) – g(x).
5. Subtract the polynomial g(x) from the polynomial f(x) and find their degrees.
(a) f(x) = 3x2 – x + 2 and g(x) = 2x2 + x – 3
(b) f(x) = 4x4 – 3x + 5 and g(x) = x4 + 2x – 2
(c) f(x) = 2x3 + x2 + 3x – 1 and g(x) = x3 + 3x + 2
3 2 2 1
(d) f(x) = 5x2 – 3x + 2 and g(x) = 5x2 + 3 x + 3

6. (a) Subtract p(x) = 2x3y – 2x2y2 + 4xy3 from the sum of q(x) = x3y + x2y2 + xy3 and
r(x) = 3x3y – 3x2y2 – 2xy3.
(b) Subtract 3a2bc – 2ab2c + 4abc2 from the sum of 2a2bc + ab2c – 3abc2 and a2bc – 2ab2c + abc2.
7. (a) What should be added to 2u2 – 3u + 4 to get 4u2 – 5u – 5?
(b) What must be added to 2t2 + 4t – 6 to get 3t2 – 4t + 6?
8. (a) What must be subtracted from 3ax2y + 3bxy2 – 4ab to get 3ab – 3bxy2 + 2ax2y?
(b) What must be subtracted from 2pq2 + 3p2q + 4 to get p2q + pq2 + 4?
9. If p(x) and q(x) are two polynomials of third degree, what is the degree of p(x) × q(x)?
10. Multiply the following polynomials and find their degrees.
(a) p(x) = 2x2 + 1 and q(x) = 2x2 + 1
(b) p(t) = 3t2 – t and q(t) = 4t2 + t – 2
(c) f(a) = 3a3 + 2a2 + 1 and g(a) = 2a2 + 5a
(d) h(x) = 3x5 + 2x2 and k(x) = 2x4 – 3x

34 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

11. If r(x) and s(x) are two polynomials of degrees 3 and 2 respectively, what is the degree of
r(x) ÷ s(x)?

Algebra
12. Divide the following polynomials and find the degree of quotient.
(a) p(x) = 3x2 – 7x – 6 by q(x) = x – 3
(b) f(x) = 6x3 – 5x2 + x by g(x) = 2x – 1
(c) r(x) = 6a2x3 – 11a2x2 + 3a2x by s(x) = 2ax2 – 3ax
(d) p(u) = –6u5 + 25u4 – 14u3 by q(u) = 2u – 3u2
13. (a) What must be multiplied to p(x) = 2x3 – 7x2 to get q(x) = –6x5 + 25x4 – 14x3?
(b) What must be divided to h(x) = 6x3 – 5x2 + x to get k(x) = 2x – 1?

ANSWERS
1. 3rd
2. (a) 6x; 1 (b) 9x + 4; 1 (c) 4x2 + 3x + 4; 2 (d) 5x3 – 2x2 – x + 1; 3
1
3. (a) 8x2 + x (b) 8x3 + 4x2 + 1 (c) x3 + 3x2 + x + 4 (d) 2x3 + x2 + 5
4. 2nd
1
5. (a) x2 – 2x + 5; 2 (b) 3x4 – 5x + 7; 4 (c) x3 + x2 – 3; 3 (d) 5x2 – x – 1; 2
6. (a) 2x3y – 5xy3 (b) ab2c – 6abc2
7. (a) 2u2 – 2u – 9 (b) t2 – 8t + 12
8. (a) ax2y + 6bxy2 – 7ab (b) 2p2q + pq2
9. 6th
10. (a) 4x4 + 4x2 + 1; 4 (b) 12t4 – t3 – 7t2 + 2t; 4 (c) 6a5 + 19a4 + 10a3 + 2a2 + 5a; 5
(d) 6x9 – 5x6 – 6x3; 9
11. 1st
12. (a) 3x + 2; 1 (b) 3x2 – x; 2 (c) 3ax – a; 1 (d) 2u3 – 7u2; 3
13. (a) 2x – 3x2 (b) 3x2 – x

Polynomial 35
 1.4 (C) Division By Synthetic Method
Algebra

Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:
”” find the quotient and remainder by Synthetic division method.

Division of Polynomials by Synthetic Method

The dividing process which helps to find the quotient and remainder in simple, easier and shorter
way when a polynomial p(x) is divided by a binomial or linear polynomial (x – a) or (x – h), is
called synthetic division method. The most useful aspect of synthetic method of division is that it
allows one to calculate without using variables.
Consider a polynomial p(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d.
The value of p(x) at x = h, f(h) = ah3 + bh2 + ch + d = (ah2 + bh + c)h + d = [(ah + b)h + c]h + d.
Here, multiply a by h and add b, multiply (ah + b) by h and add c, again multiply [(ah + b) + c] by
h and add d. We can see every time multiplying by h and adding a constant after multiplying. We
can arrange this process as shown;
h a b c d
+ ah (ah + b)h [(ah + b) h + c]h
× a ah + b (ah + b) h + c [(ah + b) h + c] h
[Coefficient of [Coefficient of x] [Constant +d
x2] term] [Reminder]

This shows that when (x – h) divides the polynomial p(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, the remainder r(x)
will be [(ah + b)h + c]h + d = ah3 + bh2 + ch + d and the degree of the quotient q(x) has the degree
of the given polynomial dividend p(x) – the degree of the divisor d(x) = 3 – 1 = 2 and q(x) will be
ax2 + (ah + b)x + [(ah + b)h + c].
Computational Process By Synthetic Division Method
The working step of the synthetic division is mentioned in the table below:

Step Working Process Example

Arrange the dividend p(x) in descending order of the degree of p(x) = 4x – 5x2 + x – 2
3
1.
variable and divisor d(x) in the form of (x – h). d(x) = x – 2
2. Compute the value of h by comparing with (x – h). x–2= x–h ∴h=2
List the coefficients of the descending variables in the row after h.
3. If there is missing of any variable or term then put 0 as its coeffi- 2 4 –5 1 –2
cient. Separate h = 2 and constant d = 3 by bars.
2 4 –5 1 –2
4. Bring down the first coefficient as it is.
4

36 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 2 4 –5 1 –2
Multiply the first coefficient by h = 2 and put the result under the

Algebra
5. +8
next coefficient and add.
4 3
2 4 –5 1 – 2
Multiply the result so obtained by h = 2 and put the result under
6. 8 + 6
the next coefficient and add.
4 3 7
2 4 –5 1 – 2
7. Again, multiply the result so obtained by h = 2 and put at the last. 8 6 +14
4 3 7 12
The result obtained at the last is called the remainder and the other
results preceding to the remainder are the coefficients of the quotient, Remainder, R = 12
8.
the variable will be the same as in p(x) and the degree of variable in Quotient, q(x) = 4x2 + 3x + 7.
q(x) is less by 1 than the degree of the dividend p(x).

Note: (i) In the Synthetic division, the polynomial should generally be in the descending form
and when any term is missing in the polynomial, it is noticed that its coefficient will be
zero (0).
b b
(ii) If a polynomial p(x) is divided by (ax ± b), ax ± h = a x ± a ∴ h = a
and the actual
1
quotient is a q(x).

Example - 1 Use synthetic method to find the quotient and the remainder when f(x) = 3x3
– 4x2 + 2 is divisible by g(x) = x + 2.
Solution: Here, f(x) = 3x3 – 4x2 + 2 and g(x) = x + 2.
Comparing x + 2 with x – h, we get h = – 2.
Now, f(x) is divisible by g(x) by using synthetic division method, we have,
–2 3 –4 0 2 ∴ 3rd term is missing
–6 20 – 40 so that coefficient
of x is 0.
3 –10 20 – 38
∴ The quotient, q(x) = 3x2 – 10x + 20 and the remainder, r(x) = – 38.
Example - 2 Find the value of p(x) = x3 + 3x2 – 2x + 1 at x = 2.
Solution: Given, p(x) = x3 + 3x2 – 2x + 1 at x = 2.
Now,
2 1 3 –2 1
+2 +10 16
1 5 8 17
∴ The required value of p(x) at x = 2 is 17.

Polynomial 37
 Example - 3 Find the value of k if p(x) = 2x3 – kx + 4 leaves a remainder 3 when divided by
x + 1 by using synthetic division method.
Algebra

Solution: Here, p(x) = 2x3 – kx + 4 is divided by x + 1 and the remainder, r(x) = 3

Now,
–1 2 0 –k 4
–2 2 –2 + k
2 –2 2 – k 2 + k
∴ The remainder, r(x) = 2 + k = 3 or, k = 3 – 2 = 1.

EXERCISE - 1.4 (C)

1. Divide the following polynomials by using synthetic division method and find the quotient and re-
mainder.
(a) p(x) = 3x2 – 4x + 1 by d(x) = x – 1
(b) g(x) = 3x3 – 4x2 + x + 5 by d(x) = x + 1
(c) f(x) = 3x3 + x – 2 by g(x) = x + 2
(d) h(x) = 4x3 + 2x2 + 3x – 4 by k(x) = 2x – 1
(e) 4x3 + 3x2 + 1 by d(x) = 2x + 1
(f) p(x) = 4x3 + 6x2 + 2x – 3 by d(x) = 3x + 1.
2. (a) Find the value of p(x) = 4x3 – 2x2 + x + 4 at x = 1 by using synthetic division method.
(b) Find the value of g(x) = 3x3 + 2x – 4 at x = – 2 by using synthetic division method.
3. (a) If the polynomial p(x) = 3x3 – x2 – 3x + 2 + k is exactly divided by d(x) = x – 2, find the
value of k.
(b) If the polynomial f(x) = 3x4 – 2x3 + px + 1 is exactly divided by g(x) = x + 2, find the
value of p.
(c) What is the value of a when p(x) = 2x3 – 2x + 3 + a is divisible by x – 2, the remainder
will be 12?
(d) If the polynomial g(x) = 3x3 + 4x2 – 2px + 5 is divided by x + 1, the remainder will be
10. Find the value of p.
(e) If f(x) = 4x3 + 2x2 + x – 2k and f(–1) = 7, find the value of k.
(f) If h(x) = 3x4 – px2 – 4x + 10 and h(– 3) = 4, find the value of p.

ANSWERS
1. (a) 3x – 1, 0 (b) 3x2 – 7x + 8, – 3 (c) 3x2 – 6x + 13, – 28
5 3 1 5 4 2 14 4 85
(d) 2x2 + 2x + , – (e) 2x2 + x – 4, (f) x + x+ ,–
2 2 2 4 3 9 27 27
2. (a) 7 (b) – 32
3. (a) – 16 (b) 32.5 (c) – 3 (d) 2 (e) – 5 (f) 29

38 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 1.5
1.1 SEQUENCE AND SERIES

Algebra
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
”” define sequence and its types. ”” find the general term of the sequence. ”” define series.

Sequence
Let us suppose the sets of numbers:

(i) 3, 5, 7, 9, …….. (ii) 4, 7, 10, 13, …… (iii) 2, 10, 18, 20, ……

2 4 6 8
(iv) 5, 9, 13, 17…… (v) 0.2, -0.4, -1.1, -1.9, … (vi) –0.10, -0.8, -0.7, -0.5, ….
Are all of the sets of numbers sequences? Why?
The numbers (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) have the same difference, the number (v) has the continuous
decreasing difference, i.e., -0.6, - 0.7, - 0.8, …… and the number (vi) has no same difference or
continuous increasing (or decreasing) differences. So, the numbers (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) and (v) are
sequences, but not (vi).
Similarly, observe the following figures of the sequences and identify the sequences or not.

(vii) , , , , … , …. , …….

(viii) , , , … , …. , …….

(ix) , , , … , …. , …….

(x) , , , , …. , …….
All the patterns are sequences. Because the numbers (vii), (viii) and (ix) have the same
difference of each successive dots and the number (x) has continuous increasing difference
in each successive blocks.

Sequence and Series 39

 The sequence is the set of numbers or objects having definite or specific rule. The
Algebra

number or object of the sequence is called its term.

The same or constant difference of any two consecutive (or successive) terms is known as common
difference. It is obtained by the subtraction of the term from preceding term.
∴ Common Difference (d) = Backward Term – Preceding Term
For example, in the sequence 2, 9, 16, 23, ……..
The common difference, d = 9 – 2 = 7 (or, 16 – 9 = 7, or, 23 – 18 = 7).
Note: d = t2 - t1 = t3 - t2 = ......... = tn - tn-1.

Example - 1 What is common difference of the sequences 2, 8, 14, 20, ………… ?

Solution: Here, the given sequence is 2, 8, 14, 20, 26, ……….
The difference between 8 and 2, = 8 – 2 = 6.
The difference between 14 and 8 = 14 – 8 = 6.
The difference between 20 and 14 = 20 – 14 = 6.
Here, the difference of any two consecutive terms is the same. Therefore, the
common difference of the sequence is 6.

Types of Sequences
Finite and Infinite Sequences
A sequence having finite number of terms is called finite sequence and a sequence having infinite
number of terms is called infinite sequence. For example; (i) 2, 4, 6, 8 and (ii) 3, 5, 8, 12 are finite
sequences, and (iii) 4, 9, 14, …... and (iv) 6, 10, 15, 21, ….. are infinite sequences.
Linear and Quadratic sequences
Consider the sequences,
(v) 2, 9, 16, 23, 30. (vi) -4, -9, -14, -19, ……….
(vii) 25, 23, 20, 16, ……… (viii) 4, 8, 14, 22, ………....
The sequences (v) and (vi) have the same differences at once or at first time as shown below:
(v) 2, 9, 16, 23, 30, –, –, …………..

1st Difference: 7 7 7 7 7 7
(vi) –4, –9, –14, –19, –, –, –, …………..

1st Difference: –5 –5 –5 –5 –5 –5

40 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

But, the sequence (vii) and (viii) have not the same difference at first as shown below,
(vii) 25, 23, 20, 16, __, __, __, …………..

Algebra

1st Difference: –2 –3 –4 –5 –6 –7
(viii) 4, 8, 14, 22, __, __, __, …………..

1st Difference: 4 6 8 10 12 14
But, the differences at second time are equal as given below,
From (vii) –2, –3, –4, –5, –6, __, __, __, …………..

2nd Difference: –1 –1 –1 –1 –1 –1
From (viii) 4, 6, 8, 10, __, __, __, …………..

2nd Difference: 2 2 2 2 2 2
What do you conclude from the above examples?
A sequence which has the same differences at once is called a linear sequence. In other words,
a sequence having equal first differences is said to be a linear sequence. A sequence which has
the same difference second times is called a quadratic sequence. In other words, a sequence
having equal second difference is said to be a quadratic sequence.

Example - 2 Identify, which of the following sequences are the linear or quadratic
sequences,
(a) 6, 13, 20, 27, ………. (b) 6, 13, 23, 36, ………
Solution: (a) Here, the given sequence is,
6, 13, 20, 27, __, __, __, …………..

1st Difference: 7 7 7 7
Since the given sequence has the same difference at first. So, it is the linear sequence.
(b) Here, the given sequence is:
6, 13, 23, 36, __, __, __, …………..

1st Difference: 7 10 13 __ __ …………..

2nd Difference: 3 3
Since the given sequence has the same differences second times, i.e., the second
differences of the given sequence are the same. So, it is a quadratic sequence.

Sequence and Series 41

 General or nth Term of a Sequence
Algebra

Let us consider the sequences;

(i) 4, 12, 20, 28, …….
(ii) 3, 8, 15, 24, ……

(iii) , , , , .......

(iv) , , , , ........
Can you compute the next three terms in the above sequences?
What are these terms?
Now, find the twentieth term, thirty sixth term in the sequences (i) and (ii). Similarly, find the
number of dots of the figures in the 25th and 40th terms of the sequences (iii) and (iv).
Can you find easily? Are they possible?
It is difficult. For these, we find the rule of the sequences and then find them.
The specific term of a sequence is said to be its general term. It is a rule of the sequence, which
help to find the any term of the sequence.

The general form of the sequence is given as:

t1, t2, t3,………….., tn, ………. ,
where, t1= first term, t2 = second term, t3 = third term, tn = nth term; n∈N. The tn represents the rule
of the sequence. So, the nth term is the general term of the sequence.

General or nth Term or Rule of Linear Sequence

The general term (or nth term or rule) of a linear sequence is computed by the following methods:

Method 1: Method of Making Pattern

In the sequence (i) 4, 12, 20, 28, ………, we make a pattern to generalize the given sequence as;
Terms 1st step 2nd step 3rd step
t1 = 4 4×1 4(2 - 1) 4(2 × 1 – 1)
t2 = 12 4×3 4(4 - 1) 4(2 × 2 – 1)
t3 = 20 4×5 4(6 – 1) 4(2 × 3 – 1)
t4 = 28 4×7 4(8 – 1) 4(2 × 4 – 1)
……… …….. ……… …………
tn ____ ____ 4(2×n - 1)

“Alternative Pattern”
The sequence 4,12, 20, 28, …….. has the common difference 8. Now, making the table of pattern;

42 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 Terms 1st step 2nd step

Algebra
t1 = 4 8–4 8×1–4
t2 = 12 16 – 4 8×2–4
t3 = 20 24 - 4 8×3–4
t4 = 28 32 - 4 8×4–4
…… …… ………….
tn …… 8n – 4 = 4(2n - 1)
∴ The general or nth term (or rule) of the given sequence is
4(2n - 1). Hence, the general term (or nth term or rule) of a Oh! 8n means product of the
linear sequence is, difference and the numbers
of terms (dn) and – 4 means
dn + (a – d) or, a + (n – 1)d, where a, b ∈ Q and n ∈ N.
difference between the first
It is the first degree algebraic expression in the variable n. term and difference.
Method 2: Method of using Formula So, tn = dn + (a – d).

The given sequence is 4, 12, 20, 17, …..……..

Alternatively
Here, The first term(a or t1) = 4. tn = a + (n – 1) d
The common difference (d) =12 – 4 = 8. = 4 + (n – 1) 8
The general term (tn) = dn + (a – d) = 8n + (4 – 8) = 8n – 4 = 4(2n – 1). = 4 + 8n – 8
∴ The general or n term or the rule of the given sequence is 4(2n – 1).
th
= 8n – 4
Note: The general term of a quadratic sequence will be studied in the next class. = 4(2n – 1)

Example - 3 Find the nth term of the sequence – 3, 2, 7, 12, 17, ……… . Also, evaluate the
values of the 20th and 35th of the same sequence.
Solution: Given, the given sequence is – 3, 2, 7, 12, 12, …………
Here, the given first difference of the given sequence is 5.
Now,
Terms 1st step 2nd step
t1 = – 3 5–8 5×1–8
t2 = 2 10 – 8 5×2–8
t3 = 7 15 – 8 5×3–8
t4 = 12 20 – 8 5×4–8
tn 5n – 8
∴ The nth term of the given sequence is 5n – 8.
Again, the value of the 20th term (t20) = 5 × 20 – 8 = 100 – 8 = 92,
and the 35th term(t35) = 5 × 35 – 8 = 175 – 8 = 167.

Sequence and Series 43

 “Alternatively”
Given, the given sequence is – 3, 2, 7, 12, ……..
Algebra

Here, the first term(a) = – 3

The common differences (d) = 2 – (– 3) = 5
Now, the nth term(tn) = dn + (a – d) = 5n + (– 3 – 5) = 5n – 8.
∴ The 20th term (t20) = 5 × 20 – 8 = 100 – 8 = 92.
and the 35th term (t35) = 5 × 35 – 8 = 175 – 8 = 167.

Series
Consider a finite sequence 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45.
What is the sum of the finite sequence? Can you find out? How do you do it?
We know that
20 + 25 + 30 + 35 + 40 + 45 = 195.
The sum of the sequence is 195.
This summation form 20 + 25 + 30 + 35 + 40 + 45 of the sequence 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45 is called
a series.
The summation form of the terms of a sequence is called a series associated with that sequence.

For example, the series of the sequence 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, ….. is 3 + 7 + 11 + 15 + 19 +…..
In general, if t1, t2, t3, ………, tn is sequence, then its associated series is represented by Sn and is
written as,
Sn = t1 + t2 + t3 + ……… + tn .

Example - 4 Find the series of the sequence – 4, –1, 2, 5, 8, ………. .

Solution: Here, the given sequence is – 4, –1, 2, 5, 8, ………. .
Now,
The required series is (– 4) + (– 1) + 2 + 5 + 8 + ………. .
Example - 5 Find the summation form of the sequence 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, ……. to n terms.
Solution: Here, the given sequence is 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 …….. to n terms.
The required sum of the given sequence is
Sn = 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + …………. to n terms
= (1 + 3) + (2 + 3) + (3 + 3) + (4 + 3) + (5 + 3) + ……… + (n + 3)
∴ The sum of the first n term, Sn = 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + …………. + (n + 3).

44 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 EXERCISE - 1.5

Algebra
1. (a) What is sequence?
(b) What is the common difference of 3, 7, 11, 15, ....?
2. Define the following:
(a) Finite and infinite sequences (b) Linear and quadratic sequence
(c) General term of sequence (d) Series
3. Separate the pattern of numbers as sequences or series:
(a) 2, 3, 4, 5, …………………… (b) –3 + 4 – 5 + 6 – ……..……….………
(c) 9 + 7 + 5 + 3 + 1 – 1 – 3 (d) 4, 9, 14, 19, 24
(e) 5, 12, 19, …….……………… (f) 12 + 18 + 24 + 30
4. Find the common different of two consecutive terms of the following sequences:
(a) 4, 9, 14, 19, ……………….. (b) 25, 19, 13, 7, …………………
(c) 0.28, 0.36, 0.44, …………… (d) –27, –31, –35, –39, ……………
1 3
(e) 2, –1, – 4, –7, ……………… (f) 2, 1, 2, 2, ……………………..
5. Identify, which of the following sequences are linear or quadratic sequences:
(a) 3, 9, 15, 21, ………………… (b) 5, 9, 14, 20, …………………
(c) 25, 16, 9, 4,………………… (d) 57, 64, 71, 78, ………………
(e) 3, 6, 11, 18, ………………… (f) 100, 95, 88, 79, ………………
6. Write down the next three terms of each sequence. Also, find its rule.
(a) 3, 6, 9, 12, ………………….… (b) 16, 23, 30, 37, ………………
4 1 –2 –5
(c) 0.29, 0.35, 0.41, 0.47, ………… (d) 9, 11, 13, 15,………………
–5 –2 1 4
(e) 1001, 979, 957, 935, 913, …….. (f) 26, 24, 22, 20, …….

7. Find the 25th and 49th terms of the following sequences:

(a) 1, 4, 7, 10, ………………….. (b) 15, 21, 27, 33, ………………
(c) 50, 46, 42, 38,……………… (d) –10, –6, –2, ……………………
(e) 0.58, 0.61, 0.64, 0.67, ………. (f) 0.10, 0.08, 0.06, 0.04, …..……
8. Add the next figure on the following sequences and find the general term of each sequence.
Also, find the number of dots of the 100th figure.

(a) , , , , ............................

Sequence and Series 45

Algebra

(b) , , , , ..................

(c) , , , , .........

(d) , , , , .....................
9. Write the series of the following sequences.
(a) 2, 9, 16, 23, 30, 37 (b) 10, 4, -2. -8, ………. to n terms.
10. Write the summation form of the following sequences.
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4, …… to n terms. (b) 7, 10, 13, 16, …….. to n terms
(c) 1, 4, 9, 64, ….. to n terms (d) 2, 5, 10, 17, ……… to n terms

ANSWERS
3. (a) Sequence: (a), (d), (e) Series: (b), (c), (f)
4. (a) 5 (b) – 6 (c) 0.8 (d) – 4 (e) – 3 (f) ½ .
5. Linear sequence: (a), (d); Quadratic sequence: (b), (c), (e), (f)
6. (a) 15,18,21; 3n (b) 44,51,58; 7n + 9 (c) 0.53, 0.59, 0.65; 0.06n + 0.23
–8 –11 –14 7 – 3n 7 10 13 3n – 8
(d) 17, 19 , 21 , 2n + 7 (e) 891, 869, 847;1023 - 22n. (f) 18, 16, 14; 28 – 2n
7. (a) 73;145 (b) 159; 303 (c) – 46; –142 (d) 86, 182 (e) 1.3, 2.02 (f) –0.38, –0.86
8. (a) 199 (b) 400 (c) 300 (d) 397
9. (a) 2 + 9 + 16 + 23 + 30 + 37 (b) 10 + 4 – 2 – 8 – ……… – to n terms
10. (a) 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ….. + n (b) 7 + 10 + 13 + 16 + …….. + (4 + 3n)
(c) 1 + 4 + 9 + 64 + ….. + n2 (d) 2 + 5 + 10 + 17 + ……… + (1 + n2)

46 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

LIMIT
UNIT

Limit
Once we accept our limits, we go beyond them. – Albert Einstein

Competency
”” To demonstrate the concept of the limit.

Learning outcomes
At the end of this unit, the students will be able to:
”” give simple concept of limit from sequence of numbers and figures sum of infinite series and functional value.

What do you learn?

Simple Concept on Limit
� Sequence of numbers
� Sum of Infinite Series
� Value of Function

Are you ready?

� Number line � Rounding numbers
� Arrangement of numbers � Ascending and descending order of numbers
� Sequence and series � Types of sequences and series
� Set of numbers � Value of function
� Stretch of rubber band � Volume of vessel

Historical Background
In mathematics, the limit of a function is a
fundamental concept of calculus and analysis
concerning the behaviour of the function near a
particular value of variable. The discovery of calculus
is often attributed to two men, Isaac Newton and
Gottfried Leibniz, who independently developed its
foundations. Although they both were instrumental
in its creation, they thought of the fundamental
concepts in very different ways. Sir Isaac Newton G.W. Leibniz
While Newton considered variables changing with time, Leibniz thought of the variables x and y as
ranging over sequences of infinitely close values. He introduced dx and dy as differences between
successive values of these sequences. Leibniz knew that dy/dx gives the tangent but he did not
use it as a defining property. On the other hand, Newton used quantities x' and y', which were
finite velocities, to compute the tangent. Of course neither Leibniz nor Newton thought in terms of
functions, but both always thought in terms of graphs. For Newton the calculus was geometrical
while Leibniz took it towards analysis.
 47
 2.1
1.1 NUMERICAL SEQUENCE

Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
Limit

”” write the sequence and estimate the last term.

”” find the limit of the sequence.

Let us study the following number patterns:

(a) 7, 9, 11, 13, ......... (b) 25, 19, 13, 7, ........ (c) 1, 3, 9, 27, ...........
2 4 6
(d) 512, 256, 128, 64, ......... (e) 0.2, 0.5, 0.7, .......... (f) , , , ..................
3 5 7
Can you add three more terms in each of the above number pattern?
These number patterns are called sequence. How many terms are there in each sequence? How
can you find the 40th term in each sequence?
5
Let us consider a general term of a sequence. Then write the sequence formed by the
3n + 5
5 5 5 5
general term. The sequence becomes, , , , , ............................... and so on.
8 11 14 17
Let us find out the 100th term. Can you find it?
5 5
100th term = =
3 × 100 + 5 305
= 0.01639344 (Decimal form)
= 1.639344 × 10– 2 (Scientific Notation)
Can you find the thousandth term? Write it in scientific notation.
It is noticed that if the denominator of the fraction or rational number is greater than its numerator
and both are simultaneously increasing, it is approaching to the lesser number.
Let's do.

Take an 8 cm long paper strip as shown in the figure below:

8 cm 8 8
2 4
It is cut into half 5 times as shown in the above figure. What is the length of the fifth smaller strip?

48 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

What is the sequence formed by the pieces of the paper strips?
If the 5th smaller piece of the strip is again cut down 5 times, can you cut it?
Similarly, the smaller one is again cut down 5 times. Is it possible? What is the length of the 15th
smaller piece of the strip? Can you measure it? But how can you find the length of the 15th strip?
We find the general term of the sequence as
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
, , , , , .................. = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ..................
2 4 8 16 32 2 2 2 2 2

Limit
8
Then, its general or the nth term (tn) = n
2
8 8
∴ The length of its 15th strip (t15) = 15 =
2 32768
= 0.000244140625 = 2.44140625 × 10– 4 cm
If the 15th strip is continuously bisected countable infinite times, the length of the last strip
approximately approaches to zero (0), but not equal to zero (0). This zero (0) is called the limit of
8 8 8 8
the sequence , , , , ..................
2 4 8 16
3n + 1
Let us take another general term . Then we easily find the following terms:
n
3 × 10 + 1
10th term = = 3.1
10
3 × 100 + 1
100th term = = 3.01
100
3 × 1000 + 1
1000th term = = 3.001
1000
3 × 10000 + 1
10000th term = = 3.0001 and so on.
10000
When n is increasing up to positively countable infinite time, the value of the term is nearer to 3
3n + 1
when it is rounded off. This 3 is limit of the sequence having general term .
n
The value of the term of a sequence nearer to specific number for a particular input of the
number of terms rounding off, is called the limit of the sequence.

9 9 9
Example - 1 Add three more terms in the sequence , , , .............. and find its 10th term
10 100 1000
in decimal form and scientific notation.
9 9 9
Solution: The given sequence is , , , ....................
10 100 1000
In the sequence, the numerator is constant and denominator is increased by 10 times.

Numerical Sequence 49
 9
The general term of the sequence is . Therefore, the 10th term is,
10n
9 9
= = 0.0000000009 = 9 × 10– 10
1010 10000000000
2 2 2
Example - 2 Find the tenth term of the sequence , , , ............. . Convert the sequence
1 5 25
into decimal form and write its limit when its nth term is countable infinitely
large.
Limit

2 2 2
Solution: Here, the given sequence is , , , ....................
1 5 25
In the sequence, the numerator of each term is 2 and the denominator is multiplied
2
by 5. So, its general term is n – 1.
5
2 2 2
So, its tenth term is 10 – 1. = 9 =
5 5 1953125
The sequence in decimal form as,
2, 0.4, 0.08, ....................., 0.000001024, ..................
When the nth term is countable infinitely large, the term will approximately be zero
(0). Hence, the limit of the sequence is 0.
Example - 3 The outer square has 6 cm side. Find the area of the sixth square
made by joining the midpoints of each side simultaneously.
Write the limiting value of the area of the square formed
when the number of midpoints is countable infinitely large.
Solution: From the given figure, 6 cm
The side of the outer square (l1) = 6 cm
6
The side of the square formed by joining the previous midpoints (l2) = = 3 cm
2
3
The side of the square formed by joining the previous midpoints = = 1.5 cm
2
i.e. it forms the sequence as,
6, 3, 1.5, .................
6 6 6
= , , , ...............
1 2 4
6 6 6
= , , , ..............
20 21 22
6 6 6
= , 2 – 1, 3 – 1, ..............
2­ 2
1–1
2
4
∴ Its general term is n – 1.
2 6 6 6 3
Now, the side of the square made by joining the sixth square is 6 – 1 = 5 = = cm
2 2 32 16
3 2 9
∴ The area of the sixth square = = cm2 = 0.03515625 cm2
16 25
50 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8
 When the number of the midpoints of the new square is countable infinitely large, the
limiting value of the area and the square so formed are approximately zero (0).

EXERCISE - 2.1

1. What are three more terms in each sequence given below? Write them.
(a) 7, 11, 15, 19, ........................ (b) – 25, – 19, – 13, – 7, ........................

Limit
1
(c) – 25, – 5, – 1, – , ........................ (d) 1, 4, 16, 64, ........................
5
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(e) , , , , ........................ (f) , , , , ........................
2 4 8 16 3 9 27 81
3 3 3 3 2 3 5 7
(g) , , , , ........................ (h) , , , , ........................
10 100 1000 10000 10 100 1000 10000
2. Find the general term of the following sequences and also find their twentieth term.
(a) 12, 14, 16, 18, ........................ (b) 2, 4, 8, 16, ........................
7 7 7 7 3 3 3
(c) , , , , ........................ (d) 3, , , , ........................
10 100 1000 10000 10 100 1000
3. Write the 7th term of the following sequences and find out the approximately last term
when their number of terms is increased countable infinite.
(a) 1.9, 1.09, 1.009, ........................ (b) 2.1, 2.01, 2.001, ........................
(c) 4.9, 4.99, 4.999, ........................ (d) 4.51, 4.501, 4.5001, ........................
4. What are the limit of the following sequences?
(a) 2.9, 2.99, 2.999, ........................ (b) 4.01, 4.001, 4.0001, ........................
(c) 3.1, 3.01, 3.001, ........................ (d) 8.9, 8.99, 8.999, ........................
5. Write the sequences obtained from the following general terms and convert into
decimal form. Write their limits when n is countable infinitely large number.
1 2 2n – 1 3n + 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2n 4n – 1 n n
6. (a) Draw a line segment of the length 8 cm. Bisect the line segment 8 times towards 0 and
show them in a number line. When it bisects 100 times, what is the limit of the 100th
midpoint?
(b) Take a line segment PQ of the length 6 cm. Bisect it 6 times towards P and write the all
midpoints in sequence. When it bisects at 100 times, find its value in scientific notation
and write its limit.

Numerical Sequence 51
 7. (a) Write the sequences of the sides, perimeters and areas A
S R
of the squares formed by joining the midpoints of the
successive sides of the given square PQRS having side 8
cm. Write their limits.
(b) Find the sequences of the sides, perimeters and areas of the P 8 cm Q B 12 cm C
triangles obtained by joining the midpoints of the successive Q. No. 7 (a) Q. No. 7 (b)
sides of the given equilateral triangle ABC having the sides
12 cm. Write their limits.
Limit

8. (a) A 150 ml glass is full of milk. A girl drinks half of the milk
at once in each drink. At what times does she finish the glass
of milk? What amount of milk remains in the glass at last?

(b) A man cuts half of a stick of the length 60 cm. He cuts again
and again half in each cut. At what times does he finish to
cut the stick? What amount of stick will left at last?

ANSWERS
1 1 1
1. (a) 23, 27, 31 (b) – 1, 5, 11 (c) – ,– ,– (d) 256, 1024, 4098
25 125 625
1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 3
(e) , , (f) , , (g) , ,
32 64 128 81 243 729 100000 1000000 10000000
9 11 13
(h) , ,
100000 1000000 10000000
7 3
2. (a) 2n + 10, 50 (b) 2n, 1048576 (c) (d)
10n 10n – 1
3. (a) 1.0000009; 1 (b) 2.0000001; 2 (c) 4.9999999; 5 (d) 4.50000001; 4.5
4. (a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 3 (d) 9
1 1 1 1
5. (a) , , , , .........; 0.5, 0.25, 0.125, 0.0625; 0
2 4 8 16
3 3 3
(b) 3, , , , .........; 3, 0.75, 0.1875, 0.046875; 0
4 16 64
(c) 1, 3 , 5 , 7 , .........; 1, 1.5, 1.6667, 1.75, .........; 2
2 3 4
7 10 13
(d) 4, , , , .........; 4, 3.5, 3.3333, 3.25, .........; 3
2 3 4
6. (a) Number line: Show to your teacher; 0
(b) 6 , 6 , 6 , 6 , 6 , 6 , ..........; 4.733165431 × 10 – 30; 0
2 4 8 16 32 64
1
7. (a) 4, 2, 1, 1 , ..............; 16, 8, 3, 2, .............; 16, 4, 1, , ..........; 0, 0, 0
2 4
9 3 9 3 9 3
(b) 6, 3, 3 , 3 , .............; 18, 9, 9 , 9 , ..............; 9 3, 4 , 16 , 64 , .........; 0, 0, 0
2 4 2 4
8. (a) Countable infinite times, approximately zero.
(b) Countable infinite times, approximately zero.

52 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 2.2
1.1 SUM OF INFINITE SERIES

Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:

Limit
”” find the sum of countable infinite series.

A sequence having infinite number of terms is called an infinite sequence. An infinite series is
3 7 11 15
the sum of the terms of an infinite sequence. An example of an infinite sequence is , , , ,
4 8 16 32
3 7 11 15
..........., and then the series obtained from this sequence would be + + + + .............. with
4 8 16 32
sum going on forever.
3 7 11 15 4n – 1
Now, we know, 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + .............. up to n + 1 ,
2 2 2 2 2
where n is countable infinite large. The sum of infinite series is denoted by,
∞ 4n – 1 3 7 11 15
= + + + + ..............,
n=1 2n + 1 4 8 16 32
Where Σ is the sigma and works the sum of all terms as summation. ∞ means large countable
infinite number.
Consider a line segment AB having length 4 units and bisect it at C. Again, BC is bisected at D,
for more over bisect BD at E and bisect BE at F as shown in the given figure.
In the above figure, F
AB = 4 units
A C D E B
4 4 units
AC = BC = = 2 units
2
2
CD = BD = = 1 unit and AD = AC + CD = 2 + 1 = 3 units
2
1 1 1 1
DE = BE = BD = × 1 = cm and AE = AD + DE = 2 + 1 + units
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
EF = BF = BE = × = units and AF = AF + EF = 2 + 1 + + units
2 2 2 4 2 4
In the same manner, we can bisect AB continuously and the last midpoint is nearer to the point B.
Now, we write,
4
Sum of the 1st piece (S1) = AC = = 2 units
2
4 4
Sum of the 1st two pieces (S2) = AD = + = 2 + 1 = 3 units
2 4

Sum of Infinite Series 53

 4 4 4 1
Sum of the 1st three pieces (S3) = AE = + + = 2 + 1 + = 3.5 units
2 4 8 2
1 1
Sum of the 1st four pieces (S4) = AF = 2 + 1 + + = 3.75 units
2 4
Similarly, we can compute S5, S6, S7, .........., Sn (bisects n times) where Sn is approximately to 4.
Here, 4 is the limiting value of the sum of the given infinite series. Therefore,
∞ 4
Sn = ≈4
n=1 2n
Limit

Note: If the absolute value of the ratio of the succeeding term and preceding term of a geometric
series is less than 1, we can compute the limiting value of the infinite series as a real number.

1
Example 1 : Write down the first five terms of the sequence having the nth term tn = . Then
2n
find the absolute value of the last term. Also, find the sum of the infinite series.
1
Solution: Given, the general term (tn) = n
2
1 1 1 1
If n = 1, then t1 = 1 = If n = 2, then t2 = 2 =
2 2 2 4
1 1 1 1
If n = 3, then t3 = = If n = 4, then t4 = =
23 8 2 16
4

1 1
If n = 5, then t5 = =
25 32
1 1 1 1 1
Therefore, the required first five terms are , , , and .
2 4 8 16 32
Again,
1 1 1 1
The series formed by the nth term is + + + + .......... and the limiting value of
2 4 8 16
its last term is nearer to 0. Hence, the absolute value of the last term of the series is 0.
Now, computing the sums,
1
S1 = = 0.5
2
1 1
S2 = + = 0.5 + 0.25 = 0.75
2 4
1 1 1
S3 = + + = 0.5 + 0.25 + 0.125 = 0.875
2 4 8
1 1 1 1
S4 = + + + = 0.5 + 0.25 + 0.125 + 0.0625 = 0.9375
2 4 8 16
1 1 1 1 1
S5 = + + + + = 0.5 + 0.25 + 0.125 + 0.0625 + 0.03125 = 0.96875
2 4 8 16 32
Hence, the sum of the infinite series will be approximately 1.

54 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 EXERCISE - 2.2

1. Which of the following geometric series has the limiting value as a fixed real number?
1 1 1 1 1 3
(a) + + + ............... (b) + + + ..................... (c) 1 + 2.5 + 4 + .............
2 4 8 6 2 2
1 1
(d) 6 – 3 + 2 – ................. (e) 81 – 27 + 9 – 3 + .............. (f) 4 – 1 + – + .........
4 16

Limit
2. Find the first five terms of the sequence obtained by the following nth terms. What is the
limiting value of the nth term or last term of the sequence when n is countable infinitely
greater?
1 1 3
(a) tn = n (b) tn = (c) an =
3 2n – 1 2n
1 1 (– 1) n
2n
(d) yn = + (e) tn = 2 + 2 (f) tn = 3 + 2
n 2n n n +n
1
3. (a) If tn = 3 + is the nth term of a sequence, find S1, S2, S3, S4, S5 and S6.
n2
(– 1) n
(b) If the nth term of a sequence is 2 – , find the values of the first five terms and the
2n2
partial sums up to 5 terms.
4. (a) What is the sum of the odd number of the terms of the infinite series 1 – 1 + 1 – 1 + .....?
(b) Find the sum of the even number of the terms of the infinite series 3 – 3 + 3 – 3 + ...... .
5. (a) Find the sum of the odd number of the terms of the infinite series having the nth term
(– 1)n
tn = .
3
(b) What is the sum of the even number of the terms of the infinite series having the nth term
(– 1)n
2(– 1)n + ?
2
6. Find the sum of the following infinite series:
∞ 1 n ∞ 4 ∞ 1 1
(a) Σ (b) Σ n – 1 (c) Σ n + n
n=1 3 n=1 2 n=1 2 3
ANSWERS

1. (a), (b), (e), (f)

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 3 3
2. (a) , , , , ; 0 (b) 1, , , , ; 0 (c) , , , , ;0
3 9 27 81 243 3 5 7 9 2 4 6 8 16
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(d) 1 + , + , + , + , + ;0 (e) (2 – 1), 2 + , 2 – , 2 + , 2– ;2
2 2 4 3 6 4 8 5 10 4 9 16 25
2 4 6 8 10
(f) 3 – , 3 + , 3 – , 3+ , 3– ;3
2 6 12 20 30
29 373 1933 59269 70169 1 1 1 1 1 75019
3. (a) 4, , , , , (b) 2+ , 2– , 2+ , 2– , 2+ ;
4 36 144 3600 3600 2 8 18 32 50 7200
1 1
4. (a) 1 (b) 0 5. (a) – (b) 0 6. (a) (b) 8 (c) 2
3 2

Sum of Infinite Series 55

 2.3
1.1 LIMIT OF FUNCTION

Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
Limit

”” find the limit of the function by using table.

Consider the functions,

2x + 1 2x2 – 1
f(x) = and g(x) =
2 x+1
Can you find the values of f(0), f(2), f(– 3), g(0), g(1) and g(– 2)?
1
But, what are the values of f – and g(– 1)?
2
0 1 1
Can we define them? Yes, is 0, but is not 0. is undefined number.
2 0 0
x2 – 4 0
Similarly, what is the value of h(2) for the function h(x) = ? is also undefined number. The
0 ∞ x–2 0
numbers like as , , 0 × ∞, 1∞, ∞ – ∞, 0°, ∞°, etc. are indeterminate forms.
0 ∞
Now, how can we find the value of h(x) at x = 2? For this we find the values of h(1.9), h(1.99),
h(1.999), h(1.9999), h(2.1), h(2.01), h(2.001), h(2.0001), etc. as shown in the tables below:
Y
x 1.9 1.99 1.999 1.9999 h(x) = x – 4
2

5 x–2
f(x) 3.9 3.99 3.999 3.9999
4
3
x 2.1 2.01 2.001 2.0001 2
1
f(x) 4.1 4.01 4.001 4.0001
X
–2 –1 O 1 2 3
The above two tables show that x approaches 2 from left or right the values of the function h(x)
appear to approaching 4. i.e. when x is nearer to 2, h(x) is nearer to 4 as shown in the graph.
x2 – 4
Hence, this 4 is the limit of the function h(x) = at x = 2.
x–2

When the value successively attributed to a variable of a function approaches infinitely to a

fixed value, the value of the function approaches to the finite number, is called the limit of the
function.

56 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 4x – 1
Example - 1 If f(x) = , find the values of f(1), f(3.001) and f(2.999).
3
4x – 1
Solution: Given, f(x) =
3
Now, let's put x = 1 in the given function, we get
4×1–1

Limit
f(1) =

3
4–1 3
= = = 1.
3 3
Let's put x = 3.001, we get
4 × 3.001 – 1
f(3.001) =

3
12.004 – 1 11.004
= = = 3.668.
3 3
Again, let's put x = 2.999, then
4 × 2.999 – 1
f(2.999)
=
3
11.996 – 1 10.996
= = = 3.66533
3 3
x2 – 9
Example - 2 Estimate the limit numerically for the function f(x) = at x = 3.
x+3
x –9
2
Solution: Given, f(x) =
x+3
The domain of f(x) exits the set of all real numbers except – 3. Put the values of x
near to – 3 from left and right in the given function below:

x – 2.9 – 2.99 – 2.999 –

2.9999
f(x) – 5.9 – 5.99 – 5.999 –
5.9999

x – 3.1 – 3.01 – 3.001 –

3.0001
f(x) – 6.1 – 6.01 – 6.001 –
6.0001

The above two tables show that x approaches – 3 from left and right, the values of
function f(x) appear to be approaching – 6. i.e. when x is nearer to – 3, f(x) is nearer
to – 6.
x2 – 9
Hence, the limit of the function f(x) = is – 6.
x+3
Limit of Function 57
 EXERCISE – 2.3
1. (a) Define limit of a function. (b) What is the value of a function?
1
2. (a) If the function f(x) = 3x + 1, what are the values of f(2), f(2.99), f(– 1.01), f and
1 3
f – ?
3
4x – 3 3 1
(b) What are the values of the function f(x) = at x = 2, 1.09, and ?
3 4 8
Limit

3. (a) In which whole number rounds off the value of f(1.999) in the function f(x) = 3x2 + 2.667?
(b) In which whole number rounds off the value of f(1.001) in f(x) = 5 – 3x2?
x3 – 8
4. (a) It is given that f(x) = . Is f(x) denotes a fixed real number at x = 2? For this,
x–2
evaluate the following:
(i) What are the values of f(x) at x = 2.1, 2.01, 2.001 and 2.0001?
(ii) What are the values of f(x) at x = 1.9, 1.99, 1.999 and 1.9999?
(iii) Can the values of f(x) that are computed in (i) and (ii) express in whole numbers
by rounding off?
2x
(b) Does the value of g(0) denote a fixed real number in the function g(x) = ?
1– 1–x
For this, perform the following questions:
(i) What are the values of g(x) at x = – 0.1, – 0.01, – 0.001 and – 0.0001?
(ii) What are the values of g(x) at x = 0.1, 0.01, 0.001 and 0.0001?
(iii) Can the values of g(x) that are calculated in (i) and (ii) express in whole numbers
by rounding off?
5. Estimate the limit numerically for the following functions:
x2 – 1 x2 – 4
(a) f(x) = at x = – 1 (b) g(x) = at x = 2
x+1 x–2
25 – x2 4x2 – 1 1
(c) f(x) = at x = – 5 (d) h(x) = at x =
5+x 2x – 1 2
ANSWERS

5
2. (a) 7, 9.97, – 2.03, 2, 0 (b) , 0.453, 1.68, 0, – 0.833
3
3. (a) 15 (b) 2
4. (a) No, (i) 12.61, 12.0601, 12.006001, 12.00060001;
(ii) 11.41, 11.9401, 11.994001, 11.99940001; (iii) Yes, 12
(b) No, (i) 4.0976, 4.009975, 4.00099975, 4.00009998;
(ii) 3.8973665, 3.9899748, 3.99899975, 3.999899998; (iii) Yes, 4
5. (a) – 2 (b) 4 (c) 10 (d) 7

58 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 3
UNIT
MATRIX
Mathematics is the music of reason. – J. J. Sylvester

Specific Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

Matrix
”” define matrix with examples and its order.
”” identify the types of matrices.
”” solve the problems related to equal matrices.
”” perform the operation on the matrices.
”” solve the problems related to transpose and determinant of matrix.

What do you learn ?

Basics of Matrix
- Introduction, Order of Matrix and Notation of Matrix
- Types of Matrices
Operation on Matrices
- Addition and Subtraction on Matrices
- Scalar Multiplication and Scalar Division of Matrices
- Transpose of Matrix
- Determinant of Matrix

Are you ready ?

� Rectangular and Square form � Row and column � Unit number
� Equal components � Addition of numbers � Subtraction of numbers
� Multiplication of numbers � Division of numbers

Historical Background
The history of matrices goes back to ancient times! But the term “matrix” was not applied to
the concept until 1850. “Matrix” is the Latin word for womb. The origins of
mathematical matrices lie with the study of systems of simultaneous linear
equations. An important Chinese text from between 300 BC and 200 AD, Nine
Chapters of the Mathematical Art (Chiu Chang Suan Shu), gives the first
known example of the use of matrix methods to solve simultaneous equations.
More uses of matrix like arrangements of numbers, “Methods of rectangular
arrays,” in which a method is given for solving simultaneous equations using a
counting board that is mathematically identical to the modern matrix method of
solution outlined by Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855), also known as Gaussian
elimination. The term “matrix” for such arrangements was introduced in 1850 James Joseph Sylvester
by English Mathematician James Joseph Sylvester (1814-1897).
 59
 3.1
1.1 BASICS OF MATRIX

3.1 (A) Introduction

Learning Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
”” define matrix and its order. ”” symbolize the matrix.

The following table gives the total number of medals by four countries in Olympic games in 2000,
2004, 2008 and 2012:
Matrix

Country 2000 2004 2008 2012

USA 94 101 110 104
Russia 89 92 73 82
China 58 63 100 88
Let’s express the above information by omitting the name of the countries and game year in the
rectangular form and enclosed by the round (small) or square (big) brackets as,
94 101 110 104 94 101 110 104
 89 
92 73 82 or 89 92 73 82
 58 63 100 88  58 63 100 88
The number of medals in the horizontal lines taken by each country in different years is known
as rows and the numbers of medals in the vertical line taken by separate countries in the gaming
year are known as columns.
94 101 110 104 1st Row (R1)
89 92 73 82 2nd Row (R2)
58 63 100 88 3rd Row (R3)

1st 2nd 3rd 4th

Column Column Column Column
(C1) (C2) (C3) (C4)

Such type of systematical arrangement of numbers in row and column form and enclosed by
round or square bracket is called a matrix. Each number of the matrix is called an element or a
component or entity of the matrix.
–1 0 2 
For example; 
 3 4 – 4  is a matrix and –1 is its entry in the first row and first column.
Similarly, 3 is its entry in the second row and first column.

60 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

Order of Matrix
3 5 0
Consider a matrix .
4 –1 5
In this matrix, there are two rows and three columns. So, the order of the matrix is 2 by 3. It is
denoted by 2×3 (2 cross 3) and is presented in the matrix as given below:

3 5 0 The number of rows and columns taken together in the form of cross
4 –1 5 2×3 (using ‘×’ between them) is called an order of the matrix.

Notation of Matrix
Generally, the matrices are denoted by the capital letters of English alphabets as A, B, C, …., X,
Y, Z and their elements are denoted by the small letters of English alphabet as a, b, c, …, x, y, z

Matrix
and numbers.
2 3 4
Consider a matrix A = .
1 0 5
It has 2 rows and 3 columns. So, the order of the matrix A is denoted by,
2 3 4
A2×3 = ,
1 0 5 2×3
where 2 is the element in the 1st row and the 1st column,
3 is the element in the 1st row and the 2nd column,
4 is the element in the 1st row and the 3rd column,
1 is the element in the 2nd row and the 1st column,
0 is the element in the 2nd row and the 2nd column,
5 is the element in the 2nd row and the 3rd column.
Generally, the standard form of the matrix is given below:
a11 a12 a13 a1n
a21 a22 a23 a2n
Mmn = a31 a32 a33 a3n
am1 am2 am3 amn m×n

In this way, an element of a matrix, generally, is written as amn, where m is the number of the rows
and n is the number of the columns to which it lies.
Compare the matrix A with the standard form of the matrix, we get
a11 = 2, a12 = 3, a13 = 4, a21 = 1, a22 = 0, a23 = 5.

Basics of Matrix 61
 1 –2 4
Example - 1 If M = then,
3 0 –1
(a) write the elements in the first row of M.
(b) write down the number of elements of M.
(c) what is the order of M?
1 –2 4
Solution: Here, M = .
3 0 –1
Now,
(a) The elements in the first row of M are 1 ,–2 and 4.
(b) There are 6 elements in M.
(c) The order of M is 2 × 3.
Matrix

1 2 4 5
Example - 2 Compare the matrix A = with standard form and find the
–2 0 2 –1
values of a12, a14, a22 and a23.
Solution: Here, comparing the matrix A with standard form, we get
1 2 4 5 a a a a
A= = 11 12 13 14
–2 0 2 –1 a21 a22 a23 a24
\ a12 = 2, a14 = 5, a22 = 0 and a23 = 2.
Example - 3 Construct a 2 × 2 matrix whose elements aij are given by aij = 2i + j.
Solution: Here, aij = 2i + j
If i = 1 and j = 1, then a11 = 2 × 1 + 1 = 3.
If i = 1 and j = 2, then a12 = 2 × 1 + 2 = 4.
If i = 2 and j = 1, then a21 = 2 × 2 + 1 = 5.
If i = 2 and j = 2, then a11 = 2 × 2 + 2 = 6.
3 4
∴ The required 2 × 2 matrix is .
5 6
“Alternatively”
Here, aij = 2i + j
Now, we have
The required 2 × 2 matrix is,
a11 a12 2×1+1 2×1+2 3 4
M2 × 2 = = = .
a21 a22 2×2+1 2×2+2 5 6 2×2

EXERCISE - 3.1 (A)

1. (a) What is matrix? (b) What is the component of matrix?
(c) Define order of matrix. (d) Write the standard form of matrix.

62 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

2. (a) The obtained marks in the following three subjects by three students are as:
Subject C. Math Science Opt. Math
Name
Astha Bhatta 98 96 94
Sabin Sah 87 82 92
Prajwal Rai 89 92 88
Display this information in the matrix form.
(b) The market prices of the following items are given below:
Model I II
Name
Mobile 45300 30500
Camera 25700 18400
Watch 4500 3200

Matrix
Display this information as a 3 × 2 matrix.
2 3 4
3. If the matrix A = 0 1 –1 then,
5 –2 –3
(a) Write the elements in the second row of A.
(b) Write the elements in the third column.
(c) What is the number of elements in A?
4. Find the order of the following matrices:
2 3 1
(a) (b) [1 2] (c) (d) [4]
1 –2 –4
1 2 –1 2 3 –1 –2 5 4 –1 2 3
(e) (f) 2 1 4 (g) (h) 1 0
0 4 3 0 1 3 2
4 0 –2 4 5
5. Find the values of a11, a21, a22 and a13 in each matrices:
2 3 1 1 –3 4 3 2
(a) 0 –1 2 (b) (c) –4 4 (d) [4 –3 0]
5 0 6
4 –5 4 0 7
6. Construct a 2 × 2 matrix whose elements aij are given below:
(a) aij = i – 2j (b) aij = ij (c) aij = 2i – j2 (d) aij = 2i + j3
ANSWERS
1. and 2. Show to your teacher. 3. (a) 0, 1, –1 (b) 4, –1, –3 (c) 9
4. (a) 2 × 2 (b) 1 × 2 (c) 2 × 1 (d) 1 × 1 (e) 2 × 3 (f) 3 × 3 (g) 2 × 4 (h) 3 × 2
5. (a) 2, 0, –1, 1 (b) 1, 5, 0, 4 (c) 3, – 4, 4 (d) 4,0
–1 –3 1 1 1 –2 3 10
6. (a) (b) (c) (d)
0 –2 2 4 3 0 5 12

Basics of Matrix 63
 3.1 (B) Types of Matrices
Learning Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
”” identify the types of matrices. ”” solve the problems related to equal matrices.

There are mainly the following types of matrices:

(a) Row Matrix: A matrix having only one row is called a row matrix.
For example; [1 2], [1 0 4], [0 1], etc. are the row matrices. The general form of the
row matrix is,
A1×n = [a11 a12 a13 ……… a1×n]1×n.
(b) Column Matrix: A matrix having only one column is called a column matrix.
1 3
For example; , –1 , etc. are the column matrices. The general form of the column
Matrix

2
0
matrix is, a11
a21
Am×1 = a31
am1
m×1

(c) Null or Zero Matrix: A matrix with all the elements as zeroes is called a null or zero
0 0 0
matrix. It is denoted by O. For example; [0], [0 0], , , etc. are the zero
0 0 0
matrices.

(d) Square Matrix: A matrix having equal number of rows and columns is called a square
1 2 1 2 3
matrix. For example; [1]1×1, , 4 5 6 , etc. are the square matrices.
0 –1 2 × 2
7 8 9 3×3
(e) Rectangular Matrix: A matrix which is not square, is called a rectangular matrix.
There are unequal number of rows and columns in a rectangular matrix. For example;
0 2 3 4
[1 2], , , etc. are the rectangular matrices.
0 –1 0 –3
(f) Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix in which all the off–diagonal elements are zero is
called a diagonals matrix. That means all the elements are zero except the elements of
1 0 1 0 0
the main or principal or leading diagonal. For example; , , etc. are
0 3 0 2 0
the diagonal matrices. 0 0 3 3×3
(g) Scalar Matrix: A diagonal matrix, in which the diagonal elements are equal or same, is
2 0 –3 0 4 0 0
called scalar matrix. For examples; , , 4 0 , etc. are scalar matrices.
0 2 0 –3 0
0 0 4

64 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 (h) Identity Matrix or Unit Matrix: A diagonal matrix, in which the diagonal elements
are equal to 1, is called an identity matrix or a unit matrix. It is also a scalar matrix.
1 0 1 0 0
For example; [1], , , etc. are identity or unit matrices.
0 1 0 1 0
0 0 1
Equal Matrices
Two matrices A and B are said to be equal if they have the same order and their corresponding
a c 2 –1
elements are equal. The matrices A = and B = are equal, if a = 2, b = 0,
b d 2×2 0 3 2×2
c = – 1 and d = 3.
Note: If two matrices are equal then their corresponding elements are separately equal.

Matrix
Example - 1 Classify the following matrices and give suitable reasons.
0 1 0
(a) [1 2] (b) (c)
0 0 –1
Solution: (a) [1 2] is a row matrix because it has only one row.
0
(b) is a column matrix as well as null matrix because it has only one column
0
with all elements zero.
1 0
(c) is a diagonal matrix because it has non–zero elements in the main
0 –1
diagonal and others are zeroes.
2x + 1 0 3 0
Example - 2 If = = , find the values of x, y and z.
3y – 2 3 – z 1 2z
2x + 1 0 3 0
Solution: Here, = .
3y – 2 3 – z 1 2z
Equating the corresponding elements of equal matrices, we get
2x + 1 = 3, 3y – 2 = 1 and 3 – z = 2z
or, 2x = 3 – 1, 3y = 1 + 2 and 3 = 2z + z
or, 2x = 2, 3y = 3 and 3 = 3z
2 3 3
or, x = 2 = 1, y = 3 = 1 and z = 3 = 1.
\ x = 1, y = 1 and z = 1.

Basics of Matrix 65
 EXERCISE - 3.1 (B)
1. Define the following terms:
(a) Raw matrix (b) Column matrix (c) Null matrix
(d) Square matrix (e) Rectangular matrix (f) Diagonal matrix
(g) Scalar matrix (h) Unit matrix (i) Equal matrices
2. In which condition two matrices are equal?
3. Write the types of the following matrices:
0 1 2
(a) [1 2] (b) (c) (d) [1]
0 0 1
2 3 1 1 0 3 0 2 0
(e) (f) (g) (h)
–2 –1 4 0 1 0 –4 0 2
Matrix

4. Find the values of x, y and z in each of the following cases:

x –2 2x + 1   3 
(a)   =   (b)  =
y  1   3y   6 
3x – 2 0   8 – 2x 0  x + 1 0   10 – 2x 0 
(c)  = (d)  =
 5 2z – 1   2y + 1 1   5 3z   2x + y z – 4 
2 4 –1 2 4 –1

(e) –1 y – 4 5  
= –1 0 5 

3 y + 3z 3x – 2y  3 1 1 
a + 1 2b – 1 0
5. (a) For what values of a, b and c, the matrix is equal to the matrix
2 4 c–4
0 3+b 0
?
2 4 –2
3p – 3q 0 
(b) For what values of p and q, the matrix 
 3q + 2 1  is an identity matrix?
2 2b – a + 4 
(c) If the matrix 
 3a 2  is a scalar matrix then find the values of a and b.
ANSWERS
3. Row matrices: (a), (d); Column matrices: (b); (d)
Square matrices: (c), (d), (f), (g), (h); Rectangular matrices: (a), (b), (e);
Null matrices: (b); Diagonal matrices (g), (f), (h);
Scalar matrices: (h); Unit matrices: (f)
4. (a) – 2, 1 (b) 1, 2 (c) 2, 2, 1 (d) 3, – 1, – 2 (e) 3, 4, – 1
1 2
5. (a) – 1, 4, 2 (b) – 3, – 3 (c) 0, -2

66 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 3.2
1.1 OPERATIONS ON MATRICES

3.2 (A) Addition, Subtraction and Scalar Multiplication of Matrix

Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to
”” add the matrices. ”” subtract the matrices. ”” multiply a matrix by a scalar.

There are mainly four operations of matrices. They are listed below:
(i) Additional of Matrices; (ii) Subtraction of Matrices;

Matrix
(iii) Multiplication of Matrix by a Scalar; (iv) Multiplication of Matrices.
Here, we discuss the first three types of operations.

Addition of Matrices
Let A and B be two matrices of the same order then the sum of A and B is denoted by A + B and
is obtained by adding the corresponding elements of A and B. The order of A + B will also be the
same as the order of A or B. If A and B have different order then A + B is not defined. i.e., A and
1 2 4 1
B cannot be added. For example; If A = and B = .
3 4 2×2 2 3 2×2
1 2 4 1 1+4 2+1 5 3
Then, A + B = + = = .
3 4 2 3 3+2 4+3 5 7 2×2
Subtraction of Matrices
Let A and B be two matrices of the same order then the difference of A and B is denoted by
A – B and is obtained by subtracting the corresponding elements of B from that of A. The order
of A – B will also be the same as the order of A or B. If A and B have different order then
3 3 2
A – B is not performed. i.e., A and B cannot be subtracted. For example; If A = and
1 2 1 2 1 4 2×3
B= .
1 0 3 2×3
3 3 2 1 2 1 3–1 3–2 2–1 2 1 1
Then A – B = – = = .
2 1 4 1 0 3 2–1 1–0 4–3 1 1 1 2×3
Multiplication of a Matrix by a Scalar
Let A be any matrix and k any constant or scalar, then the matrix obtained by multiplying
each element of A by k is denoted by kA and is called multiple of A by k.
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13 ka11 ka12 ka13
If A = a21 a22 a23 , then kA = k a21 a22 a23 = ka21 ka22 ka23 .
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33 ka31 ka32 ka33

Operations on Matrices 67
 1 2 0
For example; If A = .
–1 –3 4
1 2 0 2×1 2×2 2×0 2 4 0
Then 2A = 2 = = ,
–1 –3 4 2 × (–1) 2 × (–3) 2 × 4 –2 –6 8
1 2 0 –1 –2 0
(–1)A = (–1) = ,
–1 –3 4 1 3 –4
1
1 1 1 2 0 2 1 0
2A = 2 –1 –3 4 = 1 –3 ,
– 2
2 2
1 2 0 0 0 0
0.A = 0 = .
–1 –3 4 0 0 0
Matrix

–1 2 2 –1
Example - 1 If P = and Q = , find (a) 2P + 3Q and (b) 3P – 2Q.
3 0 4 3
–1 2 2 –1 To be multiplied by the
Solution: Here, P =
,Q= . scalar to each element of
3 0 4 3
–1 2 2 –1 the matrix.
Now, (a) 2P + 3Q =2 +3
3 0 4 3
–2 4 6 –3 –2 + 6 4 – 3 4 1
= + = = .
6 0 12 9 6 + 12 0 + 9 18 9
–1 2 2 –1
(b) 3P – 2Q =3 –2
3 0 4 3
–3 6 4 –2 –3 – 4 6 + 2 –7 8
= – = = .
9 0 8 6 9–8 0–6 1 –6
1 –4 3 –2
Example - 2 If 2A + = , find the matrix A.
3 5 7 1
1 –4 3 –2
Solution: Here, 2A + =
3 5 7 1
3 –2 1 –4
or, 2A = –
7 1 3 5
1 2 2
or, A= 2
4 –4
1 1
or, A= .
2 –2

68 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 2x 1 0 2y 4 5
Example - 3 If A = ,B= and C = , find the values of x, y and z such
4 2 3z 1 1 3
that A + B = C.
Solution: Here,
2x 1 0 2y 4 5
A= , B= ,C=
4 2 3z 1 1 3
Now, A + B = C
2x 1 0 2y 4 5 To be added the
or, + = corresponding
4 2 3z 1 1 3
elements of the
2x 1 + 2y 4 5
or, = = matrices.
4 + 3z 3 1 3
∴ 2x = 4, 1 + 2y = 5 and 4 + 3z = 1
4

Matrix
or, x = 2 , 2y = 5 – 1 and 3z =1 – 4
4 3
or, x = 2, y = 2 and z = – 3
or, x = 2, y = 2 and z = – 1.

EXERCISE - 3.2 (A)

1. (a) In which condition two matrices are added and subtracted?

(b) In A and B are two matrices of order 2 × 3, what are the order of A + B and A – B?
(c) If P is a matrix of order 3 × 4 and 'a' is a scalar, write the order of aP.
2. Add the following matrices:
1 3 1 2 0 –1
(a) A = and B = (b) P = and Q =
3 2 –1 3 2 –2
–2 3 4 6 –2 –1 1 0 1
(c) M = ,N= and P =
0 1 –2 2 0 5 2 0 2
3. Subtract the following matrices:
2 3 3 –2
(a) A = [4 2] and B = [2 1] (b) P = and Q =
–1 4 –1 4
1 –1 –1 –1 0 0 0 1 0 –2
(c) M = and N = (d) X = and Y =
2 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 –1 –3
2 4 –1 2
4. (a) If A = and B = then prove that A + B = B + A.
3 5 0 –3
3 1 –1 2 0 1 0 –1 2
(b) If P = ,Q= and R = then prove that:
4 5 0 5 –1 2 4 0 –2
(P + Q ) + R = P + (Q + R).

Operations on Matrices 69
 2 –1
(c) If M = then prove that M + (–M) = O, where O is the 2×2 null matrix.
0 4
2 6 4
5. If A = , find the followings:
0 4 –6
1 3
(a) 2A (b) 2A (c) –A (d) 2A (e) 0.A

1 2 3 –1
6. If M = and N = then find:
0 –1 2 4
1
(a) 2M + 3N (b) 3M – 2N (c) 2M + 2N

7. (a) If S = [3 –1 4], T = [–1 3 –2] and k = 2 then prove that:

k(S + T) = kS + kT.
6 –2 1
(b) If X = ,Y= and a = 2 then prove that: a(X – Y) = aX – aY.
Matrix

2 4
2 –1
(c) If A = , c = 2 and k = 3 then prove that c(kA) = (ck)A.
0 4
3 4 9 1
8. (a) If 3M + = , find the matrix M.
1 2 4 8
1 2 3 –2
(b) If A = ,B= and 3A + 2C = B, find the matrix C.
0 4 0 4
9. Find the values of x, y and z in the following cases:
2x 0 2+x 2 0 –2
(a) = + .
2y + 1 3z – 2 4 1 1 0
x y x+1 3 2 y–1
(b) 2A + B = 3C, where A = ,B= and C = .
0 z 3 y 1 1
ANSWERS
4 1 1 5 1 4
2. (a) (b) (c)
5 1 1 4 1 5
–1 5 2 0 –1 0 2
3. (a) [2 1] (b) (c) (d)
0 0 2 –1 2 –1 3
4 12 8 1 3 2 –2 –6 –4 3 9 6 0 0 0
5. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
0 8 –12 0 2 –3 0 –4 6 0 6 –9 0 0 0
11 1 –3 8 13/2 –1
6. (a) (b) (c)
6 10 –4 –11 4 15/2
2 –1 0 –4 5 3
8. (a) (b) 9. (a) 2, 2, 1 (b) 2, 6, – 2
1 2 0 –4

70 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

3.2 (B) Transpose of Matrix
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
”” transpose a matrix. ”” find the determinant of a matrix.

If the rows and columns of a matrix A are interchanged, the resulting matrix is called the transpose
of A and is denoted by A′ or At or AT. If the matrix A has the order of m×n, then its transpose AT
6 5 4 6 3
has the order of n × m. For example; if A = , then the transpose of A is AT = 5 2
2 2 1 2×3
4 1 3×2
Note: (i) (A ) = A, (ii) (A+B) = A + BT,
T T T T
(iii) (kA)T = kAT.
Determinant of Matrix
For the square matrix A of order 2 × 2, the determinant of A is denoted by det. A or |A|, can be
defined as follows:

Matrix
a b a b
If A = , then |A| = = ad – bc. In downward, plus
c d c d sign (+) is taken and in
The number ad – bc is obtained by cross multiplying a b
upward, the minus sign
the element as follows,
c d (-) is taken.

Note: If A = [a] be 1×1 matrix, |A| is equal to the element it self. i.e., |A| = |a| = a.
1 2
For example; If A = then the determinant of A,
2 5
1 2
|A| = = 1 × 5 – 2 × 2 = 5 – 4 = 1.
2 5

1 –2 0 0 –1 3
Example - 1 If A = and B = , prove that (A + B)T = AT + BT.
–3 4 2 1 2 4
1 –2 0 0 –1 3
Solution: Here, A = and B =
–3 4 2 1 2 4
1 –2 0 0 –1 3 1 –3 3
Now, A + B = + =
–3 4 2 1 2 4 –2 6 6
I can remember,
1 –2
interchanged the
∴ (A + B) = –3 6
T
elements of rows &
3 6 columns to compute
1 –3 0 1 transpose of the matrix.
Again, AT = –2 4 and BT = –1 2
0 2 3 4
1 –3 0 1 1 –2
∴ AT + BT = –2 4 + –1 2 = –3 6 . Hence, (A + B)T = AT + BT. Proved.
0 2 3 4 3 6
Operations on Matrices 71
 b–c b+c
Example - 2 Find the determinant of the matrix M = .
b– c b + c
b–c b+c
Solution: Here, M =
b–c b+c
b–c b+c
Now, the determinant of M, det. M (| M |) =
b–c b+c
= (b – c) (b + c) – (b + c) (b – c) = b2 – c2 – b2 + c2 = 0.

EXERCISE - 3.2 (B)

1. (a) What is the transpose of matrix? (b) What is the determinant of matrix?
2. Which of the following are true?
(a) (AT)T = A (b) (A + B)T = AT + BT (c) (kA)T = kAT (d) AT – BT = (A – B)T
1 4
3. If A = , find the following transpose.
3 –2
Matrix

(a) AT (b) 2AT (c) (2A)T

2 0
4. (a) If M = then prove that: (MT)T = M.
1 –2
3 4 5 1 –2 4
(b) If P = and Q = then prove that: ( P + Q)T = PT + QT.
1 0 –2 2 3 5
2 4
(c) If A = and k = 2 then prove that: (kA)T = kAT.
4 –7
2 4 1 6
5. (a) If A = and B = then prove that: 3A – 2B = 4I.
–2 6 –3 7
3 –2 1 –4 –2 –2
(b) If P = ,Q= and R = then prove that: 3P + R – 5I = 2Q.
1 –1 2 –3 1 2
6. Find the value of the following:
1 2 a+b b cos θ –sin θ
(a) (b) (c)
–1 3 a–b a sin θ cos θ
7. Find the determinant of the following matrices:
2 –3 3 4 b2 + c2 2c2
(a) (b) (c)
2 4 5 2 b 2
b + c2
2

sec θ tan θ cos θ cot θ a+b a–b

(d) (e) (f)
tan θ sec θ tan θ sec θ a–b a–b
1 3 2 –3
8. If A = and B = , find the determinant of the following:
4 –2 4 1
(a) 3A + 2B (b) 2A + BT (c) 2AT + 3BT.
ANSWERS
1 3 2 6 2 6
3. (a) (b) (c) 6. (a) 5 (b) a2 + b2 (c) 1
4 –2 8 –4 8 –4
7. (a) 14 (b) –14 (c) b + c (d) 1 (e) 0
4 4
(f) 2ab – 2b2 8. (a) – 88 (b) – 62 (c) 52

72 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 4
UNIT
COORDINATE GEOMETRY

I doubt, therefore I think, therefore I am. – Rene Descartes

Specific Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
”” plot the coordinate points in the square grid or graph.
”” solve the problems related to distance formula.
”” find the equation of the locus of a point.
”” find the equation of a straight line.

What do you learn ?

Coordinate
Introduction Locus

Geometry
- Coordinate Axes and Points on coordinate points - Locus and Equation of Locus of a Moving Point
Distance between Two Points Equation of Straight Line
- Distance Formula - Slope or Gradient of Straight Line
- Applications of Distance Formula - Equation of Straight Line

Are you ready ?

� Real number line � Coordinate points
� Perpendicular and parallel lines � Graph or Square grid
� Counting square units � Pythagoras relation
� Properties of geometric figures � Moving point
� Path of point � Equation
� Straight line � Angle made by line to the axes

Historical Background
The idea of the system of coordinate geometry was developed in 1637 in writing by
Rene Descartes (1596-1650) and independently by Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665).
As Rene´ Descartes pointed out, however, figures and numbers are closely related.
Geometric figures can be treated algebraically (or analytically) by means of coordinates;
conversely, algebraic facts can be expressed geometrically. Analytic geometry was
developed in the 18th century, especially by Leonhard Euler (1707-1783), who for the
first time established a complete algebraic theory of curves of the second order. The
development of the Cartesian coordinates system would play a fundamental role in Rene Descartes
the development of the calculus by Sir Isaac Newton (1642 - 1727) and G. Wilhelm Leibniz (1646 – 1716).

 73
 4.1
1.1 DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS

4.1 (A) Introduction

Learning Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
� draw the coordinate axes. � plot the points in coordinate plane.

Coordinate Axes
Let us consider two real lines XOX' and YOY' perpendicularly Y
intersected at O in a plane surface. These lines are called axes -5
(plural form of axis). The point of intersection of the axes is 2 1
nd st
-4
Quadrant Quadrant
called an origin and is usually denoted by O. The origin (-, +) -3
(+, +)
-2
represents for zero value in the number line or axes. The -1

horizontal axis XOX′ is called the x-axis and the vertical axis X' 5 4 3 2 1 O 1 2 3 4 5 X
-1
YOY′ is called the y-axis. So, the plane of these axes is called 3
rd -2 4 th
Coordinate

xy-plane. The right part of the x-axis represents the positive

Geometry

Quadrant -3 Quadrant
(-, -) -4 (+, -)
real numbers and that of left part represents the negative real -5

numbers. Similarly, the upper part of the y-axis represents the

Y'
positive real numbers and that of lower part represents the
negative real numbers. In the above figure, the axes divide the plane into four equal parts at the
origin O, each part is called quadrant or quarter. The four quadrants XOY, YOX′, X′OY′ and
Y′OX are called the first quadrant, second quadrant, third quadrant and fourth quadrant
respectively. Hence, the numbers lying in the first quadrant are both positive numbers, i.e., (+, +)
of the axis. Similarly, in the second, third and fourth quadrants, there exits the sign of the numbers
as (–, +), (–, –) and (+, –) respectively.
Take a point P(a, b) on the xy-plane and drawn PM and PN Y
perpendiculars on OX and OY respectively as shown in the
adjoining figure. N P (a, b)

Here, PMON is a rectangle, where OM = NP = a units and b

Rise
ON = MP = b units. That is, the point P runs a units along X'
O a M
X
the x-axis and raises b units along the y-axis. Thus, the Run

point (a, b) is associated with the numbers ‘a’ and ‘b’. The
Y'
ordered pair (a, b) is represented by a coordinate point.
Here, ‘a’ is called x-coordinate or abscissa which is generally represented by x and ‘b’ is called
the y-coordinate or ordinate which is generally represented by y. The coordinate plane has only
two dimensions as length and breath. So, the coordinate plane of xy is called rectangular plane
or two-dimensional plane or plane graph or Cartesian plane.

74 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

Point on Axes
Take a point P on the x-axis and its distance from the origin O Y

x=0
in the right side is a units. But, it does not move up or down.
(0, b)
Then the x-coordinate will be a and the y-coordinate will be 0.
So, the coordinates of the point P will be (a, 0) and hence the –a
b

value of y is always zero on the x-axis. Therefore, the x-axis is X'

(a, 0)
X
(–a, 0) O
also represented by the line y = 0. If we take a point on the left a y=0
–b
side of the x-axis, its coordinates will be (–a, 0).
(0, –b)
Similarly, take a point on the y-axis above the origin by b
Y'
units. Then its coordinates will be (0, b) and if another point is
located on the y-axis below the origin by b units, its coordinates will be (0, –b). In the y-axis, all
the values of x are always zero. So, the y-axis is also represented by the line x = 0.

Points in Coordinate Plane

A point P runs 3 units right along x-axis and also raises 2 units up Y
along y – axis. Then the location of the point P is (3, 2) as shown
Q A
in the adjoining coordinate plane or graph. It is written as P(3, 2), B (–2, 3)
which lies in the first quadrant. So, the ordered pairs represent the P
(3, 2)

Coordinate
location or position of the point in the coordinate plane. Similarly,

Geometry
X' X
another point Q runs 2 units left x-axis and raises 3 units upward C O
D
along y-axis. Then the location of the point Q is (–2, 3) as shown in R S
(–1, –3) (2, –3)
the same coordinate plane, which lies in the second quadrant. Take Y'
the third point R, which runs 1 unit left along x-axis and goes down
3 units long y-axis. Then the location of the point R is (–1, –3), which lies in the third quadrant.
Take the fourth point S, which runs 2 units right along x-axis and goes down 3 units along y-axis.
Then the position of the point S is (2, –3) as shown in the same coordinate plane, which lies in
the fourth quadrant.
In the same coordinate plane or graph what are the coordinates of the points A, B, C and D?

Y
Example - 1 Write down the coordinate of the points A, B, C and
D in the given coordinate plane. A
B
Solution: From the given coordinate plane, the coordinates of A C
is (2, 3), the coordinate of B is (–3, 2), the coordinate X' O X
of C is (–2, 0), the coordinate of D is (0, –3).
D
Example - 2 In which quadrant does the point (4, –2) lie? Y'
Solution: Here, the point (4, –2) has positive sign in 4 and the negative sign in 2. So, the
point (4, –2) lies in the fourth quadrant.

Distance Between Two Points 75

 Example - 3 On which axis does the point (2, 0) lie?
Solution: Here, in the given point (2, 0), the y-coordinate is zero. So, it lies on the x-axis.
Y
Example - 4 Plot the points (0, 0), (2, 2), (1, –1) on the graph and
join them. Also, write the name of the figure.
(2, 2)
Solution: Plotting the given points on the graph alongside.
The name of the figure joining the given points is a X' o X
(0,0)
right–angled triangle. (1,–1)

Example - 5 If the three vertices of a rectangle are (3, 1), (3, 3) Y'
and (–1, 3), finds its fourth vertex by using graph. Y
Solution: Here, the three vertex of rectangle are (3, 1), (–1,3) (3, 3)
(3, 3) and (–1, 3). Plotting these vertices on
the graph complete the rectangle by joining the (–1,1) (3, 1)
X' o X
points. So, the required coordinates of the fourth
vertex of the rectangle is (–1, 1).
Y'
EXERCISE - 4.1 (A)
Coordinate
Geometry

1. Define the following terms:

(a) Axes (b) Quadrant (c) Abscissa (d) Ordinate
2. (a) What is Cartesian plane?
(b) What is the value of abscissa in y - axis?
(c) What is the value of ordinate in x - axis?
3. Write down the coordinate of the points P, Q, R, S, T, U and V the given graph.
Y

R
Q
P
V
X' S o X
T
U
Y'
4. In which axis do the following points lie?
(a) (0, 4) (b) (– 2, 0)
(c) (0, – 4) (d) (1, 0)

76 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

5. In which quadrant do the following points lie?
(a) (2, 4) (b) (–2, 5)
(c) (5, –4) (d) (–1, –2)

6. In which axis do the following points lie? Also, show them in the Cartesian plane.
(a) (0, 5) (b) (2, 0)
(c) (0, –2) (d) (– 4, 0)
7. Plot the following set of the points on the graph and name the figure formed by joining the
points in order:
(a) P(2, 0), Q(3, 2) and R(1, 4)
(b) A(– 2, 3), B(–5, 3), C(– 5, 5) and D(– 2, 5)
(c) K(0, 3), L(2, 2), M(0, 5) and N(– 2, 2)
(d) P(– 1, 0), Q(– 5, – 2), R(– 7,– 4) and S(– 3, – 2)

8. (a) If (1, – 2), (3, – 4) and (6, – 1) are first three vertex of a rectangle then find the fourth
vertex of the rectangle by using a graph paper.
(b) Three vertices of a square are (2, – 1), (5, – 3) and (3, – 6). Plot these vertices in the

Coordinate
Geometry
square paper and find the fourth vertex.
9. (a) If (2, – 3), (2, – 1), (6, – 1) and (6, – 3) are the vertices of a rectangle, Find the
|mid-point of its diagonal by plotting the points in a graph paper.
(b) If (– 2, 5), (– 3, 6), (– 6, 5) and (– 5, 4) are the vertices of a parallelogram, find the
coordinate of the mid-point of its diagonals by plotting the points in a graph paper.

ANSWERS
3. P(1, 1), Q(0, 2), R(–3, 3), S(–3, 0), T(–1, –2), U(3, –3), V(4, 0)
4. (a) y-axis (b) x-axis (c) y-axis (d) x-axis
5. (a) First (b) Second (c) Forth (d) Third
6. (a) y-axis (b) x-axis (c) y-axis
(d) x-axis, show to your teacher.
7. (a) Show to your teacher.
8. (a) (4, 1) (b) (0, – 4)
9. (a) (4, – 2) (b) (– 4, 5)

Distance Between Two Points 77

 4.1 (B) Distance Formula
Learning Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
”” compute the distance between two points.
”” solve the problems related to distance formula.

Let us consider two points on the x-axis as A(1, 0) and B(4, 0). Y
What is the distance between them? Can you find it? Q(2, 5)

It is a simple case. The distance of AB is 3 units. Similarly, take

another two points P(2, 1) and Q(2, 5). P(2, 1)
A(1, 0)
What is the length of PQ? X' O B(4, 0) X
It is also simple case. The length of PQ is 4 units. But, we can Y'
take two points A(1, 1) and B(5, 4), where AB is not parallel to
any axes.
Can you easily find the distance between these two points?
Now, draw the perpendiculars AL and BM on OX and AN on Y
Coordinate
Geometry

BM, where ALMN is a rectangle and ANB is a right–angled B (5, 4)

triangle.
Can you derive the lengths of AN and BN?
A(1,1)
N
Here, OL = 1, OM = 5, AL = 1, BM = 4 X' O L X
M
∴ AN = LM = OM – OL = 5 – 1 = 4 units. Y'
and BN = BM – MN = BM – AL = 4 – 1 = 3 units.
Now, in the right–angled triangle ANB, AB is a hypotenuse (h) and AN, a base (b) and BN, a
perpendicular (p).
We know the Pythagoras theorem,
h2 = p2 + b2
or, h = p2 + q2
i.e., AB = BN2 + AN2
= 32 + 42
= 9 + 16
= 25
= 52 = 5 units.
Hence, the distance between the points A(1, 1) and B(5, 4) is 5 units.

78 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

To find the formula for distance between two points Y
Let P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) be two points and draw PL and QM Q(x2, y2)
perpendicular on PX and PN perpendicular on QM.
Here, OL = x1, OM = x2, PL = y1, QM = y2 P(x1, y1)
N
∴ PN = LM = OM – OL = x2 – x1 X' O L M X
and QN = QM – MN = QM – PL = y2 – y1 Y'
Y
In a right–angled triangle PNQ,
(PQ)2 = (PN)2 + (QN)2 [∵ h2 = p2 + b2] P(x, y)

or, (PQ)2 = (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2

∴ PQ = (x2– x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2 X' O (0, 0) M X
i.e., d = (x2– x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2 units, Y'
which is a required distance formula to find the distance between two points.
Note: The distance of the points (x1, y1) from the origin (0, 0) is x12 + y12 units.

Coordinate
Geometry
Y
Example - 1 Plot the points A(2, –1) and B(–2, 4) on the graph
B(–2, 4)
and find the distance between them.
Solution: Here, plotting the given points on the graph.
Suppose A(2, –1) = (x1, y1) and B(–2, 4) = (x2, y2). X' X
O
Now, we have A(2, 1)

d = (x2–x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2 Y'

or, AB = (–2 –2)2 + (4 + 1)2 = (–4)2 + (5)2= 16 + 25= 41 units.

Example - 2 Find the length of the line segment which makes x–intercept 3 units and y–
intercept 4 units.
Y
Solution: Here, the line segment AB makes x–intercept 3 units
and y–intercept 4 units. Then the coordinates of A and B(0, 4)
B are (3, 0) and (0, 4) respectively,
4 units

Now, using distance formula,

X' O 3 units A(3, 0) X
d = (x2– x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2

or, AB = (0 – 3)2 + (4 – 0)2 = 9 + 16 = 25 = 5 units. Y'

Hence, the required length of the given line segment is 5 units.

Distance Between Two Points 79

 Example - 3 The two line segments MN and PQ have two end points M(2, 2) and N(1, 0),
P(3, 2) and Q(–1, 0) respectively. Prove that: 2MN = PQ.
Solution: Here,
For the line segment MN, suppose M(2, 2) = (x1, y1) and N(1, 0) = (x2, y2),
Now, we have
MN = (1 – 2)2 + (0 – 2)2
= 1 + 4
= 5 units.
For the line segment PQ, suppose P(3, 2) = (x1, y1) and N(–1, 0) = (x2, y2),
Now, we have
PQ = (–1 – 3)2 + (0 – 2)2
= (– 4)2 + (– 2)2
= 16 + 4
= 20
= 22 × 5
Coordinate
Geometry

= 2 5 units
Hence, PQ = 2MN. Proved.
Example - 4 If the distance between two points (3, y) and (–1, 0) is 25 units, find the value
of y.
Solution: Suppose (3, y) = (x1, y1) and (–1, 0) = (x2, y2).
Distance (d) = 2 5 units.
Now, we have
d = (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2
or, 2 5 = (–1 – 3)2 + (0 – y)2
or, 2 5 = 16 + y2
Squaring on both sides, we get
4 × 5 = 16 + y2

or, 20 – 16 = y2
or, y2 = 4
or, y2 = 22
∴ y = ± 2.

80 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 EXERCISE - 4.1 (B)
1. (a) Write the formula to complete the distance between two points.
(b) What is the distance between A(a, b) and B (c, d)?
(c) What is the distance of a point (x, y) from the origin?
2. Plot the points A(0, –2), B(3, 2), C(–1, –4) D(3, 0), E(2, –3) and
F(–2, 0) on the squared grid paper and find the length of AB, AC,
BD, EF and AE. Y
Q
3. Write down the coordinates of the points P, Q, R, S, T and U from
the given graph. Also, find the distance between the following R P

points. X' S O X
(a) P and R (b) R and S (c) Q and T T U
(d) T and U (e) U and P.
Y'
4. Find the distance of the following points from the origin.
(a) (5, 0) (b) (0, 3) (c) (–2, 0) (d) (–2, 5) (e) (–8, –6)
5. (a) Find the length of the line segment which makes the x–intercept 2 units and y–intercept
4 units.

Coordinate
Geometry
(b) The x-coordinates (or abscissa) of a point A on the x-axis is –6 and the y-coordinates
(or ordinate) of another point B on the y-axis is 8. Find the distance between A and B.
6. (a) If A(2, 3) and B(1, –4) are end points of the lines segment AB, and P(–3, 2) and
Q(–2, 1) are the end points of the other line segment PQ, prove that AB = 5PQ.
(b) It is given that the three points are A(2, –3), B(–2, 0), and C(5, 1). Prove that: AB = AC.
7. (a) If the distance between (0, –2) and (x, 3) is 41 units, find the value of x.
(b) If the distance between the points (2, y) and (5, 1)is 5 units. Find the value of y.
8. (a) Find the coordinate of the points on the x-axis whose distance from the point (3, 5) is
5 2 units.
(b) Find the coordinate of the points on the y-axis which are at the distance of 85 units
from the point (–2, –5).

ANSWERS
2. AB = 5 units, AC = 5 units, BD = 2 units, EF = 5 units, AE = 5 units
3. (a) 4 units (b) 2 units (c) 37 units (d) 5 units (e) 3 2 units
4. (a) 5 units (b) 3 units (c) 2 units (d) 29 units (e) 10 units
5. (a) 2 5 units (b) 10 units
7. (a) 4 or – 4 (b) 5 or –3
8. (a) (–2, 0) or (8, 0) (b) (0, 4) or (0, –14)
Distance Between Two Points 81
 4.1 (C) Applications of Distance Formula
Learning Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
”” prove the properties of geometric figures by using distance formula.

The distance formula is useful to verify the vertices of isosceles triangle, equilateral triangle,
right–angled triangle, parallelogram, rhombus, rectangle, square, etc. The method of verifying
the properties is given below.
SN Name Figure Showing Conditions
A
No sides are equal.
1 Scalene Triangle
B C i.e., AB ≠ BC ≠ CA.
P
Any two sides are equal.
2 Isosceles Triangle
Q R i.e., PQ = PR.
L
All sides are equal.
3 Equilateral Triangle
M N
i.e., LM = MN = NL.
Coordinate
Geometry

X Square of long side is equal to sum of

4 Right–angled Triangle the square of two shorter sides.
Y Z i.e., (XZ)2 = (XY)2 + (YZ)2.
A Any two sides are equal and the sum
Right–angled Isosceles of their square is equal to the square of
5 the third side. i.e., AB = BC and
Triangle
B C (AB)2 + (BC)2 = (AC)2.
P S
Opposite sides are equal.
6 Parallelogram
Q R
i.e., PS = QR and PQ = SR.
K N Opposite sides are equal and diagonals
7 Rectangle are equal. i.e., LM = NK, LK = MN and
L M LN = MK.
S R
All sides are equal and diagonals are not
8 Rhombus equal. i.e.,
P Q PQ = QR = RS = SP and PR ≠ QS.
A D
All sides are equal and diagonals are
9 Square equal. i.e., AB = BC = CD = DA and
B C AC = BD.

82 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

Example - 1 Prove that the points P(4, 3), Q(2, –2) and R(6, –2) are the vertices of an
isosceles triangle. P(4, 3)
Solution: Given, the points are P(4, 3), Q(2, –2) and R(6, –2).
Now, using the distance formula, we get
PQ = (2 – 4)2 + (–2 – 3)2
= (–2)2 + (–5)2 = 4 + 25 = 29 units.
Q(2,–2) R(6,–2)
QR = (6 – 2)2 + (–2 + 2)2 = 42 + 02 = 16 = 4 units.
RP = (4 – 6)2 + (3 + 2)2 = (–2)2 + 52 = 4 + 25 = 29 units.
Here, PQ = RP.
Hence, the given three points are the vertices of an isosceles triangle. Proved.
Example - 2 Prove that the points L(2, 1), M(4, 2) and N(1, 3) are M(4, 2)
the vertices of an isosceles right-angled triangle.
Solution: Here, the given points are L(2, 1), M(4, 2) and N(1, 3).

Coordinate
Now, we have

Geometry
LM = (4 – 2)2 + (2 – 1)2 = 22 + 12 = 4 + 1 = 5 units L(2, 1) N(1, 3)
MN = (1 – 4)2 + (3 – 2)2 = (–3)2 + 12 = 9 + 1 = 10 units
LN = (1 – 2)2 + (3 – 1)2 = (–1)2 + 22 = 1 + 4 = 5 units
Here, LM2 + LN2 = ( 5)2 + ( 5)2 = 5 + 5 = 10 units
MN2 = ( 10)2 = 10 units
∴ LM2 + LN2 = MN2
∴ ∠MLN = 90°
Hence, the given three points are the vertices of an isosceles triangle. Proved.
Example - 3 Show that the points A(–1, 1), B(1, 2), C(0, 4) and D(–2, 3) form a square.
Solution: Given, the points are A(–1, 1), B(1, 2), C(0, 4) and D(–2, 3).
Now, using the distance formula, we get A(–1, 1) B(1, 2)
AB = (1 + 1)2 + (2 – 1)2 = 4 + 1 = 5 units.
BC = (0 – 1)2 + (4 – 2)2 = 1 + 4 = 5 units.
CD = (0 + 2)2 + (4 – 3)2 = 4 + 1 = 5 units.
AD = (–2 + 1)2 + (4 – 3)2 = 1 + 4 = 5 units.
D(–2, 3) C(0, 4)

Distance Between Two Points 83

 AC = (0 + 1)2 + (4 – 1)2 = 1 + 9 = 10 units.
BD = (–2 – 1)2 + (3 – 2)2 = 9 + 1 = 10 units.
Here, AB = BC = CD = AD and AC = BD. Hence, the given points form a square. Proved.

EXERCISE - 4.1 (C)

1. Write down the properties of the following geometry shapes:

(a) Scalene triangle (b) Isosceles triangle

(c) Equilateral triangle (d) Right-angled triangle

(e) Right angled isosceles triangle (f) Parallelogram

(g) Rectangle (h) Rhombus (i) Square

2. (a) Prove that the points A(2, 1), B(–3, 2) and C(–1, –2) are the vertices of a scalene
triangle.
Coordinate
Geometry

(b) Show that the points P(4, – 1), Q(– 2, 3) and R(4, 6) form a scalene triangle.
3. (a) Prove that the points (2, 3), (–2, 1) and (4, 7) are the vertices of an isosceles triangle.
(b) Prove that the points (1, 1), (–1, –1) and (– 3, 3) are the vertices of an equilateral
triangle.
4. (a) Show that the points A(–2, 1), B(–4, 3) and C(2, 5) form a right-angled triangle.
(b) Verify that the points P(1, –4), Q(1, 0) and R(5, – 4) are the vertices of a right-angled
isosceles triangle.
5. (a) Prove that the quadrilateral with vertices (2, 0), (4, 2), (–1, 1) and (–3, –1) is a
parallelogram.
(b) Verify that the points (9, 1), (7, 3), (11, 7) and (13, 5) form a rectangle.
6. (a) Prove that the points (3, –1), (5, –3), (7, –1) and (5, 1) form a square.
(b) Show that the points K(1, 1), L(–1, 4), M(– 4, 2) and N(–2, –1) form a square.
7. (a) Prove that the parallelogram with vertices (1, 2), (–2, 0), (1, –2) and (4, 0) is a rhombus.
(b) Prove that the rectangle ABCD having the vertices A(0, 1), B(1, 3), C(–1, 2) and
D(–2, 0) is a square.

84 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 4.2
1.1 LOCUS

Learning Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
� define the locus of a moving point. � find the equation of the locus of a moving point.

Introduction
A B
An athlete runs on a straight platform from A to B of the
football ground as shown in the adjoining figure. The
distance from A to B made by his feet on the path as the
points forms a straight line. This path of his feet is known
as a locus in the straight form.
In the same way, an ox is tied by rope at a fixed nail. The
ox moves while the rope is tightened around the fixed nail,

Coordinate
Geometry
Fixed
it forms a circular path as shown in the figure. This circular nail Rope
path made by the ox is called a locus under the condition of
the stretched rope from the fixed point.
Y
On the coordinate plane, a point P moves constant distance
from the y-axis as shown in the adjoining figure. The line P
made by P is a straight line which is parallel to the y-axis. It
X' X
is also locus under the condition of constant distance from O
the y-axis.
Y'
The path of a moving point under certain condition is called the locus of a point.

Equation of Locus
Consider a point P(x, y) on the coordinate plane as shown in the Y
adjoining figure, which moves equidistance from the both axis.
Draw the perpendiculars PM and PN on the x-axis and y-axis p(x, y)
N
respectively.
y
Then PM = PN or, ON = OM [∵ OMPN is a square.] x' x
Ox M
x
or, y = x, i.e., x – y = 0.
Y'
This is required equation of the locus of the points which moves equidistant from both axes.

Locus 85

Illustrated Examples
 Example - 1 Find the equation of the locus of a moving point so that its distance from the
origin is always 5 units.
Solution: Let P(x, y) be a moving point which moves 7 units distance from the origin
O(0, 0). Then by using distance formula, we have Y
d = (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2 P(x, y)

or, 5 = (x – 0)2 + (y – 0)2 X'

5
X
O (0, 0)
or, 5= x +y2 2

Squaring on both sides, we get

Y'
x2 + y2 = 25, which is required equation of the locus.
Example - 2 Find the equation of the locus of a point so that its distance from (1, 2) is twice
from (–2, 3).
Solution: Let P(x, y) be a moving point and the given two points are A(1, 2) and B(–2, 3).
Coordinate
Geometry

Now, using distance formula, we get

PA = (1 – x)2 + (2 – y)2
P(x, y)
= 1 – 2x + x2 + 4 – 4y + y2
= x2 + y2 – 2x – 4y + 5 B(–2, 3)

PB = (–2 – x)2 + (3 – y)2 [ (–a – b)2 = (a + b)2)]

= 4 + 4x + x2 + 9 – 6y + y2
A(1, 2)
= x2 + y2 + 4x – 6y + 13
But, by equation
PA = 2PB
or, x2 + y2 –2x – 4y + 5 = 2 x2 + y2 4x –6y + 13
Squaring on both sides, we get
x2 + y2 – 2x – 4y + 5 = 4(x2 + y2 + 4x – 6y +13)
or, x2 + y2 – 2x – 4y + 5 = 4x2 + 4y2 + 16x – 24y + 52
or, 4x2 + 4y2 + 16x – 24y + 52 – x2 – y2 + 2x + 4y – 5 = 0
or, 3x2 + 3y2 + 18x – 20y + 47 = 0,
which is a required equation of the locus.

86 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

Example - 3 The point (2, –1) lies on the locus of a point whose equation is x – ky = 4. Prove
that (8, 2) is another point which lies on the same locus.
Solution: Here, (8, 2)

The equation of the locus is

x – ky = 4 …………….. (i) x – ky =4
The point (2, –1) lies on the locus (i), so A(1, 2)
2 – k × (–1) = 4
or, 2+k=4
or, k=4–2
or, k=2
Putting the value of k in equation (i), we get
x – 2y = 4 ………………. (ii)
Again, put x = 8 and y = 2 in equation (ii) for the next point (8, 2). Then,
8–2×2=4
or, 4 = 4, which is true.

Coordinate
Geometry
Hence, the point (8, 2) lies on the same locus. Proved.

EXERCISE - 4.2

1. What is the locus of a point?

2. Find the equation of the locus of a moving point so that its distance from the origin is
always
(a) 6 units (b) 1 unit
3. Find the equation of the locus of a point which moves such that its distance from
(a) x-axis is 2 units (b) y-axis is 3 units
4. Find the equation of the locus of a point which moves so that,
(a) its abscissa is always 6 (b) its ordinate is always –3
5. Find the equation of the locus of a point which moves so that,
(a) its abscissa is twice of its ordinate. (b) its ordinate is 3 times of its abscissa.
6. Find the equation of the locus of a point which moves so that,
(a) its distance from x-axis is half of its distance from y-axis.
(b) its distances from x-axis and y-axis are equal.

Locus 87
 7. Evaluate the equation of the locus of a point which always moves,
(a) at a distance of 3 units from the points (0, –2).
(b) at a distance of 5 units from the points (–2, 3).
8. Find the equation of the locus of a point which moves such that its distance from,
(a) the point (2, 3) is twice as far as from the point (0, 5).
(b) the point (–2, –1) is thrice the distance from the point (–2, –1).
9. Find the equation of the locus of a moving point which moves such that its distance from,
(a) x-axis is double of the distance from the point (3, 1).
(b) the point (–a, 0) is half of the distance from the y-axis.
10. (a) If the point (2, 1) lies on the locus whose equation is kx + 2y = 8, find the value of k.
(b) If the locus having the equation 3x – ky = 3 contains the points (3, 1), prove that
another point (5, 2) also contains on the same locus.
11. (a) A(1, 2) and B(–2, –4) are fixed points. Find the equation of the locus of the moving
point P such that 3PA = 2PB.
(b) M(–2, 0) and N(3, –1) are two fixed points. Find the equation of the locus of the
moving point P such that (PM)2 = (PN)2 + (MN)2.
Coordinate
Geometry

ANSWERS

2. (a) x2 + y2 = 36 (b) x2 + y2 = 1 3. (a) y = 2 or y2 – 2 = 0 (b) x – 3 = 0

4. (a) x – 6 = 0 (b) y + 3 = 0 5. (a) x – 2y = 0 (b) 3x – y = 0
6. (a) x – 2y = 0 (b) x – y = 0 7. (a) x + y + 4y – 5 = 0 (b) x + y + 4x – 6y – 12 = 0
2 2 2 2

8. (a) 3x2 + 3y2 + 4x - 44y + 87 = 0 (b) x2 + y2 + 4x + 2y + 5 = 0

9. (a) 4x2 + 3y2 - 24x - 8y + 40 = 0 (b) 3x2 - y2 – 2ax – a2 = 0 10. (a) 3 (b) 6
11. (a) 5x2 + 5y2 - 34x - 68y - 35 = 0 (b) 5x – y – 16 = 0

88 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 4.3
1.1 SECTION FORMULAE
Learning Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
”” derive the section formula and midpoint of two points.
”” find the coordinates of the dividing point by using section and midpoint.
”” solve the problems related to section and midpoint formulae.

In this section, we discuss the division point which divides the line segment in the given ratio. There are
two types of division points that divide a line segment joining the given two points. i.e., internal division
and external division.

Section Formula for Internal Division

Y
Consider a line segment AB with two end points A(1, 1)
and B(6, 1). Take a point P(4, 1) between A and B on it.
The point P(4, 1) divides internally AB in the ratio 3:2.
C(6, 6)
Similarly, the point Q(6, 4) divides internally the line

Coordinate
Geometry
segment joining the points B(6, 1) and C(6, 6) in the ratio R(4, 4)
Q(6, 4)
of 3:2. Also, the point R(4, 4) divides the line segment
AC joining the points A(1, 1) and C(6, 6) in the ratio 3:2.
But, which point divides internally the line segment PQ X'
A(1, 1) P(4, 1) B(6, 1)
X
joining the point P(6, 2) and Q(2, 1) in the ratio 3:2 ? For O
this, we find the following section formula for internal
division. Y'
Let A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) be two points and C(x, y) 4 Q(2, 1)
divides the line segment AB internally in the ratio m1 :
3
m2. i.e., AC : CB = m1:m2 and AB = m1 + m2. A(x, y)
Draw AL ⊥ OX, BM ⊥ OX, CN ⊥ OX, AP ⊥ CN and P(6, 2)
CQ ⊥ BM. Then OL = x1, OM = x2, ON = x AL = y1,
BM = y2, CN = y
Y
B(x2, y2)
∴ AP = LN = ON – OL = x – x1 )
x ,y m2
CQ = NM = OM – ON = x2 – x C( Q
, y 1)
(x 1 m1
CP = CN – PN = CN – AL = y – y1 A P
BQ = BM – QM = BM – CN = y2 – y
Here, ΔACP and ΔCBQ are similar to each other by AA similar X
condition, so O L N M

AP CP AC x – x1 y – y1 m1
= = or, = y –y = m
CQ BQ CB x2 – x 2 2

Section Formulae 89
 Taking the first and last ratios, Taking the second and third ratios,
x – x1 m1 y – y1 m1
= or, =
x2 – x m2 y2 – y m2
or, m2x – m2x1 = m1 x2 – m1x or, m2y – m2y1 = m1 y2 – m1y
or, m1x + m2x = m1x2 + m2 x1 or, m1y + m2y = m1y2 + m2y1
or, x(m1 + m2) = m1 x2 + m2 x1 or, y(m1 + m2) = m1y2 + m2y1
m x + m2x1 m y + m2y1
or, x= 1 2 or, y= 1 2
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
m1x2 + m2x1 m1y2 + m2y1
Hence, the coordinates of the dividing point C(x, y) are , .
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
Section Formula for External Division Y
In the adjoining figure, AB is the line segment having two
end points A(1, 1) and B(4, 4). A point C (6, 6) divides the
line segment AB in the ratio 5:2 from outside of AB. 2
C(6, 6)
5
Consider a line segment AB joins two points A(x1, y1) B(4, 4)
and B(x2, y2). The point C(x, y) divides externally. Then
AB = AC – BC = m1 – m2 = m1 + (–m2). So, the point C di-
vides AB in the ratio m1:(–m2). A(1, 1)
X' X
O
Now, we have
Coordinate
Geometry

Y'
The coordinates of C is given by,
m x + (– m2)x1 m1y2 + (– m2)y1 C(x, y)
(x, y) = 1 2 , m2 m1
m1 + (– m2) m1 + (– m2)
m1x2 – m2x1 m1y2 – m2y1 B(x2, y2)
∴ (x, y) = ,
m1 – m2 m1 – m2 A(x1, y1)
Midpoint Formula
In the given figure, the line segment AB joining the points A(1, 1) and B(7, 1) is divided by the
point C(4, 1) in the ratio 3:3 i.e, 1:1. That means the point C divides AB in two equal segments.
Hence, C is the midpoint of AB. Y
1+7 1+1
Here, C(4, 1) = , C(4, 1)
2 2 A(1, 1) B(7, 1)
Consider a line segment AB joining the points A(x1, y1) and X' O
X

B(x2, y2). The point C(x, y) is the midpoint of AB.

Y'
Then (x, y) divides the line segment AB internally in the ratio m1:m1.
Now, we have m1
B(x2, y2)

The coordinates of the midpoint C is given by, m1 C(x, y)

m x + m1x1 m1y2 + m1y1 m (x + x1) m1(y2 + y1)
(x, y) = 1 2 , = 1 2 ,
m1 + m1 m1 + m1 2m1 2m1 A(x1, y1)
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
= ,
2 2

90 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

Example - 1 Find the coordinates of the point that divides the line segment joining the
points (– 2, 4) and (3, 1) internally in the ratio 2:3.
Solution : Suppose (x, y) divides the line segment joining the points (– 2, 4) and (3, 1) in the
ratio 2:3. Then, we know that,
m x + m2x1 m1y2 + m2y1 3 (3, 1)
(x, y) = 1 2 ,
m1 + m2 m1 + m2 2 (x, y)
2 × 3 + 3 × (–2) 2 × 1 + 3 × 4

= ,
2+3 2+3 (–2, 4)

6–6 2 + 12 0 14 14
= , , = = 0,
5 5 5 5 5
14
Hence, the coordinate of the point is 0, .
5
Example - 2In what ratio does the point (3, 4) divide the line segment joining the points
(– 1, – 2) and (5, 7)?
Solution : Suppose the point (3, 4) divides the line joining the points (– 1, – 2) and (5, 7) in
the ratio m1 : m2 m2 (5, 7)
Then we have,

Coordinate
Geometry
m1 (3, 4)
m x + m2x1 m1y2 + m2y1
(x, y) = 1 2 ,
m1 + m2 m1 + m2 (– 1, – 2)
m1 × 5 + m2 × (– 1) m1 × 7 + m2 × (– 2)
or, (3, 4) = ,
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
5m1 – m2 7m1 – 2m2
or, (3, 4) = ,
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
5m1 – m2
∴ 3= [ Taking the first parts only]
m1 + m2
or, 5m1 – m2 = 3m1 + 3m2
or, 5m1 – 3m1 = 3m2 + m2
m1 4 2
or, 2m1 = 4m2 or, = =
m2 2 1
Hence, the required ratio is 2:1.
Example - 3In what ratio does the x-axis intersect the line segment joining the points
A(8, 7) and B(2, – 4)?
Solution : Let the point on the x-axis be (x, 0) which divides the line segment joining the points
A(8, 7) and B(2, – 4) in the ratio m:n. Then, we have A(8, 7)
mx2 + nx1 my2 + ny1 m
(x, y) = , (x, 0)
m+n m+n X
x-axis
X'

m×2+n×8 m × (– 4) + n × 7 n
or, (x, 0) = ,
m+n m+n B(2, – 4)

Section Formulae 91
 2m + 8n ) – 4m + 7n
or, (x, 0) = ,
m+n m+n
– 4m + 7n
or, 0= [ Taking the second parts only]
m+n
or, 0 = – 4 m + 7n
or, 4m = 7n
m 7
or, = ∴ m:n = 7:4
n 4
Hence, the required ratio is 7:4.
Example - 4If P(3, b) is the midpoint of the line segment AB joining the points A(a, 3) and
B(4, 3), find the values of a and b.
Solution : Here, P(3, b) is the midpoint of the line segment AB joining the points A(a, 3) and
B(4, 3). Then we have, B(4, 3)
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
(x, y) = ,
2 2
P(3, b)
a+4 3+3
or, (3, b) = ,
2 2
A(a, 3)
a+4 6
or, (2, b) = ,
2 2
a+4
Coordinate

or, (2, b) = ,3
Geometry

2
a+4
∴ 2= or, 4=a+4
2
or, a = 0 and b=3
∴ a = 0 and b = 3
Example - 5 Find the coordinates of two points which trisect the line segment joining the
points (1, – 3) and (4, 3).
Solution: Let the two points P and Q trisect the line segment AB joining the points (1, – 3)
and (4, 3). Then, P divides AB in the ratio 1:2 and the coordinate of P is given by
m x + m2x1 m1y2 + m2y1
P(x, y) = 1 2 , Q 1
m1 + m2 m1 + m2 P 1
1 B(4, 3)
1 × 4 + 2 × 1 1 × 3 + 2 × (– 3)
= , A(1, –3)
1+2 1+2
4+2 3–6 6 –3
= , = , = (2, – 1)
3 3 3 3
Again, Q is the midpoint of P(2, – 1) and B(4, 3). So,

x1 + x2 y1 + y2 2+4 –1+3 6 2
Q(x, y) = , = , = , = (3, 1)
2 2 2 2 2 2
Hence, the required coordinates of two points are (2, – 1) and (3, 1).

92 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 EXERCISE - 4.3
1. (a) Write down the section formulae for internal division and external division.
(b) What is the midpoint of the line segment joining the points A(a, b) and B(c, d)?
2. (a) Find the coordinates of a point which divides the line segment joining the points (3, 5) and
(5, 6) internally in the ratio 5:1.
(b) Find the coordinates of a point which divides internally the line joining the points
A(– 4, – 3) and B(1, 7) in the ratio 2:3.
3. (a) Find the coordinates of a point which divides the line segment joining the points (4, 0)
and (– 1, – 5) externally in the ratio 1:3.
(b) Which point divides the line joining the points (3, 4) and (– 2, – 3) externally in the
ratio 2:3 ?
4. (a) In what ratio does the point (1, 1) divide the line segment joining the points (2, 3) and
(3, 5)?
(b) Find the ratio in which the point (2, 2) divides the segment joining the point (0, 1) and
(6, 4).
5. (a) In what ratio does the x-axis intersect the line segment joining the point (0, 2) and
(– 6 , – 2)?

Coordinate
(b) In what ratio is the line joining the points (– 2, 0) and (4, 3) divided by the y-axis?

Geometry
6. (a) The point (x, 5) divides the line joining the points (2, 3) and (– 2, 6). Find the value of x.
(b) If the point P(– 2, y) divides the line segment joining the points A(– 4, 2) and
B(8, 6), then find the value of y.
7. (a) Find the coordinates of the midpoint of a line segment joining the points (7, 3) and (5, – 1).
(b) If A(2, 0) and C(– 6, 4) are the opposite vertices of a quadrilateral ABCD, find the
midpoint of the diagonal AC.
8. (a) If (a, 3) is the midpoint of the line segment joining the points (3, 5) and (– 1, 1) then find the
value of a.
(b) If the midpoint of the line segment joining the points (3, b) and (5, – 3) is (a, 4), find the
values of a and b.
9. (a) Find the coordinates of two points which divide the line joining the points (0, 2) and (6, 2)
into three equal parts.
(b) Find the coordinates of two points which trisect line segment AB joining the points
A(– 6 , – 2) and B(0, 1).

ANSWERS
13 5 6
2. (a) (4, 5) (b) (– 2, 1) 3. (a) – 4 , – 4 (b) 1, 5
4. (a) – 1:2 (b) 1:2 5. (a) 1:1 (b) 1:2
2 8
6. (a) – 3 (b) 3 7. (a) (6, 1) (b) (– 2, 2)
8. (a) 1 (b) 4, 11 9. (a) (2, 2), (4, 2) (b) (– 4, – 1), (– 2, 0)

Section Formulae 93
 4.4
1.1 EQUATION OF STRAIGHT LINE

4.4 (A) Slope or Gradient of Straight Line

Learning Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
”” find the slope or gradient of a straight line.
”” solve the problems related to the slope of the straight line.

Y
The equation of the locus of a point P(x, y) which moves
equidistant from the x-axis and y-axis is y = x, which is the
straight line OP, where PM = ON = PN = OM. P(x, y)
N
Consider an angle θ made by the straight line OP with x-axis.
y
Then the inclination of OP on x-axis is the slope of OP. So, it is θ
X' O x X
defined by the tangent of angle θ in right-angled triangle OMP. M
It is the ratio of changing in y coordinate and x coordinate of the
Coordinate
Geometry

point. It is denoted by m and is given by,

Y'
PM PM
m = tanθ = OM = PM = 1. Hence, the slope of OP is 1.
We know that, tan 45° = 1
∴ tan θ = tan 45° ⇒ θ = 45°
This means the line OP makes the angle of 45° with the x-axis.
The inclination or slanting of a straight line in the reference of the x-axis is called the
slope of the line. It is the tangent ratio of the angle made by the line with x-axis. It is
denoted by m = tan θ. The angle made by a straight line with x-axis in the anticlockwise
direction is called the inclination of the line. It is usually denoted by θ.
Let A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) be two points of the line segment AB. Produce BA up to C of x-axis
where it makes an angle of θ with x-axis. Draw AL⊥OX, BM⊥OX and AN⊥BM.
Y
Here, OL = x1, OM = x2, AL = y1, BM = y2
∴ AN = LM = OM – OL = x2 – x1,
B(x2, y2)
BN = BM – NM = BM – AL = y2 – y1,
A(x1, y1) θ
and ∠BCM = ∠BAN = θ. N

Now, in right-angled triangle ABN, we have θ

X' O C L M X
BN y2– y1
The slope of AB (m) = tan θ = AN = x – x . Y'
2 1

94 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

Hence, the slope of the line passing through the two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is
y2– y1
m = tanθ = x – x
2 1
Note: (i) The points A, B and C are collinear if and only if slope of AB = slope of BC.
(ii) The lines AB and CD are parallel if slope of AB(m1) = slope of BC(m2).
(iii) The lines AB and CD are perpendicular if the product of the slopes of AB and CD
is equal to –1. i.e., their slopes are reciprocal with opposite sign (+ or –).
(iv) If θ = 0° then the line is parallel to x-axis in the same direction.
(v) If θ = 90° then the line is perpendicular to x-axis or parallel to y-axis.
(vi) If θ = 180° then the line is parallel to x-axis in the opposite direction.

Y
B
Example - 1
Find the slope of the straight line which makes angle
of 45o with x-axis in positive direction. 45° X
X' O
Solution: Here,
The angle made by the straight line with x-axis (θ) = 45o A

Coordinate
Geometry
Now, we have Y'
the slope of line (m) = tan θ = tan 45o = 1.
Example - 2 Find the angle of inclination of the line segment
joining the points (3, 4) and (–1, –5).
y
Solution: Here, Since tan θ = , but x & y are
x
Suppose (3, 4) = (x1, y1) and (–1, –5) = (x2, y2­) both negative that lie in the third
quadrant. So, θ = 180° + 66.04°.
Now, we have
Do not confuse direction.
y2– y1
The slope of the line segment (m) = x – x
2 1
–5 – 4 Y
or, tan θ = –1 – 3 (3, 4)

–9 180°
= –4 66.04°
X' O X
9
∴ θ = tan–1  4 
(–1, –5)
= 180o + 66.04o
Y'

= 246.04o.
Hence, the angle of inclination of the given line is 246.04o.

Equation of Straight Line 95

 Example - 3 Prove that the points P(–3, 0), Q(–1, –2) and R(0, –3) are collinear.
Solution: Here,
The given three points are P(–3, 0), Q(–1, –2) and R(0, –3). P(–3, 0)
Now, we have
Q(–1, –2)
–2 – 0 –2
The slope of PQ (m1) = –1 + 3 = 2 = –1. R(0, –3)
–3 + 2 –1
The slope of QR (m2) = 0 + 1 = 1 = –1.
i.e., The slope of PQ(m1) = The slope of the QR(m2).
Hence, the given three points are collinear. Proved.
Example - 4 If the slope of the line passing through the points (2p, –1) and (2, 3) is –2, find
the value of p.
Solution: Here, the slope of the line passing through the points (2p, –1) and (2, 3) is
y2– y1 3 + 1 4
x2 – x1 = 2 – 2p = 2 – 2p
By question, the slope of the same line is 2. So,
4
2 –2p = 2
Coordinate
Geometry

0
or, 4 = 4 – 4p or, 4p = 4 – 4 or, p = 4 = 0.

EXERCISE - 4.4 (A)

1. (a) What is the slope of a straight line?

(b) What is the slope of a line making an angle a° with x-axis?
2. (a) What is the slope of a straight line having x-intercept ‘a’ and y-intercept ‘b’?
(b) Write the slope of a straight line joining the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2).
3. (a) In which condition the points A, B and C are collinear?
(b) In which condition two lines are parallel?
(c) In which condition two lines are perpendicular?
4. (a) In which condition a straight line parallel to x-axis is in the same direction?
(b) In which condition a straight line is perpendicular to x-axis?
(c) In which condition a straight line is parallel to x-axis in opposite direction?
5. Find the slope of the straight line which makes the following angles with x-axis:
(a) 120o in the positive direction.
(b) 45o in the negative direction.

96 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

6. Find the slope of the lines AB, CD and PQ in the given figures:
(a) (b) (c)
Y Y Y

C P
B

A
X' o X X' o X X' o X
D Q
Y' Y' Y'
7. Find the slope of the line AB in the following figures.
(a) (b) (c)
Y Y Y
A
A
A

X' O X X' O X X' O X

120° 45°
B
B
B
Y' Y' Y'

Coordinate
Geometry
8. Find the slope of the line joining the following points.
(a) (3, 4) and (– 2, 1) (b) (– 3, – 5) and (0, 4)
9. Find the angle of inclination of the line joining the following points.
(a) (– 2, 1) and (3, – 4) (b) (0, – 2) and (0, – 3)
10. (a) If the slope of the line passing through the points (3, k) and (1, – 2) is 1, find the value of k.
(b) If the slope of the line passing through the points (5, – 2) and (2a, 1) is – 3, find the
value of a.
11. Prove that the following points are collinear.
(a) A(1, 4), B(5, 0) and C(7, – 2) (b) P(4, 5), Q(5, 1) and R(7, – 7)
12. Prove that the lines AB and CD joining the following points are parallel.
(a) A(1, 5), B(4, 2), C(1, 9) and D(7, 3) (b) A(– 1, 1), B(2, 4), C(3, – 1) and D(5, 1)
13. Prove that the lines PQ and RS joining the following points are perpendicular.
(a) P(1, 5), Q(4, 2), R(– 1, 1) and S(2, 4) (b) P(2, 6), Q(6, 0), R(5, – 2) and S(8, 0)

ANSWERS
1 6
5. (a) – 3 (b) –1 6. (a) 3 (b) –1 (c) 7
3
7. (a) 3 (b) –1 (c) ∞ 8. (a) 5 (b) 3
9. (a) 315 (b) 90o
o
10. (a) 0 (b) 2

Equation of Straight Line 97

 4.4 (B) Equation of Straight Line
Learning Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
”” compute the equation of straight lines parallel to axes.
”” find the equation of oblique straight line.

Y
(a) Equation of Straight Line Parallel to x-axis
Let AB be a straight line parallel to the x-axis that intersects the P(x, y)
y-axis at C. Then the y-intercept (OC) = b units. Take a points A C B
b y
P(x, y) on the line AB and draw PQ⊥OX. So, PQ = y. Since OC X' X
O Q
= PQ, so y = b, which is the required equation of the straight
line parallel to the x-axis or perpendicular to the y-axis. Y'
(b) Equation of Straight Line Parallel to y-axis Y
Let MN be a straight line parallel to the y-axis that intersects M
the x-axis at L. Then the x-intercept (OL) = a units. Take a x
Q P(x, y)
point P(x, y) on the line MN and draw PQ⊥OY. So, PQ = x.
X' X
Since OL = PQ, x = a, which is the required equation of the O a L
N
Coordinate

straight line parallel to the y-axis or perpendicular to the x-axis.

Geometry

Y'
(c) Equation of Straight Line in Slope-intercept Form (Oblique Line)
Y
Let AB be a straight line that intersects the x-axis and y-axis A
at S and Q respectively. Suppose it makes an angle of θ with the
P(x, y)
x-axis. Take a points P(x, y) on the line AB and draw PM⊥OX
Q θ
and QR⊥PM. Then ∠ASX = ∠AQR = θ, OQ = c (suppose), R
c
OM = x and PM = y. X'
S θ X
B O M
∴ QR = OM = x and PR = PM – MR = PM – OQ = y – c. Y'

Now, in right-angled triangle PQR, we have

The slope of AB (m) = tanθ

PR y–c
or, m = QR or, m= x or, mx = y – c
or, y = mx + c, which is the required equation of the straight line in slope-intercept form,
that is the equation of the oblique line.
Special case:
Case (i) If c = 0 that means the line passes through the origin, the equation of the line will
be y = mx.
Case (ii) If m = 0 that means the line is parallel to the x-axis, the equation of the line will be y = c.

98 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

Example - 1 Find the equation of the straight line AB parallel to the x-axis at the distance
of 4 units below it.
Y
Solution: Here, the straight line AB is parallel to the x-axis,
which intersects the y-axis 4 units below the x-axis. X' X
O –4 units
So, the y–intercept (b) = – 4.
A B
Now, the equation of the line parallel to the x-axis is y = b
Y'
or, y = – 4, or, y + 4 = 0.
Example - 2 Find the equation of the straight line parallel to the y-axis passing through
the point (3, 4).
Y
Solution: Here, the straight line parallel to the y-axis passing through the
points (3, 4) makes the x-intercept 3 units, i.e., a = 3. (3, 4)

Now, we have X' O 3 units X

The equation of the given line parallel to y-axis is x = a, or, x = 3. Y'
Example - 3 Find the equation of the straight line that makes an angle of 30° with
x-intercept to 4 units.
1

Coordinate
Solution: Here, the y–intercept (c) = 4, slope of the line (m) = tan30o = .

Geometry
3 Y
Now, we have
The equation of the line is y = mx + c 30°
1 x + 4 3 4 units X
or, y= x + 4 or, y= X' O
3 3
or, 3y = x + 4 3 or, x – 3y + 4 3 = 0.
Y'
Example - 4
Find the equation of the line that makes an angle 45o with x-axis passing
through the points (0, –2).
Solution: Here, the slope of the line (m) = tan45o = 1. Y
Since the line passes through the point (0, –2), A
So, the y-intercept (c) = –2 45°
X' O X
Now, we have (0, –2)
The required equation of the line is y = mx + c B
or, y = 1 × x + (–2) Y'
or, y = x – 2 or, x – y – 2 = 0.
Example - 5 Find the slope, angle of inclination and y-intercept of the straight line with
equation 2x – y + 5 = 0.
Solution: Here, the equation of the line is 2x – y + 5 = 0 …………. (i)
Expressing the equation (i) with y = mx + c, we get
y = 2x + 5 …….. (ii)

Equation of Straight Line 99

 Comparing the equation (ii) with y = mx + c, we get
m = 2 and c = 5 units
or, tan θ = 2 ∴ θ = tan–1(2)
Hence, the slope of the line is 2, the angle of inclination by the line with the x-axis
is tan–1(2) and the y-intercept made by the line is 5 units.

EXERCISE - 4.4 (B)

1. (a) What is the equation of straight line parallel to y-axis at the distance of ‘a’ units left to it?
(b) What is the equation of straight line parallel to x-axis at the distance of ‘b’ units below it?
(c) Write the equation of a straight line having slope m and y-intercept ‘c’.
(d) What is the equation of a straight line passing through origin and slope m?
(e) What is the equation of straight line parallel to x-axis and y-intercept ‘c’?
2. (a) Find the equation of the line parallel to the x-axis at the distance of 3 units above it.
(b) Find the equation of the line parallel to the y-axis at the distance of 5 units left to it.
3. (a) Find the equation of the line parallel to the x-axis and passing through the point (–3, 2).
(b) Find the equation of the line parallel to the y-axis and passing through the point (2, –3).
Coordinate
Geometry

4. (a) Find the equation of the line that makes an angle of 60o with x-axis and cuts
y-intercept equal to 4 units.
2
(b) Find the equation of the line having the slope 3 and the y-intercept –3.
5. Find the equation of the line passing through the origin and making the following angles
with x-axis.
(a) 45o (b) 150o (c) 0o
6. Find the equation of the line for the following conditions:
(a) parallel to x-axis and y-intercept = 3.
(b) parallel to y-axis and passing through the point (0, 5).
(c) making an angle of 30o with x-axis and passing through (0, –3).
7. Find the slope, angle of inclination and y-intercept of the straight line with the following
equations.
(a) 2x – y + 1 = 0 (b) 2x + 3y – 1 = 0 (c) 3x – 4y + 5 = 0

ANSWERS
2. (a) y – 3 = 0 (b) x + 5 = 0 3. (a) y – 2 = 0 (b) x – 2 = 0
4. (a) 3 x – y + 4 = 0 (b) 2x – 3y – 9 = 0 5. (a) x – y = 0 (b) x + 3y = 0 (c) y = 0
6. (a) y – 3 = 0 (b) x = 0 (c) x – 3y – 3 3 = 0
7. (a) 2, 63.44o, 1 (b) – 23, 146.31o, 13 (c) 34, 36.87o, 54

100 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 5
UNIT
TRIGONOMETRY
There is no royal road to geometry. - Euclid
Specific Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
”” convert the measure of angle from one system to another.
”” apply the measure of angle in polygon, clock and other circular and spherical objects.
”” identify the trigonometric ratios and simplify between them by using their relations.
”” prove the trigonometric identities.
”” find the values of trigonometric expressions.
”” solve the right-angled triangle.
”” solve the problems related to height and distance.
What do you learn ?
Measurement of Angle
- Measure of Angles in Sexagesimal System (Degree Measure)
- Centisimal System and Relation between Degree and Grade Measures
- Circular Measure and Relation between Degree, Grade and Radian Measures
- Application of Measurement of Angles
Trigonometric Ratios
- Trigonometric Ratios in Right-angled Triangle

Trigonometry
- Relation between Trigonometric Ratios and operation between them
- Trigonometric Identities
- Values of Trigonometric Ratios of Standard Angles
Solution of Right-angled Triangle
- Solve Right-angled Triangle by using Pythagorean Relation and Trigonometric Ratios
- Height and Distance

Are you ready ?

� Measure of angles in degree and grade measures � Polygon, circle, clock and fractional part of object
� Sides & angles of right-angled triangle � Pythagorean relation
� Operations of algebraic expressions � Equations and identities
� Standard angles of right-angled triangle � Height of erected object and distance/length

Historical Background
In 140 BC, a Greek mathematician, Hipparchus (190-120BC), is thought to have been
the first person to produce a table for solving a triangle’s lengths and angles as first
trigonometric table of chords, analogous to modern tables of sine values, and used them
to solve problems in trigonometry and spherical trigonometry, is known as “the father of
trigonometry”. Sumerian astronomers studied angle measure, using a division of circles
into 360 degrees. In the 3rd century BCE, Hellenistic Greek mathematicians (such
Euclid and Archimedes) studied the properties of chords and inscribed angles in circles,
and they proved theorems that are equivalent to modern trigonometric formulae, Hipparchus
although they presented them geometrically rather than algebraically.
 101
 5.1
1.1 MEASUREMENT OF ANGLE

5.1 (A) Introduction

Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
”” state differ of systems of measuring angle.
”” use the relations among the units of the Sexagesimal system in the given problems.

Trigonometry is the branch of mathematics which deals the relation between the sides and angles
of a triangle. The word “trigonometry” is named of the Greek word “trigōnon” whose expanded
form is “triangle+metron” which means the measurement of a triangle. But in the English,
“Trigonometry” is the form of “tri+gonia+metron” in which ‘tri’ means ‘three’, ‘gonia’ means
‘angles’ and ‘metron’ means ‘measure’. So, trigonometry is consisted the measurement of the
three angles and the problems allied with the angles in a triangle. Specially, it is taken right–
angled triangle in trigonometry.
Let us study the following pictures:
Trigonometry

Pic. (i) Pic. (ii) Pic. (iii) Pic. (iv)

What do you see in common in all the pictures?
In the pic. (i), the hour hand and minute hand are in different positions which B
tie in fixed nub. In the pic. (ii) there is taken out a piece of the Cake which
has two edges. In pic. (iii), the needles of the compass attach at a fixed is O
spread out. In the pic. (iv), the man bends his hand at elbow. A
Fig. (i)
Now, it is clearly said that there is corner in every picture which is formed
by two paths (lines) called arms like as clock hands, edges of cake, needle of C X
compass and hand of man. This corner is said to be an angle.
In geometry, when two lines meet or intersect at a point, it forms an angle. In P
the adjoining figures (i), the lines OA and OB meet at the point O, and in the
figure (ii), the lines XY and CD intersect at the point P. Thus, the figure AOB Y Fig. (ii) D

102 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

and XPD (XPC or CPY or YPD) are the angles. The angle is specially denoted by Greek letters α,
β, γ, θ, δ, etc. and as well as small letters of the English alphabet a, b, ……..., y, z and digits 1, 2,
... . The angle of AOB is denoted by ∠AOB, the lines OA and OB are called arms and the point
O is called vertex of the angle. We can measure the measurement of the angle or corner by using
protractor. The measurement of the angle AOB is denoted by AOB or m ∠AOB. Hence, we can
also measure each corner of the pictures (i) , (ii), (iii) and (iv) above mentioned.

Angles in Coordinate Plane

IIn the adjoining figure, the revolving line OP rotates about the Y
origin O from the x–axis in anti-clockwise direction. It forms P
the positive angle POX. Similarly, another revolving line
OQ rotates about the origin O from the x-axis in clockwise +ve
X' O –ve X
direction. It forms negative angle QOX. These two types of
angles are formed in opposite rotation. Q
Y'
When the measure of the positive angle is an acute, it lies in
Y
the first quadrant of the coordinate plane. i.e., 0o < θ < 90o, θ
lies in the first quadrant. Similarly, when 90o < α < 180o, α lies a
in the second quadrant. When 180o < β < 270o, β lies in the θ
X' β X
third quadrant and when 270o < γ < 360o, γ lies in the fourth γ –θ
quadrant. But, the negative acute angle (– θ) also lies in the
fourth quadrant as shown in the adjoining figure. Y'

Measurement of Angle

Trigonometry
We can easily measure the angle by using semi-circular
protractor or circular protractor as shown in the adjoining
figures. In the semi-circular protractor, we can measure
the angle from 0o to 180o in anti-clockwise or clockwise
direction. But, in the circular protractor, we can measure
the angle from 0o to 360o. Both of the instruments measure Semi-circular Protractor
the angles in degree. Rather than degree, the angle can be
measured on other system of measurement like as grade
and radian. Generally, we can divide the measurements of
angle into three systems. They are,
(i) Sexagesimal System (Degree measure),
(ii) Centesimal system (Grade Measure),
Circular Protractor
(iii) Circular system (Radian Measure).

Measurement of Angle 103

 Sexagesimal System (Degree Measure)
The sexagesimal system for measuring angle is more familiar 90°
than other. In this system, a circle is divided into 360 equal
parts. Each part is called degree (o). Therefore, the measure of
the angle in the circle is 360o. This system is also known as
degree measure. This measuring system of angle was used in 0°
the British at first. So, it is also called the British or English
system.
When the circle is divided into four equal parts, each part has
90o. This is called a right angle. That is, ∠AOB, ∠BOC, ∠COD B
and ∠DOA are right angles. Each of them has measures of 90o.
Again, the right angle is divided into 90 equal parts, each part
is also called degree (o). Therefore, a right angle has 90o. A 90°
degree is also divided into 60 equal parts, each part is called a C A
O
minute (′). Again, a minute is also divided into 60 equal parts,
each part is called second (′′) as shown in the figure below:

90 degrees
D

60 minutes 60 seconds
Trigonometry

1 Rt. Angle 1 Degree (1°) 1 Minute (1′)

The sexagesimal system of measuring angle is in Pyramid form as given below,
Sexagesimal System

1 minute = 60 seconds, i.e., 1′ = 60′′

1 degree = 60 minutes, i.e., 1° = 60′ = 60 × 60′′ = 3600′′

1right angle = 90 degrees, 90° = 90 × 60′ = 5400′ = 5400 × 60′′ = 324000′′

1circle = 4 rt. angles = 4 × 90° = 360° = 360 × 60′ = 21600′ = 21600 × 60′′ = 1296000′′

1 ' 1 ° 1 1
1′′ = 60 = 3600 = 324000 rt. angle = 1296000 circle

1 ° 1 1
1′ = 60 = 5400 rt. angle = 21600 circle

104 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

Conversion of Sexagesimal System
× (Relation Between Two units)

×4 × 90 × 60 × 60
Circle rt. angle Degree Minute Second
÷4 ÷ 90 ÷ 60 ÷ 60

÷ (Relation Between Two units)

Example - 1 Convert the angle 30o 35′ 15′′ into sexagesimal second.
Solution: we have, 1o = 60′ = 60 × 60′′ = 3600′′
Now, 30o = 30×3600′′ = 108000′′
35′ = 35×60′′ = 2100′′
∴ 30o 35′ 15′′ = (108000 + 2100 + 15) ′′ = 110115′′.
“Alternatively”
Here, 30o35′15′′ = 30×3600′′ + 35×60′′ + 15′′ = 110115′′.
Yes, I remember!
Example - 2 Express the angle 35o40′95′′ into degree. 1°
40 ° 95 ° 1o = 60′. So, 1′ = 60
Solution: Here, 35o40′95′′ = 35o + 60 + 3600 and so on.
= 35 + 0.6667 + 0.02639 = 35.69309 .o o o o

Example - 3 The angles of a triangle are in the ratio of 2:3:4. Find the measurement of all

Trigonometry
angles in degrees.
C
Solution: Let the measurement of the angle of the triangle in
the ratio 2:3:4 be 2x, 3x and 4x, then we have 3x
2x + 3x + 4x = 180o
or, 9x = 180o
4x 2x
or, x = 20o. A B
Hence, the required angles of the triangle are
2 × 20° = 40°, 3×20° = 60° and 4 × 20° = 80°.

EXERCISE - 5.1 (A)

1. (a) What is an angle? How many types of measurements are of the angle?
(b) What is a degree in measure of the angle?
(c) What are sexagesimal minute and second?

Measurement of Angle 105

 2. (a) How many minutes are there in 1 degree?
(b) How many seconds are there in 1 degree?
(c) How many degrees are there in 1 minute?
(d) How many degrees are there in 1 second?
3. Express the following angles in sexagesimal second.
(a) 10o (b) 35o 24′ (c) 40o 36′05′′ (d) 145′
4. Convert the following angles into minutes.
(a) 35o (b) 30o 21′ (c) 260′′ (d) 39o10′40′′
5. Convert the following angles into degrees.
(a) 35o30′ (b) 35o25′′ (c) 243505′′ (d) 75o45′45′′
6. Convert the following angles into sexagesimal system:
(a) 23.60o (b) 2.50′ (c) 0.4235o (d) 34.2356o
(e) 3050.50′ (f) 20450.34′′ (g) 1300.23′′ (h) 0.00235o
7. (a) One angle of a triangle is one–third of the right angle. If one of the remaining angle is
triple of other, find the all angles in degrees.
(b) The first three angles of a quadrilateral is in the ratio 2:3:5. If the fourth angle exceeds
20g than the first angle, find all the angles in sexagesimal system.
ANSWERS
3. (a) 36000′′ (b) 127440′′ (c) 146165′′ (d) 8700′′ 4. (a) 2100′ (b) 1821′ (c) 4.333′ (d) 2350.67′
5. (a) 35.50o (b) 35.0067 o (c) 67.6403 o (d) 75.7625 o
6. (a) 23 36′
o
(b) 2’30′′ (c) 25′24.6′′ (d) 34o14′8.16′′
(e) 50 50′30′′
o
(f) 5 40′50.34′′
o
(g) 21′40.23′′ (h) 8.46′′
Trigonometry

7. (a) 30o, 37.5o, 112.5o (b) 57°, 85°, 30°, 142°′ 30, 75°

5.1(B) Centesimal System (Grade Measure)

Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
”” introduce centesimal system of measuring angle.
”” convert the degree measure into grade measure and grade measure into degree measure.

The centesimal system measures the angle in grade (g). In this system, a circle is diagonally
divided into 400 equal parts. Each part is called a grade (g). Therefore, the measurement of a circle
is 400g. So, it is also known as grade measure. This was initially used the France. So, it is also
called French system.

106 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

In the centesimal system, a right angle is divided into 100 equal parts, each part is called grade
(g). A grade is also divided into 100 equal parts, each part is called minute ( ). A minute is further
divided into 100 equal parts, each part is called second ( ). These dividing systems are shown in
the figure below,

100 grades

100 minutes 100 seconds

1 Rt. Angle 1 Grade (1g) 1 Minute (1 )

The centesimal system in a Pyramid form is given below.

Centesimal System
1 minute = 100 seconds, i.e., 1′ = 100
1 grade = 100 minutes, i.e., 1g = 100 = 100 × 100 = 10000
1 rt. angle = 100 grades = 100g = 100 × 100 = 10000 = 10000 × 100 = 1000000
1circle = 4 rt. angles = 4 × 100g = 400g = 400 × 100 = 40000 = 40000 × 100 = 4000000

1 1 g 1 1

Trigonometry
1 = 100 = 1000 = 1000000 rt. angle = 4000000 circle

1 g 1 1
1 = 100 = 10000 rt. angle = 40000 circle

Conversion of centesimal system

× (Relation Between Two units)

×4 × 100 × 100 × 100

Circle rt. angle Degree Minute Second
÷4 ÷ 100 ÷ 100 ÷ 100

÷ (Relation Between Two units)

Measurement of Angle 107

 Relation between Degree Measure and Grade Measure
Look at the following figures:

In degree In grade In degree In grade

system, angular system, angular system, a right system, a right
measure in a measure in a angle = 90° angle = 100g
circle = 360° circle = 400g 100g
90°
∴ 360° = 400 g

Now, we make the converting table of degree and grade measure,

Degree to Grade Grade to Degree
90o = 100g 100g = 90o
100 g 90 °
or, 1o = 90 or, 1g = 100

10 g
9 °
∴ or, 1o = 9 ∴1g = 10
∴ n( ) < n( ).
o g
∴ n(g) > n(°).

Converting chart between Degree and Grade

10 9
× 9 × 10

Degree Grade OR Grade Degree

Trigonometry

10 9
÷ 9 ÷ 10

Example - 1 Convert 305g21 into degree.

?
Solution: Here,
21g
305g21 = 305g + 10000
= 305g + 0.0021g
= 305.0021g
9°
= 305.0021 × 10
= 274.50189o.

108 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

Example - 2 Reduce the angle 63o35 50 into centesimal system.
Solution: Here,
35 50 Yes, I know!
63o35′50′′
= 63o + 60 + 3600 1° 1°
= 63o + 0.583333o + 0.013889o 1′ = 60; 1′′ = 3600

= 63.597222o
10g

= 63.597222 × 9
Do you know?
= 70.663580g 1o = ?g

= 70g + 0.663580×100
= 70g 66.3580
1g = 100
= 70 66 0.3580×100 g
1′ = 100
= 70g66 35.8000
= 70g 66 35.80 .
Example - 3 Find the ratio of 36o and 48g.
10g
Solution: Given, 36o = 36 × 9 = 40g and 48g
36o 40g 5
The required ratio = 48g = 48 = 6 = 5:6.
“Alternatively”
Here, 36o and
9°
48g = 48 × 10 = 43.2o

Trigonometry
36° 36° 5
The required ratio = 48g = 43.2° = 6 = 5:6.
Example - 4 One angle of a triangle is two–third of a right angle and the greater of other
two angles exceeds by 18o. Express all the angles in grades.
2 200g
Solution: Let ABC be a triangle in which A = 3 of 100g = 3 and B > C.
10g C
Suppose C = x, then B = x + 18o = x + 18 × 9 = x + 20g
Now, we have, A + B + C = 200g x
200g
or, 3 + x + 20 + x = 200
g g

2
200g + 3x + 60g + 3x 3×100 x + 18°
g

or, 3 = 200g A B
or, 6x + 260 = 600
g g

Measurement of Angle 109

 or, 6x = 600g – 260g
340g 170g
or, x= 6 = 3 .
200g 170g 170g + 60g 230g 170g
Thus, A = 3 , B = 3 + 20g = 3 = 3 and C= 3 are
required angles of the triangle.

EXERCISE - 5.1 (B)

1. (a) What is centesimal system in measure of an angle?

(b) Define one grade.
(c) What are centesimal minute and second? EXERCISE - 4.1(B)
(d) How many seconds are in one grade?
(e) Write the relation between degree and grade measures.
2. Express the following angles in centesimal seconds.
(a) 40g (b) 75g 24 (c) 95g 28 35 (d) 245
3. Convert the following angles into minutes.
(a) 70g (b) 75g 24 (c) 340 (d) 35g42 97
4. Convert the following angles into centesimal system:.
(a) 123.60 (b) 542.50 (c) 0.4235g (d) 34.23056g
5. Convert the following angles into grades.
Trigonometry

(a) 100g25 (b) 3450205 (c) 315g 50 75 (d) 50g35 45

6. Reduce the following angles into degrees.
(a) 35g (b) 50g (c) 75g 35 (d) 5g3 1
7. Reduce the following angles into grades.
(a) 27o (b) 720o (c) 35o35′ (d) 45o35′55′′
8. Reduce the following angles into sexagesimal system.
(a) 50g (b) 65g25 (c) 35g28 48 (d) 49g30 70
9. Convert the following angles into centesimal system.
(a) 81o (b) 55o 21′ (c) 60o25′35′′ (d) 45o45′45′′
10. Find the ratios of the following pair of angles.
(a) 45o and 90g (b) 25g and 27o
(c) 20o30′ and 20g25 (d) 20g10 20 and 27o8′15.72′′

110 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

11. (a) One angle of a triangle is two-fifths of the right angle. If the remaining two angles are
in the ratio 1:5, find all the angles in circular measure.
3π
(b) If the difference of two acute angles of a right-angled triangle is 10, find the angles in
degrees.

ANSWERS
2. (a) 400000 (b) 752400 (c) 952835 (d) 24500
3. (a) 7000 (b) 7524 (c) 3.4 (d) 3542.97
4. (a) 1g23 60 (b) 5 42.5 (c) 42 35 (d) 34g23 5.6
5. (a) 100.25g (b) 345.0205g (c) 315.5075g (d) 50.3545g
6. (a) 31.5o (b) 45o (c) 67.815o (d) 4.52709o
7. (a) 30g (b) 800g (c) 39.537g (d) 50.6651g
8. (a) 45o (b) 58o43′30′′ (c) 31o45′22.75′′ (d) 44o22′34.68′′
9. (a) 90g (b) 61g50 (c) 67g14 04.321 (d) 50g84 72.22
10. (a) 5:9 (b) 5:6 (c) 820:729 (d) 2:3
πc 2πc 2πc
11. (a) 5 , 15 , 3 (b) 90°, 72°, 18°

5.1(C) Circular System (Radian Measure)

Learning Objectives

Trigonometry
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
”” introduce circular system of measuring angle.
”” convert the measure of the given angle into another system.
C
The circular system is more theoretical in mathematics. It is used in B
advance mathematical works. It is related to the radius and arc of a r
circle. So, it is called circular measure. 1c
In the adjoining figure, the center angle AOB is subtended at the center O r A
O of the circle in which the arc AB (AB ) is equal to the radius OA(r).
i.e., AB = r. Then, the measurement of ∠AOB is called one radian (1c).
i.e., ∠AOB = 1c.
An angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc equal to the length of its radius is
called one radian (1c).
πc
In this system, the circumference of the entire circle is 2πc. So, 1 right angle is equal to 2 .
πc
i.e., ∠AOC = 2 .

Measurement of Angle 111

 Value of π (Pi)
The symbol π (Pi) is connected to the measurement of ratio of circumference to the diametre. In
the adjoining circle with center O, take its diameter d and cut down the circumference (c) of the
circle at any point A and straight it as shown in the figure below. Now, measure the circumference
AA′ by its daimetre ‘d’. We find three pieces of segment equal to the length of diametre ‘d’ and
the remaining small piece, which is approximately one–seventh of the length of the diameter ‘d’.
Thus, we can see that circumference, C
1 1 22
c = 3d + 7d = (3 + 7)d = 7 d
22 d
or, c= 7d How O A
c 22 interesting! A'
or, d= 7.
1
1d 1d 1d 7d
A c A'

Hence, the ratio of the circumference of the circle to its diameter is equal
22 I know that
to 7 as a constant. This constant is called a Pi (π), a Greek letter.
c d = 2r.
Therefore, d = π or, c = πd or, c = 2πr.

Relation between Circular System and Sexagesimal System

πc
We have, 1 right angle = 2 in circular system and
1 right angle = 90° in sexagesimal system.
Trigonometry

πc
∴ 2 = 90° Oh! These are inverse to
2 180° 180° each other.
or, 1c = 90o × π = π ∴ 1c = π .
πc
Similarly, 90o = 2
πc
or, 1o = 2 × 90
πc πc
= 180 ∴ 1o = 180

Relation between Circular System and Centesimal System

πc
We have, 1 right angle = 2 in circular system and
1 right angle = 100g in centesimal system.
πc πc
∴ 2 = 100g and 100g = 200
200g πc
or, 1c = π and 1g = 200 .

112 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

Now, we combine these two relations, we get
180° 200g
∴1c = π = π and then
πc 10g
1o = 180 = 9 ;
πc 9°
1g = 200 = 10 .

Conversion chart between Radian, Degree and Grade

200g
× π

180° 10g
× π × 9

Radian Degree Grade

πc 9°
× 180 × 10

πc
× 200

2πc
Example - 1 Convert the angle 3 into degree and grade measures.
Solution: Here,

Trigonometry
2πc 2π 180° We know,
3 = 3 × π = 120 .
o

180° 200g
2πc 2π 200g 1g 1 c = π , 1c = π
3 = 3 × π = 133 3 .

Example - 2 Express the angle 75o 20′30′′ into radian measure.

Solution: Here, 75o20′30′′

20° 30° 1° 1°
= 75o+ 60 + 3600 = 75° + 3 + 120

9000 + 40 + 1 ° 9041°
=  120  = 120
9041° πC
= 120 × 180

9041πc
= 21600 .

Measurement of Angle 113

 3πc
Example - 3 Divide 10 into two parts such that the ratio of their grade measure is 2:3.
3πc 3π 200g
Solution: Here, 10 = 10 × π = 60g
Let 2x and 3x be two angles in grade, then by question
2x + 3x = 60g
or, 5x = 60g
60g
or, x = 5
= 12g
πc 3πc
= 12 × 200 = 50 .
3πc 3πc 3πc 9πc
Hence, the required two angles are 2× 50 = 25 and 3× 50 = 50 .
3πc
Example - 4 20g is taken from 5 . Find the remaining angle in degree.
9°
Solution: Here, 20g = 20×10 = 18°
3πc 3π 180°
5 = 5 × π = 108 .
o

∴ The required remaining angle is 108o – 18o = 90o.

Example - 5 One angle of a right-angled triangle is 40g. Find its remaining angle in radian measure.
Solution: Here, in the right–angled triangle ABC,
πc πc πc
A = 2 , B = 40g = 200 = 5 , C = ?
Trigonometry

Now, we have
A + B + C = πc
πc πc
or, 2 + 5 + C =π
c

πc πc 10πc – 5πc – 2πc 3πc

or, C = πc – 2 – 5 = 10 = 10 .
3πc
Hence, the measurement of the remaining angle of the triangle is 10 .

EXERCISE - 5.1 (C)

1. (a) What is circular measure? (b) Define one radian.

(c) What is Pi (π)? (d) What is the value of π?
(e) What is the measure of circular angle in circular system?
(f) Write the relation between degree, grade and radian measures.

114 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

2. Convert the following angles into degrees:
2πc 3πc 9πc 7πc
(a) 5 (b) 4 (c) 10 (d) 6
3. Convert the following angles into grades:
3πc 2πc 7πc 8πc
(a) 5 (b) 8 (c) 3 (d) 25
4. Express the following angles into radian:
(a) 45o (b) 350o (c) 60o 15′ (d) 115o 10' 30''
5. Express the following angles into radian:
(a) 25g (b) 270g 25 (c) 40g 40 (d) 125g 60 75
7πc
6. (a) Divide the angle 10 into two parts such that the ratio of their grade measure is 1:2.
(b) Divide 300g into two parts such that the ratio of their radian measure is 1:5.

7. (a) 30o is taken from 90g. Find the remaining angle in radian measure.
3πc
(b) 4 is taken from 144o. Find the remaining angle in grade measure.
8. (a) One angle of a right-angled triangle is 70o. Find the remaining angle in radian.
33πc
(b) The angles of a triangle are 80g and 180 . Find the angles in degrees.
5πc
9. (a) First three angles of a quadrilateral are 60g, 6 and 66o. Find its fourth angles in grade.
(b) The angles of a quadrilateral are in the ratio of 3:4:6:7. Find the angles in grades.

Trigonometry
10. (a) The ratio of the angles in a pentagon is 1:2:3:4:5. Find its angles in radians.
(b) The sum of two non-equal angles of an isosceles triangle is 120o. Find its angles in radian.
ANSWERS
2. (a) 72o (b) 135o (c) 162o (d) 210o
3. (a) 120g (b) 50g (c) 4662/3g (d) 64g
πc 35πc 241πc 4607πc
4. (a) 4 (b) 18 (c) 720 (d) 7200
πc 1081πc 101πc 50243πc
5. (a) 8 (b) 800 (c) 500 (d) 80000
7πc 7πc 17πc
6. (a) 30 , 15 (b) 50g, 250g 7. (a) 60 (b) 10g
8. (a) 20g (b) 75 o, 72 o, 33o 9. (a) 100g (b) 60g, 80 g, 120 g, 140 g
πc 2πc 3πc 4πc πc πc πc
10. (a) 5 , 5 , 5 , 5 , πc (b) 3 , 3 , 3

Measurement of Angle 115

 5.2
1.1 TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS

5.2(A) Trigonometric Ratios

Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
� identify trigonometric ratios. � solve the problems related to trigonometric ratios of any angles.

Trigonometric Ratios in Right-angled Triangle

A right-angled triangle has any one angle as right angle (i.e., 90o or 100g A
πc
or 2 ). In the adjoining figure, ∠ABC is the right angle of ∆ABC. The
α
side opposite to the right angle is called the hypotenuse of the right-
angled triangle. We take any one of two acute angles of the right-angled
triangle that is called the reference angle. Suppose the measurement of 90°
the reference angle ∠ACB be θ (read as ‘theta’), then the side opposite to θ
the angle θ is called the perpendicular of the right-angled triangle and its B C
remaining side is called the base. In ∆ABC, AC is hypotenuse (h), AB is the perpendicular (p) and
BC is the base (b).
If we take the angle ∠BAC (= α) as the reference angle then BC is the perpendicular (p) and AB,
the base (b) of right-angled triangle ABC. But the hypotenuse is fixed for the same right triangle.
Trigonometry

Now, we can make as possible as the ratio of any two sides of right-angled triangle ABC as;
AB BC AB BC AC AC
AC, AC, BC, AB, AB and BC .
Only we can make these six ratios of two sides of the right-angled triangle.
The set of ratios of any two sides of the right-angled triangle is called the
trigonometric ratios.
There are six types of trigonometric ratios in the trigonometry. They are defined as follows,
(i) The ratio of the perpendicular (AB) to the hypotenuse (AC) is called sine of angle θ.
AB p
Therefore, sin θ = AC, i.e., sin θ = h
(ii) The ratio of the base (BC) to the hypotenuse (AC) is called cosine of angle θ. Therefore,
BC b
cos θ = AC, i.e., cos θ = h .
(iii) The ratio of the perpendicular (AB) to the base (BC) is called tangent of angle θ.
AB p
Therefore, tan θ = BC , i.e., tan θ = b .

116 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 (iv) The ratio of the base (BC) to the perpendicular (AB) is called cotangent of angle
BC b
θ. Therefore, cot θ = AB, i.e., cot θ = p.
(v) The ratio of the hypotenuse (AC) to the base (BC) is called secant of angle θ.
AC h
Therefore, sec θ = BC , i.e., sec θ = b.
(vi) The ratio of the hypotenuse (AC) to the perpendicular (AB) is called cosecant
AC h
of angle θ. Therefore, cosec θ = AB, i.e., cosec θ = p.
The first three trigonometric ratios sin θ, cos θ and tan θ are called the fundamental trigonometric
ratio and the remaining three ‘co’ ratios are respectively called their reciprocal or complementary
ratios. That is, the trigonometric ratios cosec θ, sec θ and cot θ are the reciprocal or complementary
ratios of sin θ, cos θ and tan θ respectively. If we can take ∠BAC = α, then trigonometric ratios
become,
BC AB BC A
sin α = AC, cos α = AC , tan α = AB ,
AB AC AC α
cot α = BC, sec α = AB , cosec α = BC .
The relation of trigonometric ratio with reference to angle α or θ is,
90°
∴ sin θ = cos α, cosθ = sin α, tan θ = cot α, θ
B C
cot θ = tan α, sec θ = cosec α, cosec θ = sec α.

Pythagoras’ Theorem
Take a right-angled triangle ABC in the graph in which ∠ABC = 90°,
∠ABC = θ, AB = 3 units and BC = 4 units. You can find the length
of AC as 5 units. Now, construct the squares on AB (p), BC (b) and

Trigonometry
AC (h). A 25
h
Can you count the number of squares on AB, BC and AC? 9 P
θ
B C
We found the area of square on AB, AB2 (p2) = 9 sq. units, the area b
16
of square on BC, BC2 (b2) = 16 sq. units, and the area of square
on AC, AC2 (h2) = 25 sq. units. Here, we see that 9 + 16 = 25,
i.e., AB2 + BC2 = AC2 or p2 + b2 = h2. This is called Pythagoras'
theorem and the measures of the sides 3, 4 and 5 of the right-angled triangle form Pythagorean
Triplet (P.T.). The set of integers (3, 4, 5) is the basic Pythagorean Triplet. There are so many
Pythagorean Triplets. Generally, Pythagorean Triplets can be obtained by using the following
expressions,
2n + 1, 2n(n + 1), 2n(n + 1) + 1 (or m2– n2, 2mn, m2+n2) How interesting rule for
where, m, n ∈ Z+, m ≠ n. obtaining Pythagorean
Triplets. If (a, b, c) is P.T.,
If n = 1, the Pythagorean Triplet is obtained as 3, 4, 5. (ka, kb, kc) is also P.T.,
If n = 2, the Pythagorean Triplet is obtained as 5, 12, 13. where k ∈ Q+
If n = 3, the Pythagorean Triplet is obtained as 7, 24, 25 and so on.

Trigonometric Ratios 117

 Similarly, we get more Pythagorean Triplets by multiplying the basic Pythagorean Triplets by any
positive rational numbers or each number of any Pythagorean Triplets by the same number. For
example, the composite of basic Pythagorean Triplets of (3, 4, 5) are (6, 8, 10), (15, 20, 25), etc.
and that of (5, 12, 13) are (10, 24, 26), (15, 36, 39), etc. By the same process we can find much
more Pythagorean Triplets.

A
Example - 1 Find the value of the fundamental trigonometric
ratios for the given angle θ in the adjoining figure.

2 cm
Solution: Here, in the given right-angled triangle ABC,
∠ABC = 90°, ∠ACB = θ, AB = 2 cm, BC = 3 cm. θ
Now, we have using Pythagoras' theorem, C 3 cm B

AC = AB2 + BC2 = 22 + 32 = 4 + 9 = 13 cm. [ h = p2 + b2]

The values of the fundamental ratios are given by,
AB 2 cm 2 BC 3 cm 3
sin θ = BC = = , cos θ = AC = =
13 cm 13 13 cm 13
AB 2 cm 2 S
tan θ = BC = = .
3 cm 3
θ
Example - 2 From the given figure, find sin α and tan θ.
Solution: Here, in the right-angled triangles PQR and PRS,

13 cm
P
PQ = 3 cm, QR = 4 cm and SR = 13 cm.
Trigonometry

3 cm α
Now, we have
PR = PQ2 + QR2 = 32 + 42 = 9 + 16 = 25 = 5cm. Q 4 cm R
Again, PS = RS2 – PR2 = 132 – 52 = 169 – 25 = 144 = 12 cm.
PS 12 PR 5
∴ sin a = = and tan θ = =
RS 13 PS 12
Example - 3 If 5sin A = 3, find the values of cos A and tan A.
3 p
Solution: Here, 5sin A = 3 or, sin A = = .
5 h
Suppose p = 3x and h = 5x then b = (5x)2 – (3x)2 = 25x2 – 9x2 = 16x2 = 4x.
b 4x 4 p 3x 3
Now, cos A = = = and tan A = = = .
h 5x 5 b 4x 4
Example - 4 If sin θ – cos θ = 0, prove that: sin θ + cos θ = 2.
Solution: Here, sin θ – cos θ = 0 or, sin θ = cos θ
sin θ p
or, =1 or, tan θ = 1 =
cos θ b
118 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8
 Suppose, p = x and b = x, then h = x2 + x2 = 2x2 = 2x
p p x x 1 1 1+1 2
Now, LHS = sin θ + cos θ = + = + = + = = = 2 RHS.
h h 2x 2x 2 2 2 2

EXERCISE - 5.2 (A)

1. (a) What is trigonometric ratio? (b) What are fundamental trigonometric ratios?
(c) State the Pythagoras' theorem. (d) List the name of trigonometric ratios.
(e) Write the relation between hypotenuse (h), perpendicular (p) and base (b) in a
right-angled triangle.
2. Find the trigonometric ratios of the angles θ and α in each of the following right-angled
triangles.
(a) A (b) C (c) P
θ
θ Q

α θ
A B α
α
B C
R
3. Write down the trigonometric ratios of the angles α, β and γ in the following right-angled
triangles.
(a) A (b) S (c) A D
β

Trigonometry
α
γ
P
β β
α
B C α
B C
Q R
4. From the given figures, find the ratios of sine, cosine and tangent of the angle φ.
(a) A 4 cm (b) P 12 cm R (c) X
C φ
cm
17
5 cm

8 cm

cm
3 cm

13
5c

φ φ
m

Q Y 15 cm Z
B

Trigonometric Ratios 119

 5. Find the trigonometric ratios of the angle θ from the following figures.
(a) L (b) A 7 cm (c) D 8 cm F
C θ
cm
13

5 cm
cm

24 cm
1 0
θ θ
M N E
B
6. In the following right angle-triangles, find the fundamental trigonometric ratios of the angle Ψ.
(a) A 15 cm (b) K
D cm
Ψ 15
L
c m
10 β

7 cm
B θ Ψ
6 cm C
M 24 cm N
3
7. (a) If sin A = , find the values of cos A, tan A, cot A, sec A and cosec A.
5
12
(b) If cos A = , find the values of other trigonometric ratios.
13
(c) If 15 tan A = 8, find the values of other trigonometric ratios.
sin θ – cos θ
8. (a) If 4 cos θ = 3 sin θ, find the value of .
2sin θ – 3cos θ
(b) If sin A – cos A = 0, find the value of cos A.
Trigonometry

(c) If 13 – 12 cosec A = 0, find the value of 3cos A – 2tan A.

9. (a) If 1 – 2sin θ = 0, prove that: 3sin θ – 4sin3 θ = 1
sin A + 4 2tan A 24
(b) If = 6, prove that: =–
sin A 1– tan A
2
7
a–1 a–1
(c) If sin θ = , prove that: tan θ =
a+1 2 a
ANSWERS
5 12 5 12 13 13 7 24 7 24 25 25 3 4 3 4 5 5
5. (a) , , , , , (b) , , , , , (c) , , , , ,
13 13 12 5 12 5 25 25 24 7 24 7 5 5 4 3 4 3
8 15 8 3 4 3 4 3 4 5 5 5 5 12 13 13 8 15 15 17 17
6. (a) , , (b) , , 7. (a) , , , , (b) , , , , (c) , , , ,
17 17 15 5 5 4 5 4 3 4 3 13 12 5 12 5 17 17 8 15 8
1 237
8. (a) –1 (b) (c) –
2 65

120 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 5.2 (B) Relation between Trigonometric Ratios
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
� identify the relations of trigonometric ratios. � simplify the trigonometric expressions.

(I) Reciprocal Relations

In the right-angled triangle ABC with ∠ABC = 90o and ∠ACB = θ. We have,

AB AC A
(i) sin θ = AC and cosec θ = AB
AB AC
Now, sin θ × cosec θ = × =1
AC AB
∴ sin θ × cosec θ = 1
θ
1 1
We derive, sin θ = cosec θ and cosec θ = sinθ. B C

(ii) Similarly,
BC AC
cos θ = AC and sec θ = BC Oh! I see the multipli-
BC AC cation of reciprocal
Now, cos θ × sec θ = AC × BC = 1.
trigonometric ratios is
∴ cos θ × sec θ = 1 equal to 1.
1 1
We derive, cos θ = sec θ and sec θ = cos θ.

Trigonometry
AB BC
(iii) Again, tan θ = BC and cot θ = AB
AB BC
Now, tan θ × cot θ = BC × AB = 1.
∴ tan θ × cot θ = 1
1 1
We derive, tan θ = cot θ and cot θ = tan θ.

II) Quotient Relations

(i) In the right-angled triangle ABC with ∠ABC = 90o and ∠ACB = θ. We have,
AB AB/AC sin θ A
tan θ = BC = BC/AC = cos θ.
sin θ
∴ tan θ = cos θ
sin θ
We derive, sin θ = cos θ.tan θ and cos θ = tan θ . θ
B C

Trigonometric Ratios 121

 (ii) Similarly,
BC BC/AC cos θ
cot θ = AB = AB/AC = sin θ .
cos θ
∴ cot θ = sin θ
cos θ
We derive, cos θ = sin θ.cot θ and sin θ = cot θ .

III) Pythagorean Relation

A
We know that the Pythagoras relation as h2 = p2 + b2
i.e., AC2 = AB2 + BC2
Now,
θ
(i) AB + BC = AC
2 2 2 B C

Dividing on both sides by AC2, we get

AB2 BC2 AC2
AC2 + AC2 = AC2
2 2
AB BC
or,  AC  +  AC  = 1
AB BC
But we know that sin θ = AC and cos θ = AC.
∴ sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
We derive, sin2 θ = 1 – cos2 θ; sin θ = 1 – cos2 θ and
Trigonometry

cos2 θ = 1 – sin2 θ; cos θ = 1 – sin2 θ.

(ii) AC2 = AB2 + BC2
or, AC2 – AB2 = BC2
Dividing on both sides by BC2, we get
AC2 AB2 BC2
BC2 – BC2 = BC2
2 2
 AC   AB 
or,  BC  –  BC  = 1
AC AB
We have, sec θ = BC and tan θ = BC
∴ sec2 θ – tan2 θ = 1
We derive, sec2 θ = 1 + tan2θ; sec θ = 1+ tan2 θ and
tan2 θ = sec2 θ – 1; tan θ = sec2 θ – 1.

122 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

(iii) AC2 = AB2 + BC2
or, AC2 – BC2 = AB2
Dividing on both sides by AB2, we get
AC2 BC2 AB2
AB2 – AB2 = AB2
2 2

or,  AC  –  BC  = 1
 AB   AB 
AC BC
We have, cosec θ = AB and cot θ = AB
∴ cosec2 θ – cot2 θ = 1
We derive, cosec2 θ = 1 + cot2 θ; cosec θ = 1 + cot2 θ and
cot2 θ = cosec2 θ – 1; cot θ = cos2 θ – 1.

Operations on Trigonometric Ratios

Trigonometric ratios operate as numbers in algebraic symbols. We can perform the operations like
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, factorization, expansion, etc. between them as we
do in algebra. The comparative table is as follows.

SN Operation Algebraic Notation Trigonometric Ratios

1 Addition 2x + 3x = 5x 2sin θ + 3sin θ = 5sin θ
2 Subtraction 3ab – ab = 2ab 3cos θ.tan θ – cos θ.tan θ = 2cos θ.tan θ
3 Multiplication x × x2 = x3, tan α × tan2 α = tan3 α,

Trigonometry
x(x + y) = x2 + xy sin β (sin2 β + cos β) = sin3 β + sin β.cos β
4 Division x3 cos3 θ
x =x cos θ = cos θ
2 2

5 Factorization 3x2+5x+2 = (3x+2)(x+1) 3sin2 θ + 5sin θ + 2 = (3sin θ + 2)(sin θ + 1)

6 Expansion (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 (sin θ + tan θ)2 = sin2θ + 2sin θ.tan θ + tan2θ

Example - 1 Simplify: 3sin A – cos A – 2sin A + 2cos A.

Solution: Here, 3sin A – cos A – 2sin A + 2cos A Oh! Like terms
are added and
= 3sin A – 2sin A + 2cos A – cos A subtracted.
= sin A + cos A.

Trigonometric Ratios 123

 Example - 2 Simplify: 2sin A (1 + cos A) – cos A (sin A – 1).
Solution: Here, 2sin A(1 + cos A) – cos A (sin A – 1)
= 2sin A + 2sin A.cos A – sin A.cos A + cos A
= 2sin A + sin A.cos A + cos A.

Example - 3 Divide: 3sin3 θ.cos2 θ by sin θ.cos θ

3sin3 θ.cos2 θ
Solution: Here, sin θ.cos θ = 3sin2 θ.cos θ.

Example - 4 Factorize the followings:

(i) sin2 A.cos A – sin A.cos2 A (ii) sin2 A – cos2 A
(iii) tan3 A – sec3 A (iv) cot2 A + 2cot A – 8
Solution: Here,
(i) sin2 A.cos A – sin A.cos2 A Yes, we know,
= sin A.cos A(sin A – cos A) . a2 – b2 = (a+b)(a–b)
(ii) sin2 A – cos2 A a3 – b3 = (a–b) (a2 + ab + b2)

= (sin A + cos A)(sin A – cos A).

(iii) tan3 A – sec3 A
= (tan A – sec A)(tan2 A + tan A.sec A + sec2 A).
(iv) cot2 A + 2cot A – 8 = cot2 A + (4 – 2)cot A – 8
= cot2 A + 4cot A – 2cot A – 8
= cot A (cot A + 4) – 2(cot A + 4)
Trigonometry

= (cot A + 4) (cot A – 2).

EXERCISE - 5.2 (B)

1. (a) Write the reciprocal relations of trigonometric ratios.

(b) What are the quotient relations of trigonometric ratios?
(c) List the Pythagorean relations of trigonometric ratios.
(d) What is the formula for sec θ in terms of tan θ.
(e) What is the value of cosec2 θ – cot2 θ?
(f) What is the value of cos θ × sec θ?
2. Simplify:
(a) 2sin θ + cos θ + sin θ – 3cos θ (b) 3tan α + 2sec α – tan α + 3sec α
(c) 4cot2 x – 3sec3 x – cot2 x + 2sec3 x (d) 2cos2 A – sec A – 3cos2 A + sec2 A

124 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

3. Multiply:
(a) (2sin2 A + cos A) by sin A (b) (3sin A.sec A + 2cos A.sin A) by sin A.cos A
(c) (tan θ + cot θ) by cot θ (d) (2sin B + cos B) by 3cosec B.sec B
4. Divide:
(a) 3sin3 θ by sin θ (b) 5sin3 α.cos2 α by sin α.cos α
(c) (4sin3 θ.sec2 θ + 3sin θ.sec θ) by sin θ.sec θ.
5. Factorize:
(a) 4tan2 θ – 2 (b) 3sin2 A – sin A
(c) 4cos2 A – 9 (d) 16sin2 A – 9cos2 A
(e) 8 – 2tan2 A (f) 2cosec3 A – 2cosec A
(g) sin3 A – 1 (h) 3cos4 A + 24cos A
(i) sin2 A + 2sin A + 1 (j) 4cos2 A – 12cos A + 9
(k) tan2 A + 3tan A + 2 (l) 2sin2 A – 7sin A + 3
(m) sin2 x – 5sin x.cos x + 6cos2 x (n) cosec2 θ + 5cosec θ – 6
(o) 5cot2 θ – 2cot θ – 7 (p) 15tan2 α – 11tan α + 2.
6. Simplify:
1 – sin θ 1 + sin θ 1 1
(a) sin θ + sin θ (b) 1 – cos θ+ 1 + cos θ
sinA 1 + cos A cos θ cos θ
(c) 1 + cos A + sin A (d) 1 – sin θ + 1 + sin θ
ANSWERS
2. (a) 3sin θ – 2cos θ (b) 2tan α + 5sec α
(c) 3cot x – sec x
2 3
(d) sec2 A – sec A – cos2 A

Trigonometry
3. (a) 2sin3 A + sin A.cos A (b) 3sin2 A + 2sin2 A.cos2 A
(c) 1 + cot2 θ (d) 6sec B + 3cosec B
4. (a) 3sin2 θ (b) 5sin2 α.cos α (c) 4sin2 θ.sec θ + 3
5. (a) 2(2tan2 θ – 1) (b) sin A(3sin A – 1)
(c) (2cos A + 3) (2cos A – 3) (d) (4sin A + 3cos A) (4sin A – 3cos A)
(e) 2(2 + tan A) (2 – tan A) (f) 2cosec A.cot2 A
(g) (sin A – 1)(sin2 A + sin A + 1) (h) 3cos A(cos A + 2) (cos2 A – 2cos A + 4)
(i) (sin A + 1) (sin A + 1) (j) (2cos A – 3) (2cos A – 3)
(k) (tan A + 1)(tan A + 2) (l) (sin A – 3) (2sin A – 1)
(m) (sin x – 3cos x)(sin x – 2cos x) (n) (cosec θ + 6)(cosec θ – 1)
(o) (5cot θ – 7) (cot θ + 1) (p) (3tan α – 1) (5tan α – 2)
6. (a) 2cosec θ (b) 2cosec2 θ (c) 2cosec A (d) 2sec θ

Trigonometric Ratios 125

 5.2 (C) Trigonometric Identities
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
� identify trigonometric identities.
� prove the trigonometric identities.

Consider the mathematical equivalent expressions as;

What are the values
(i) (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 (ii) a2 + 4 = 8
of a and b for true
(iii) a + b = 0 (iv) 2a + 3ab = a(2 + 3b) expressions?

In the above examples, the expressions (i) and (iv) are always true for any values of a and b, but
the expressions (ii) and (iii) are true for some particular values of a and b. Hence, the expression
(i) and (iv) are called identities whereas the expression (ii) and (iii) are called equations.

Similarly, in the case of trigonometric ratios, consider some trigonometric expression as;
(i) sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 (ii) cos2 θ = 1 – sin2 θ For what value of θ do
(iii) 2sin θ = 1 (iv) sin θ + cos θ = 1 the expression true ?

In these trigonometric expressions, the expressions (i) and (ii) are trigonometric identities and the
remaining two expressions are trigonometric equations.

An identity involving the trigonometric ratios which is true for any value of an angle is
called a trigonometric identity.
Trigonometry

The trigonometric identities have two equivalent expressions. They are called left hand side (LHS)
and right hand side (RHS). In the identity, we generally simplify the RHS or LHS to show it.

Example - 1 Prove that: (1 – sin2 θ) (1 + tan2 θ) = 1.

Solution: Here,
I know,
LHS = (1 – sin2 θ) (1 + tan2 θ)
cos θ.sec θ =1
= cos2 θ.sec2 θ
= (cos θ.sec θ)2
= 12
= 1 = RHS. Proved.

126 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 Example - 2 Prove that: cot2 A – cos2 A = cot2 A.cos2 A.
Solution: Here, LHS = cot2 A – cos2 A
cos2 A cos A
= sin2 A – cos2A  cot A = sin A
1
=  sin2 A – 1  cos2 A
= (cosec2 A – 1)cos2 A
= cot2 A.cos2 A = RHS. Proved.
1 1
Example - 3 Prove that: 1 + cos α + 1 – cos α= 2cosec2 α.
1 1
Solution: Here, LHS = 1 + cos α + 1 – cos α
1 – cos α + 1 + cos α
= (1 + cos α) (1 – cos α) [ (a + b) (a – b) = a2 + b2]
2 2
= 1 – cos2 α = sin2 α = 2cosec2 α = RHS.
1 – sin θ
Example - 4 Prove that: 1 + sin θ = sec θ – tan θ.
1 – sinθ
Solution: Here, LHS = 1 + sinθ
1 – sin θ 1 – sin θ
= 1 + sin θ × 1 – sin θ
(1 – sin θ)2
= 1 – sin2 θ
(1 – sin θ)2

Trigonometry

cos2 θ =
1 – sin θ
= cos θ
1 sin θ
= cos θ – cos θ = sec θ – tan θ = RHS. Proved.

EXERCISE - 5.2 (C)

1. (a) What are trigonometric identities?
(b) For which value of θ is (1 – sin2θ) (1 + tan2θ) equal to 1?
2. Prove that:
1 – sin2 A tan A.cos A
(a) cos2 A = 1 (b) sin A = 1
1 cos2 θ
(c) cos2 A(1+ tan2 A) = 1 (d) – =1
sin θ sin2 θ
2

1
(e) (1 – sin2 α).sec2α = 1 (f) sin2 β + 1 + tan2 β = 1

Trigonometric Ratios 127

 cosec2 A – cot2 A tan2 θ × (1 – sin2 θ)
(g) sec2 A – tan2 A = 1 (h) sin2 θ =1
1 1
(i) cos2 A.sec4 A – tan4 A.cot2 A = 1 (j) tan2 α – sin2 α = – 1

3. Prove that:
cos α + 1 cos α – 1 1 – sin α 1 + sin α
(a) cos α + cos α = 2 (b) cos α + cos α = 2sec α
1 + sin A 1 – sin A 1 1
(c) cos A – cos A = 2tan A (d) 1 – sin B + 1 + sin B = 2sec B
2

1 1 sin θ sin θ
(e) 1 – cos α – 1 + cos α = 2cot α.cosec α (f) 1 – cos θ + 1 + cos θ = 2cosec θ
1 – tan θ cot θ – 1 sec α + 1 1 + cos α
(g) 1 + tan θ = cot θ + 1 (h) sec α – 1 = 1 – cos α
tan θ – cot θ sec θ + cosec θ sin θ + cos θ
(i) tan θ + cot θ = sin2 θ – cos2 θ (j) sec θ – cosec θ = sin θ – cos θ
4. Prove that:
(a) sin2 A.cos2 A + sin4 A = sin2 A (b) (cot2 α + 1).tan2 α = sec2 α
(c) sin A.cot A = cos A (d) sin5 θ + 2sin3 θ.cos2 θ + sin θ.cos4 θ = sin θ
(e) (1 + sin A)2 – (1 – sin A)2 = 4sin A (f) (1 + tan α)2 + (1 – tan α)2 = 2sec2 α
cosec2 θ – 1
(g) cosec2 θ = cos θ
2
(h) tan2 γ – sin2 γ = tan2 γ. sin2 γ
sin θ
(i) 1+ tan2 α . 1– cos2 α = tan α (j) sec2θ – 1 = cos θ
Trigonometry

5. Prove that:
1 – sin4 A 1 – tan4 A
(a) cos4 A = 1 + 2tan A
2
(b) sec4 A = 1 – 2sin A
2

sin3 α + cos3 α
(c) cos4 θ – sin4 θ = 2cos2 θ –1 (d) sin α + cos α = 1 – sin α.cos α
sin3 α – cos3 α 1 + cos θ 1 + cos θ
(e) 1 + sin α.cos α = sin α – cos α (f) 1 – cos θ = sin θ
1 – cos A 1 + sin θ
(g) 1 + cos A = cosec A – cot A (h) 1 – sin θ = sec θ + tan θ
tan α – 1 2sin2 α – 1 1 1 – sin θ
(i) =
tan α + 1 1 + 2sin α.cos α (j) sec θ + tan θ = cos θ
1 1 – cos θ 1
(k) cosec θ + cot θ = sin θ (l) tan θ + cot θ = sin θ.cos θ

ANSWERS
Show to your teacher.

128 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

5. 2 (D) Values of Trigonometric Ratios of Standard Angles
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
”” find the values of trigonometric ratios of the standard angles 0o, 30o, 45o, 60o and 90o.
”” solve the problems related to the values of trigonometric ratios of the standard angles.

In this topic, we compute the values of the trigonometric ratios of standard angles like as 0o, 30o,
45o, 60o and 90o geometrically.
A
Trigonometric Ratios of 0o
In the adjoining right-angled triangle ABC, as the angle θ
becomes smaller and smaller, the side AC also becomes θ
B C
smaller and smaller.
Finally, when θ = 0o, AC = 0 and AB = BC.

Now, we have What are the ratios of

sin θ, cos θ, tan θ, cot θ,
AC 0 BC BC
(i) sin 0o = AB = AB = 0. (ii) cos 0o = AB = BC = 1. sec θ & cosec θ ?
AC 0 BC BC
(iii) tan 0o = BC = BC = 0. (iv) cot 0o = AC = 0 = ∞.
AB BC AB AB
(v) sec 0o = BC = BC = 1. (vii) cosec 0o = AC = 0 = ∞.
It is clear that,

Trigonometry
sin 0° = tan 0° = 0,
Note: ∞ denotes the term ‘undefined’ and read as ‘infinitive’ cos 0° = sec 0° = 1,
cot 0° = cosec 0° = ∞.
Some Thing Zero
which means Zero , but Some Thing = 0.

Trigonometric ratios of 30o and 60o A

In the adjoining equilateral triangle ABC, AB = BC = CA = 2a 30°
(suppose) and ∠ABC = ∠BCA = ∠CAB = 60°. Draw AD⊥BC,
then ∠BAD = 30° and BD = DC = a. From the right–angled
2a 2a
3a

triangle ABD, we have

AD = AB2 – BD2 = 4a2 – a2 = 3a2 = 3a. 60° 60°

Oh! Using B a D a C
Now, we have
Pythagoras' theorem.

Trigonometric Ratios 129

 For ratios of 30o,
BD a 1 AD 3a 3
(i) sin 30° = AB = 2a = 2. (ii) cos 30° = AB = = .
2a 2
BD a 1 AD 3a
(iii) tan 30° = AD = a = . (iv) cot 30° = BD = = 3.
3 3 a
AB 2a 2 AB 2a Oh interesting!
(v) sec 30° = AD = a = . (vi) cosec3 0° = BD = a = 2. 1
3 3
sin30o = cos60o = 2
For ratios of 60o, 3
sin60o = cos30o =
2
AD 3a 3 AB 2a 2 1
(i) sin 60o = AB = = ; cosec 60o = AD = a = . tan30o = cot60o =
2a 2 3 3 3
BD 2 1 AB 2a tan60o = cot30o = 3
(ii) cos 60o = AB = 2a = 2; sec 60o = BD = a = 2.
2
sec30o = cosec60o =
AD 3a BD a 1 3
(iii) tan 60o = BD = = 3; cot 60o = AD = a = . sec60o = cosec60o = 2
a 3 3

Trigonometric Ratios of 45o

A
In the adjoining figure, ABC is an isosceles right-angled triangle in which,

AB = BC = a (suppose), ∠ABC = 90o and ACB = ∠BAC = 45o. 2a a

AC = AB2 + BC2
I know, by the 45°
Pythagoras theorem,
C a B
= a + a = 2a = 2a.
2 2 2
Trigonometry

h = p2 + b2 .
Now, we have
AB a 1
(i) sin 45o = AC = a = ;
2 2
Oh interesting!
AC 2a 1
cosec 45o = AB = = 2. sin45° = cos45°= ,
a 2
tan45° = cot45° = 1 ,
BC a 1 sec45°=cosec45°= 2.
(ii) cos 45° = AC = a = ;
2 2
AC 2a
sec 45° = AB = = 2.
a
AB a
(iii) tan 45° = BC = a = 1;

BC a
cot 45° = AB = a = 1.

130 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

Trigonometric Ratios of 90o A
In the given right angled-triangle ABC, as the angle θ becomes greater,
the side BC becomes smaller and smaller. When θ = 90o, BC = 0 and
AB = AC.
Now, we have
AB AC θ
(i) sin 90° = AC = AC = 1
C B
AC AC
cosec 90° = AB = AC = 1.
BC 0
(ii) cos 90° = AC = AC = 0
AC AC Finally, we remember;
sec 90° = BC = 0 = ∞.
sin0° = tan0° = cos90° = cot90° = 0,
AB AB cos0°= sec0° = sin90° = cosec90°=1,
(iii) tan 90° = BC = 0 = ∞ cot0° = cosec0° = sec90° = tan90°= ∞.
BC 0
cot 90° = AB = AB = 0.

We can easily construct a table for memorizing the value of trigonometric ratios of standard
angles (0o, 30o, 45o, 60o, 90o) by following method.

Angle 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° Rule for constructing table

i) Suppose the columns of 0o, 30o, 45o, 60o
Ratio 0 1 2 3 4 and 90o as 0, 1, 2, 3 & 4 respectively.
4 4 4 4 4
ii) Divide each by 4 and take square

Trigonometry
sin 0 1 1 3 1 roots.
2 2 2 iii) Simplify them and get respective
3 1 1 values of sine.
cos 1 2 2 2 0
iv) Write the values from backward of
sine for cosine.
tan 0 1 1 3 ∞ v) Take a quotient of sine and cosine for
3 each value of tangent.
1 vi) Write the values from backward of the
cot ∞ 3 1 3 0
values of tangent for cotangent.
vii) Take the reciprocal values of cosine
sec 1 2 2 2 ∞ for the values of secant.
3
viii) Take the reciprocal values of sine for
2 the values of cosecant or write the
cosec ∞ 2 2 3 1 values from backward of secant for
cosecant.

Trigonometric Ratios 131

 Example - 1 Find the value of cos 60o.cos 30o + sin 60o.sin 30o. Can you remember,
Solution: Here, cos 60°.cos 30° + sin 60°.sin 30° addition of fraction?
1 3 31
= 2. 2 + 2 .2
3 3 3+ 3 2 3 3
= 4 + 4 = 4
=
4
=
2
.
Example - 2 Evaluate: 4sin2 60o + 3cot2 60o – 8sin 45o.cos 45o.
Solution: Here, 4sin2 60o + 3cot2 60o – 8sin 45o.cos 45o
2 2
 3  1  1 1
=4 + 3  – 8. .
2  3 2 2
3 1 1
= 4 × 4 + 3 × 3 – 8 × 2 = 3 + 1 – 4 = 0.
πc πc πc
Example - 3 Evaluate: tan2 3 + sin 2 + cos2 6 .
πc πc πc
Solution: Here, tan2 3 + sin 2 + cos2 6
180° 180 180°
= tan2 3 + sin2 2 + cos2 6
= tan2 60° + sin2 90° + cos2 30°
2
3 3 3 3 19
=  3  + 12 + 
2
= 3 + 1 + 4 = 4 + 4 = 44 = 4 .
2 
tan 45° cosec 30° 5cosec 90°
Example - 4 Prove that: sec 60° + cot 45° = 2cos 0°
Trigonometry

tan 45° cosec 30° 1 2 1 + 4 5

Solution: Here, LHS = sec 60° + cot 45° = 2 + 1 = 2 = 2.
5cosec 90° 5 × 1 5
RHS = 2cos 0° = 2 × 1 = 2.
Hence, LHS = RHS. Proved.
tan θ – tan α
Example - 5 If α = 30° and θ = 60° then show that: tan(θ – α) = 1 + tan θ.tan α
Solution: Here, α = 30° and θ = 60°.
1
Now, LHS = tan(θ – α) = tan(60° – 30°) = tan 30° = .
3
tan θ – tan α tan 60° – tan 30°
RHS = 1 + tan θ.tan α = 1 + tan 60°.tan 30°
1 3 –1
3– 2 1
3 3
= = = .2 = .
1 1+1 3 3
1 + 3.
3
Hence, LHS = RHS. Proved.

132 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 EXERCISE - 5.2 (D)

1. (a) What are the value of sin 0° and sec 0°?

(b) What is the value of cos 30°?
(c) Which value of trigonometric ratio is equal to cot 60°?
2. Find the value of:
(a) sin 0° + cos 0° + tan 0° (b) sin 90° + cos 90° + tan 45°
(c) sin 30° + cos 30° + tan 60° (d) sec 30° + cosec 90° + cot 30°
3. Find the value of:
(a) sin2 30° + cos2 30° + tan2 30° (b) cos2 45° + cos2 30° + cosec2 30°
2 4 4 3 1
(c) 3 sin2 60° + 3tan2 30° + 3sin2 45° (d) 3 tan2 60° + 4 cosec2 45° – 2sec2 60°.

4. Evaluate:
πc πc πc πc πc πc πc
(a) sin 3 + cos2 4 + tan 6 (b) tan2 6 . tan2 3 . sin2 6 . cos2 6
πc 1 πc 1 πc πc πc πc πc
(c) 6cot2 3 + 3cos2 3 – 4sin2 2 (d) cosec2 4 . sec2 3 . cosec 6 – cosec 2 

5. Prove that:
πc πc
tan 4 – tan 6
(a) sin(60° – 30°) = sin 60°.cos 30° – cos 60°.sin 30° (b) =2– 3
πc πc
1 + tan 4 . tan 6
πc
cot 30°.cot 60° + 1 π c 1 – tan 2
6
(c) cot(60° – 30°) = (d) cos 3 =
cot 30° – cot 60° πc

Trigonometry
1 + tan2 6
6. If β = 30 , γ = 45 , θ = 60o then verify that:
o o

(a) sin(β + θ) = sin β.cos θ + cos β.sin θ (b) sin 2γ = 2sin γ.cos γ
2tan β
(c) cos 2β = cos2 β – sin2 β (d) tan 2β =
1 – tan2 β
3–1 3+1
(e) sin γ.cos β – cos γ.sin β = (f) cos β.cos γ + sin β.sin γ =
2 2 2 2
(g) 4sin2 θ + 3tan2 β – 8sin γ.cos γ = 0 (h) sin 3β = 3sin β – 4sin3 β
(i) 4cos3 β = 3cos β + cos 3β (j) cos 3β = 4cos3 β – 3cos β.
ANSWERS
1+3 3 5+ 3 4 21 13 7
2. (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) (d) 3. (a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 6 (d) 2
2 3
3+5 3 3 11
4. (a) (b)16 (c) 6 (d) 8
6

Trigonometric Ratios 133

 SOLUTION OF RIGHT-ANGLED
5.3
1.1 TRIANGLE
5.3 (A) Right-angled Triangle and Its Solution
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
”” solve the right-angled triangle by using Pythagoras' theorem and trigonometric ratios.
A triangle has three sides and three angles. So, there are six parts with A
sides and angles in a triangle. In trigonometry, we deal the parts of α
the right-angled triangle. In right-angled triangle, one angle is right,
i.e., 90o. So, there are five unknown parts in it. Under given condition, c b
finding of the remaining parts of the right-angled triangle is the solution
of the right-angled triangle. β
γ
In the adjoining figure, ABC is a right-angled triangle at ∠ACB = 90 o B a C
and ∠BAC = α, ∠ABC = β, BC = a, AC = b and AB = c. Then we know A
that by the Pythagoras relation,
α
c2 = a2 + b2 and α + β = 90o.
c
A right-angled triangle can completely solve for one of the b
following conditions,
90° β
(i) One angle and one side,
Trigonometry

(ii) Any two sides. C a B

(iii) Three sides satisfy the statement that the sum of the squares of two sides of a right-
angled triangle is equal to square of remaining side.
(iv) Sum of two angles equals to 90o and one side given.

Example - 1 Find the unknown angles and sides of the following right triangles:
(a) A (b) P (c) L

2 1 2

45°
B 2 C Q 2 3 R M 3 N
Solution: (a) Here, in the given right-angled triangle ABC, ∠ABC = 90 , ∠ACB = 45o,
o

BC = 2 , ∠BAC = ?, AB = ?, AC = ?

134 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 Now, we have
AB p b
tan 45o = BC [ tan θ = b and θ = 45o] You can use cos θ = h
AB or Pythagorean
or, 1= ∴ AB = 2.
2 relation.
AB p
Again, sin 45o = AC [ sin θ = h and θ = 45°]
1 2 You can use the
or, = ∴ AC = 2. sum of angles of
2 AC
Also, triangle.
BC 2 1
sin∠BAC = AC = = = sin 45° ∴ ∠BAC = 45o.
2 2
(b) Here,
In right triangle PQR, ∠Q = 90o, PQ = 2, QR = 2 3,

∠R = ?, ∠P = ?, PR = ?
Now, we have P
PQ 2 1
tan∠R = QR = 2 = = tan 30o
3 3
2
∴ ∠R = 30o.
PQ
Again, sin 30° = PR
Q 2 3 R
1 2
or, 2 = PR ∴ PR = 4 unit.
QR 2 3 3

Trigonometry
Also, sin∠P = PQ = = = sin 60o ∴ ∠ P = 60o.
4 2
(c) Here,

In the triangle LMN, LM = 1, MN = 3, NL = 2, ∠L = ?,
L

∠M = ?, ∠N = ?
Now, (1)2 + ( 3 )2 = (2)2
1 2
i.e., (LM)2 + (MN)2 = (LN)2, which satisfies the
Pythagorean relation and ∠LMN = 90o, i.e., ∠M = 90o.
M 3 N
So, ∆LMN should be right-angled triangle.
LM 1
We have, tan∠N = MN = = tan 30o ∴ ∠N = 30o.
3
MN 3
Again, tan∠L = LM = = tan 60o ∴ ∠L = 60o.
1

Solution of Right-Angled Triangle 135

 Example - 2 Solve a triangle ABC if ∠A = 30°, ∠C = 60° and c = 3 3 cm.
Solution: Here, in ∆ABC, ∠A = 30°, ∠C = 60° and AB(c) = 3 3 cm. A
Now, we have
∠A + ∠C = 30° + 60o = 90°. 30°
∴ ∠B = 180° – 90° = 90°.

3 3 cm
So, ∆ABC is a right-angled triangle.
AB
Now, we have Again, sin 60° = AC 60°
AB
tan60o = BC 3 3 3 B C
or, =
2 AC
3 3 or, AC = 6
or, 3 = BC
∴ ∠B = 90o, BC = 3, AC = 6 cm.
or, BC = 3 cm.

EXERCISE - 5.3 (A)

1. (a) What is Pythagoras' theorem? P A
(b) What is the sum of the acute angles of a right-angled
30°
triangle?

6 cm
(c) Which trigonometric ratio is used to find PQ in the
given figure? 60°

(d) Which trigonometric ratio is used to find AC in the Q 5 cm R B C

given figure. Q.N. 1(c) Q.N. 1(d)
2. Find the unknown angles and sides of the following right angled triangles:
(a) A (b) R (c) L
Trigonometry

2 3 cm

45°
3 cm

30°
B C
P Q M 3 cm N
(d) X (e) D (f)
R
2c
m
T
2 cm
2
cm

2c

2 cm

E F
m

2 3 cm
Y 1 cm Z
3. Solve the following right-angled triangles if: S
(a) ∠A = 60°, ∠B = 90°, AB = 5 cm (b) ∠A = 90°, b = 3 2 cm, a = 6 cm
(c) a = 2 cm, b = 3 cm, c = 1 cm (d) a = b = 3 cm and c = 3 2 cm

136 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

4. Solve the following triangle PQR if:
(a) ∠Q = 30o, ∠R = 60o, PR = 2 3 cm
(b) ∠P = 45o, ∠R = 45o, PR = 2 cm
5. (a) In right-angled triangle, the sides containing the right angle are 4 3 cm and 12 cm.
Find the hypotenuse and acute angles.
(b) In the right-angled triangle, the side opposite to 60o is 4 cm. Solve the triangle.
6. (a) In ∆PQR, ∠P + ∠Q = 90°, p = 1 cm and q = 3 cm. Solve ∆PQR.
(b) In ∆LMN, ∠M = 2∠N = 60o, l = 4 3 cm. Solve ∆LMN.

ANSWERS
2. (a) ∠A = 60o, BC = 6, AC = 4 3 cm (b) ∠Q = 45o, PQ = 3 cm, QR = 3 2 cm
(c) ∠L = ∠N = 45o, LN = 6 cm (d) ∠X = ∠Z = 45o, XY = 1 cm
(e) ∠D = 60o, ∠E = 30o, DE = 4 cm (f) ∠T = 90o, ∠R = ∠S = 45o
3. (a) ∠C = 30o, BC = 5 3 cm, AC = 10 cm (b) AB = 3 2 cm, ∠B = ∠C = 45o
(c) ∠A = 90o, ∠B = 60o, ∠C = 30o (d) ∠C = 90o, ∠A = ∠B = 45o
4. (a) ∠P = 90o, PQ = 6 cm, QR = 4 3 cm (b) ∠Q = 90o, PQ = QR = 1 cm
4 8
5. (a) 8 3 cm, 60o, 30o (b) 30o, cm, cm
3 3
6. (a) ∠P = 30o, ∠Q = 60o, ∠R = 90o, PQ = 2 cm
(b) ∠N = 30o, ∠L = 90o, LN = 6 cm, LM = 2 3 cm

Trigonometry
5.3 (B) Height and Distance
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
”” solve the problems related to height and distance by using trigonometric ratios.

One of the main uses of trigonometry is to find the height of an object and the distance between two
objects, which are difficult to measure directly. We use the instrument like theodolite and sextant
to measure the certain angles and then apply the method of solution of right-angled triangle to find
the height and distance. This method is extremely useful in surveying, map-making, navigation
and astronomy.
For this, we deal two types of angles to form when the observer observes at the top or bottom of
the erected object. They are angle of elevation and angle of depression.

Solution of Right-Angled Triangle 137

 A
Angle of Elevation and Angle of Depression
When a boy observes the top and bottom of a tree like as
in the adjoining figure that DE is the boy, AB is the tree
in front of him. EC is the horizontal line parallel to the
smooth ground level DB through the boy’s eye. E
C
When the boy observes the top of the tree upward, his
eyesight EA makes some angle with the horizontal line
EC. This angle AEC is said to be the angle of elevation. D B
The angle formed by the line of observation to the horizontal line (ground) when the
observer observes the upward object, is called an angle of elevation.

When he observes the bottom of the tree downward, his eyesight EB makes some angle with
the same horizontal line EC. This angle BEC is said to be the angle of depression. We know that
∠BEC is equal to ∠DBE because of alternate angle between two parallel lines EC and DB..
The angle formed by the line of observation to the horizontal line when the observer
observes the downward object is called an angle of depression.

Altitude of Sun SUN

An angle made by the sunlight to the ground (horizontal
line) is called an altitude of the sun. When any object, say A
AB, erected on the way of the sunlight, it casts the shadow,
say BC, on the backward to the sun. In this position, the
Trigonometry

sunlight AC makes some angle, say ∠ACB = θ, with the

θ
ground BC. The angle θ is the altitude of the sun. C B

Example - 1 The angle of elevation of the top of a column from a point

at a distance of 120 meters from its foot on the horizontal A
plane is found to be 60°. Find the height of the column.
Solution: Here, AB is the column and O, the observer, then
the angle of elevation ∠AOB = 60o, BO = 120 m, AB = ?
Now, in the right-angled triangle AOB, we have
AB p
tan 60o = BO [ tan θ = b ]
AB
or, 2 = 120 60°
or, AB = 120 2 = 207.85 m O 120 m B
Hence, the required height of the column is 120 3 m or 207.85 m.

138 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

Example - 2 The angle of depression of a point on the ground when it is observed from the
roof of the house of height 20 m, is found to be 45o. What is the distance of the
point from the house?
Solution: Here, AB is the house and P, the point on the ground. Then the angle of depression,
∠CAP = 45o.
∴ ∠APB = 45o, AB = 20 m and BP = ?

Now, we have A C
45°
AB
tan 45o = BP
20
or, 1 = BP
45°
B P
or, BP = 20

Hence, the required distance of the point from the house is 20 m.

Example - 3 What is the altitude of the sun when the pole casts the shadow 3 times
longer than the height of the pole?
Solution: In the adjoining figure, BC is the shadow of the pole AB.
A
Suppose AB = x, then BC = 3x, ∠ABC = θ = ?
Now, we have x
AB x 1

Trigonometry
tan θ = BC = x = = tan 30o. ∴ θ = 30o.
3 3 C 3x B
Hence, the altitude of the sun is 30o.
Example - 4 A 1.5 m tall man observes the top of a tower from a distance of 100m away
from it. If it is found to be 30° of angle of elevation, find the height of the tower.
Solution: In the given figure, AB and CD are the height of the man and tower respectively.
BD is the distance between them. Then the angle of elevation, ∠CAE = 30°,
AB = DE = 1.5 m, BD = AE = 100 m, CD = ? C

Now, in rt. ∆ACE,

CE ?
A 30°
tan 30° = AE E
1.5 m

1 CE 100
or, = 100 or, CE = B 100 m D
3 3
100
∴ CD = CE + ED = + 1.5 = 57.74 + 1.5 = 59.24 m
3
Hence, the height of the tower is 59.24 m.

Solution of Right-Angled Triangle 139

 Example - 5 A 50m long string of a flying kite makes an angle of 60o with horizontal line.
Find the height of kite from the ground if the height of the boy is 1.3m.
K
Solution: Here, MK is the length of string of the flying kite.
Then ∠KML= 60o, MK = 50 m, KI = ?
Oh! We need ⊥r KL, but
Now, in rt. ∆KML, we have
the hypotenuse KM and

m
KL
[ sin θ = ph]

50
∠M are given. So, we ?
sin 60o = MK
use sine of θ.
3 KL
or, 2
= 50 60°
M L
or, KL = 25 3 = 43.3 m
Hence, the height of the kite is 1.3 + 43.3 = 44.6 m. N I

EXERCISE - 5.3 (B)

1. (a) Define angle of elevation. A

(b) What is angle of depression?

(c) What is altitude of sun?
(d) Which sides are equal in the given right-angled triangle? 45°
B C
2. Find the height of the following erected objects:
(a) A (b) P
(c) T
R
Trigonometry

30°

? ? ?

30°
O 45°
60° Q 45m P
B R 80ft.
C
3 3

(d) P (e) K (f)

R
30°

80 2 ? 110ft.
? 8 3 ?
30°
A O
45°
60° T O
K
L

140 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

3. Find the distance between the erected object and observer for shadow of erected objects:
(a) (b) (c)
A P
W

8 2m

15 ft
10 m

45° 45°
O Q 60° O
B ? O A ?
?
(d) (e) B C (f)
P 60° T
20
3 ft
100 ft
51ft
30° 30°
L O O
? P ?
60°
? O
R
4. Find the length of supporting objects or ladder of the following erected objects:
(a) (b) P R (c)
A 60° P

100 ft
24 ft

30ft 12 ft

Trigonometry
30°
45° R O
O
B
? L
Q
(d) (e) (f)
K
A 60°
T
Q

30°
45° R P
40 3 m
B 20 m O 60°
O
T 50 m
5. (a) The angle of elevation of the top of a tower from a point at a distance of 150 meters
from its foot is found to be 30°. Find the height of the tower.
(b) A girl observes the roof of an apartment 95 m away from its bottom. If she finds the
angle of elevation as 60°, find the height of the apartment.

Solution of Right-Angled Triangle 141

 6. (a) The angle of depression of a point on the ground from the top of a tower is found to be
30°. If the distance between the point and tower is 45m, find the height of the tower.
(b) When a man observes a car on the road from the top of a cliff 300m high, he is found
to be 45° of angle. How far is the car from the bottom of the cliff?
7. (a) When the length of the shadow of a 9 feet high pillar is 3 3 feet on a day, what is the
altitude of the sun?
(b) A stick casts same length of the shadow itself on a sunny day. Find the altitude of the sun.
8. (a) A tower of the bank of a river is of 36m high and the angle of elevation of the top of
the tower from the opposite bank is 60°. Find the breadth of the river.
(b) A cliff on the edge of a great canal is of 50m high and the angle of dispersion of the
point on the base opposite to the cliff is 30°. Find the width of the canal.
9. (a) A man of height 1.7 m, standing 150 m away from a pole, finds the angle of elevation
to be 45° while observing the pole. Find the height of the pole.
(b) A woman observes from the top of an 8 m high house to the top of a temple. The angle
of elevation of the top of the temple is 60°. If the distance between the temple and
house is 15 3 m, find the height of the temple.
10. (a) A man observes the top of a house of 20m height, situated in front of him and finds the angle
of elevation to be 30°. Find the height of the man if the distance between them is 18 3 m.
(b) A 1.7 m tall man is standing in front of a pole of 15 m height on the same level of
ground. He observes that the angle of elevation of the top of the pole is 30°. Calculate
the distance between them.
11. (a) A pole of 9m height is tied by a wire on the ground with the same level. If the wire
makes an angle of 60° with the ground, find the length of the wire.
Trigonometry

(b) A man of the height 1.8m was flying a kite. The string was 100 m long and formed an
angle of 45° with horizontal line. What was the height of the kite above the ground?
12. (a) The upper part of a straight tree broken by the wind makes an angle of 30° with plain
surface at point 15m away from the foot of the tree. Find the length of the broken part
of the tree.
(b) The top of a tree which is broken by the wind makes an angle of 60° with the ground at a
distance of 3 3 m from the foot of the tree. Find the height of the tree before it was broken.
ANSWERS
2. (a) 9 m (b) 15 3 m (c) 80 ft (d) 12 m (e) 80 m (f) 55 ft
3. (a) 10 m (b) 5 3 ft (c) 8 m (d) 30 ft (e) 50 m (f) 51 3 ft
4. (a) 30 2 ft (b) 8 3 ft (c) 48 ft (d) 20 2 m (e) 80 m (f) 100 m
5. (a) 50 3 m (b) 95 3 m 6. (a) 15 3 m (b) 300 m
7. (a) 60o (b) 45o 8. (a) 12 3 m (b) 50 3 m
9. (a) 151.7 m (b) 53 m 10. (a) 2 m (b) 23.04 m
11. (a) 6 3 m (b) 72.51 m 12. (a) 10 3 m (b) 19.39 m

142 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 6
UNIT
VECTOR
"Geometry is the most complete science". - David Hilbert

Specific Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to;
”” define vector and represent it in coordinate plane.”” compute the magnitude and direction of vector.
”” identify the types of vector. ”” perform the operations on vectors.

What do you learn ?

Basics on Vector
- Introduction
- Magnitude and Direction of Vector
- Types of Vector
Operations on Vectors
- Addition and Subtraction of Vectors
- Multiplication and Division of Vector by Scalar

Are you ready ?

� Straight line, line segment & ray � Directed line segment
� Coordinate plane or graph � Counting square units in graph
� Pythagoras theorem � Components of ordered pairs
� Scalar number � Angle made by line to x-axis Vector

Historical Background
The concept of vector, as we know it today, evolved gradually over a period of more than
2000 years. About a dozen people made significant contribution. The immediate predecessor
of vectors were quaternions (number system that extends the complex numbers), devised
by William Rowan Hamilton in 1843 as a generalization of complex number. Initially, his
research was for a formalism to enable the analysis of three-dimensional space in the same
way that complex number had enabled analysis of two-dimensional space, but he arrived at
a four-dimensional system. In 1846, Hamilton divided his quarternions into the sum of real
and imaginary parts that he respectively called ‘scalar’ and ‘vector’. W. R. Hamilton

 143
 6.1
1.1 BASICS OF VECTOR

6.1 (A) Introduction

Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
”” define vector and represent it in coordinate plane.
”” compute the magnitude and direction of vector.

Consider some types of lines like as:

Straight line Line Segment Ray

A straight line is extended on both sides infinitely, which has infinite length. But, a line segment
has fixed length. Similarly, a ray initiates from a fixed point and extends only one side as infinitely.
The straight line contains arrow heads on both ends but the ray has arrow head at only one end.
These arrow heads show the extension of the straight line and ray at infinitely. But, the line
segment doesn’t extend.
Now, we combine these lines and define new type of line as shown in the
adjoining figure. A line with specific direction representing by the arrow Directed Line

head is called directed line. We can take a piece from the directed line that a
A B
is called a directed line segment.
In the adjoining figure AB is directed line segment. The directed line
segment has fixed length and directed arrow head. The length of line
represents its magnitude and the directed arrow head, i.e., direction. Hence,
A
a quantity which has both magnitude and direction is called vector. So, B
the directed line segment is also called vector. The directed line segment
(vector) AB is denoted by AB or a where A is the initial point and B, the
Vector

terminating point or ending point. θ

Let us discuss some examples as;

(i) A boy is riding a bicycle on a straight road starting from the
place A to B. He covers the distance AB and he rides in a
particular direction.
(ii) An aeroplane flies from airport with the inclination of some
angle θ. The angle θ is the direction of the aeroplane and the
distance covered in the specific time is the magnitude.

144 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 (iii) When a man pulls up a book from the ground to the desk, the book covers the distance
from the ground to the desk in upward which is direction of book.
Hence, we conclude that the vector has both magnitude and direction which displaces from one
place to another. So, the vector is the displacement of an object.

Vector in Co-ordinate Plane B

a

4 units
In the adjoining graph (i), the point A moves to B by the vector a . The
vector a represents the displacement of a point A to the point B. In A 6 units
this graph, the point A is moved 6 units forward and 4 units upward.
Similarly, in another graph (ii), the point P displaces to Q by the vector Graph (i)
p with 5 units backward and 5 units downward. The forward and
P
backward displacement of the vector is called horizontal displacement
and the upward or downward is called the vertical displacement. The p

5 units
forward and upward displacements measure positively, and backward
and downward displacements measure negatively in coordinate plane Q 5 units
as shown in the adjoining figure (iii). So, the displacement of AB is
6 –5 Graph (ii)
denoted by 4 and PQ, – 5 . Hence, these displacements of the vectors
Y

are called components. For any point P(x, y), as well the horizontal

+ve
P(x, y)
x

Upward
displacement OQ is called x-component and vertical displacement y

–ve +ve X
QP, y-component. Thus, the vector or displacement is denoted by X'
Backward O Q
x-component x Forward
y-component , simply y .

Downward
–ve
x
∴ OP = y . Y'
Graph (iii)
There are four possibilities of the components in the co-ordinate plane as follows:

Graph Vector Graph Vector

B 3 units
a 3 Forward
P 3 Forward
Vector
4 units

a= 4 p p = –3
3 units

Upward Downward

A 3 units Q

N
x –4 Backward –4 Backward
x x = –3 m m= 4
4 units

Downward Upward
3 units

y y M
4 units 4 units

Basics of Vector 145

 Moreover, suppose the vector AB displaces from the point Y
B(x2, y2)
A(x1, y1) to the point B(x2, y2) and draw AM⊥OX, BN⊥OX
and AC⊥BN. As above AC is the horizontal displacement
y 1)
and CB is the vertical displacement. ( x 1,
A C

In the figure, OM = x1, AM = y1, ON = x2, BN = y2.

∴ AC = MN = ON – OM = x2 – x1,
X
O M N
and BC = BN – CN = BN – AM = y2 – y1.
x - component x –x
Hence, the vector AB can be written as AB = y - component = y 2 – y1 .
2 1
Note: If there is no displacement, that is, neither forward or backward nor upward or downward,
then we represent the component as 0 (zero) as shown in the figure below.
P X
6 0 –6 0
m= 0

6 units
a= 0 p= 6
6 units

x = –6
A B N 6 units M
6 units
Q Y

Magnitude and Direction of Vectors

In the adjoining graph, the point A is displaced to the point B with 4 units forward and 3 units upward.
4 4
So, AB = 3 . i.e., a = 3 .
B
Now, we make a right–angled triangle ABC by supposing AB as a

3 units
hypotenuse in which ACB = 90o.
θ
We have the Pythagoras' theorem, A 4 units C
i.e., AB2 = BC2 + AC2 = 32 + 42 = 9 + 16 = 25 = 52.
∴ AB = 5 units. Use of scientific
Hence, the magnitude of AB is 5 units. calculator
Again, the vector AB makes an angle θ with x-axis.
i.e., BAC = θ. We have, shift + tan +

p BC 3 3
Vector

tan θ = = = ∴ θ = tan–1 4 = 36.87°. 3 + ÷ + 4 + =

b AC 4 36.86989...
Hence, the direction of AB is 36.87o. i.e., θ = 36.87°
The measurement of length of vector is called the magnitude of the vector. It is usually
denoted by the absolute value or modulus (or | |) of the vector. If AB (a ) is a vector,
then its magnitude is denoted by| AB |or |a |, simply AB or a.
The angle made by the vector with the horizontal axis or x-axis is called the
direction of the vector. It is usually denoted by θ.

146 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

There are two cases for the magnitude and direction of the vector as follows:
(i) When the initial point of a vector is at the origin of the Cartesian plane
Let P(x, y) be a point in the Cartesian plane, which makes an angle θ with x-axis and draw
x
PM⊥OX. Then OP = y , OM = x and PM = y.
Y
Now, in rt. ∠d ∆POM, we have
OP2 = OM2 + PM2 [ Pythagoras' theorem] P(x, y)
x
y
= x2 + y2 y
∴ OP = x +y
2 2
θ
X
O M
PM y p
Again, tan θ = OM = x  tan θ = b
y
∴ θ = tan–1 x .
y
Hence, the magnitude of OP is | OP | = x2 + y2 and the direction OP is θ = tan x

(ii) When the initial point of a vector is other than origin in the Cartesian plane
Y
Let A(x1, y1) and B(x­2, y2) be the initial and terminating points of B(x2, y2)

a vector AB respectively, which makes an angle θ with horizontal

axis or x-axis as shown in the adjoining figure. Produce BA up to C (x1, y1)
A θ
L
on the x-axis which makes an angle θ. Draw AM ⊥ OX, BN ⊥ OX
and AL ⊥ BN, then OM = x1, ON = x2, AM = y1, BN = y2. θ
X
O C M N
∴ AL = MN = ON – OM = x2 – x1,
and BL = BN – NL = BN – AM = y2 – y1.
x –x
∴ The column vector of AB = y 2 – y1
2 1
Now, in rt. ∆ ALB, we have
AB2 = (AL)2 + (BL)2 [ Pythagoras' theorem]
= (x2 – x­1)2 + (y2 – y1)2 Vector
∴ AB = (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2.
BL y2 – y1
Again, tan θ = AL = x – x
2 1
y2 – y1
∴ θ = tan–1  x – x .
2 1

Hence the magnitude of AB is |AB| = (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2 and

y2 – y1
the direction of AB is θ = tan–1  x – x .
2 1

Basics of Vector 147

 Example - 1 Find the components of the given vector in the adjoining figure and write its
column vector.
Solution : Here, the vector AB displaces the point A to the point B
through 5 units backward and 4 units upward. Therefore, B
the x-component and y-component of AB are –5 and 4
respectively.
A
i.e., x-component = – 5 and y-component = 4
–5
∴ The column vector of AB is  .
4
Example - 2 Write down the column vectors as shown in the adjoining graph.
Solution: From the given graph, the coordinates of P and Q are (4, 3)
and (–1, 1) respectively. So, the column vector of Y

x –x –1 – 4   –5 
PQ =  2 1  = 
 y2 – y1   1 – 3  =  –2 .
Again, the coordinates of R and S are (2, 1) and (6, 1) P
Q
respectively. So, the column vector of R S
O X
x2 – x1
RS =    6 – 2  4
 y2 – y1  =  1 – 1  =  0 .
Example - 3 Find the magnitude and direction of the vectors shown Y
in the adjoining figure.
Solution: For the vector OP, where P(4, 1).
∴ The magnitude of OP, |OP| = x2 + y2 T
S
= 16 + 1
P X
= 17 units. O
y 1
∴ The direction of PO, tan θ = x = 4 .
1
∴ θ = tan–1 4 .
Vector

Again, for the vector ST, where S(2, 2) and T(7, 4).
∴ The magnitude of ST, | ST | = (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2
= (7 – 2)2 + (4 – 2)2
= 52 + 22
= 25 + 4 = 29 units.
y2 – y1 4 – 2 2 2 2
∴ The direction of ST, tan θ = x – x = 7 – 2 = 5 = 5. ∴ θ = tan–1 5 .
2 1

148 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 EXERCISE - 5.1 (A)

1. (a) Define vector.

(b) What are x-component and y-component?
(c) Write the general form of vector in terms of x and y.
(d) What is the displacement of AB from A(x1, y1) to B(x2, y2)?
2. (a) What are magnitude and direction of a vector?
(b) What is the magnitude of OP where P(x1, y1) is any point?
(c) What is the angle made by OP to x-axis where P(x, y) is any point?
(d) What is the magnitude of AB where A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) are any two points?
3. Find the components of the vector represented by AB in the following figures.
(a) (b) A (c) A (d) A
B

A
B B B

4. Write down the column vectors of the following directed line segments.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
T F
P
N M
E
Q S
5. Represent the following vectors on separate squared grid.
2 –2 4 –4
(a) AB = 5 (b) AB =   (c) CD =   (d) EF =  
 3  –2   – 3
0 4 -2 0
(e) XY = 5 (f) LM = 0 (g) RS = 4 (h) UV = - 3

6. Find the position vectors as the column form of the following points and show them in graph: Vector
(a) A(2, 4) (b) B(–3, 4) (c) (0, – 4) (d) D(5, 0)
7. Find the magnitude and direction of position vectors of the following points:
(a) A(4, –2) (b) B(0, – 4) (c) C(0, 0) (d) D(– 4, –1)
8. Write down the column vector of the directed line segment joining the following pair of
points.
(a) A(1, 2) and B(6, 7) (b) P(–3, 4) and Q(2, 1)
(c) R(4, –5) and S(–2, 0) (d) C(0, 4) and D(0, 2)

Basics of Vector 149

 9. Find the magnitude and direction of the vectors shown in the given graph.
(a) Y (b) Y (c) Y (d) Y
X X
O
r
B C
u
A X' O X X'
O

X D
O
Y' Y' Y'

10. Find the magnitude and direction of the vectors joining the following pair of points
(a) P(1, 2) and Q(–2, 4) (b) M(2, – 4) and N(0, –1)
(c) X( 3, 6) and Y(2 3, 5) (d) A(4, –5) and B(–2, –3)

ANSWERS
–5
4 –5 –5
3. (a) 4, 3 (b) 3, – 6 (c) 0, – 6 (d) – 4, – 6 4. (a) (b) –6 5 (c) 0 (d) 3
2 –3 0 5
5. Show to your teacher. 6. (a) 4 (b) 4 (c) – 4 (d) 0
7. (a) 2 5 units, 333.44° (b) 4 units, 270° (c) 0 unit, 0° (d) 17units, 194.04°
5 5 –6 0
8. (a) 5 (b) –3 (c) 5 (d) –2
9. (a) 2 5 units, 26.57° (b) 5 units, 216.87° (c) 4 2 unit, 315° (d) 4 units, 0°
10. (a) 13 units, 146.31° (b) 13 units, 123.69° (c) 2 unit, 330° (d) 2 10 units, 161.57°

6.1(B) Types of Vectors

Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
� identify the types of vector. � compare the pair of vectors

There are some types of vectors as follows:

Vector

Y
(i) Column Vector: A vector representing in the form of
component is known as column vector. For example;
P(3, 2)
 x ,  p ,  1 ,  2 , etc. are column vectors. 3
2
2 units

 y   –q   0   –3 
(ii) Position Vector: A column vector of a point in the O 3 units
X
coordinate plane in the reference of the origin is called
3
position vector. In the adjoining graph, OP =   is the
2
position vector of the point P(3, 2).

150 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

(iii) Unit or Identity Vector: A vector having Y
1
magnitude 1 is called unit vector. For example,   1
0
0 –1 0 3/5  0Y
,   ,  ,  , 
 1   0   –1   4/5 , etc. are unit vectors. 1 j
1
0
Among them, the unit vector along x-axis is -i 1
X' –1 0O X
denoted by i and the unit along y-axis is denoted 0 1 j i 1
-1
1 0 0 1
by j . So, i =   and j =  . They are called -i -j -1 0
0 1 X' –1 –1 O
i 1
X
0
standard unit vectors. –1 0
-j - 1
4 Y'
Let us consider a column vector AB (a ) =   ,
3 –1
then its magnitude of AB or a ,
Y'
|AB| or |a | = (x-component) + (y-component)
2 2

= 42 + 32 = 25 = 5 units.
4  4/5 
Dividing by 5 on both components of AB (a ) = 
 3 , we obtain  3/5 . This is a unit vector
2 2
4 + 3 = 16 9 25
of AB (a ) because of its magnitude = 25 + 25
= = 1.
5 5 25

 
1

Similarly, the unit vector along  1  is 5

. Why?

 
2 2
5
The unit vector along AB (a ) is denoted by AB or a read as cap AB or a and is defined by
a AB
AB or a = or .
|a | |AB|
(iv) Null or Zero Vector: A vector having magnitude zero (0) is called null or zero vector.
0
For example; AA = BB = XX = 0, etc. are null vectors. Hence, AA = BB = XX =  . Vector
0
Therefore, the null vector displaces itself, that is, null vector does not displace object from
one place to another. The initial and terming points of null vector are the same.

Comparison of Vectors
There are the following types of vectors on comparing between two or more vectors.
(i) Negative Vector: A vector having the same magnitude but in A B
opposite direction of the given vector is called the negative vector A B
AB = – BA
of the given vector. In the adjoining figure, |AB| = |BA|, but AB

Basics of Vector 151

 Y
≠ BA. The vector BA is the negative vector of AB, is defined by
–4 A –4
BA = –AB. For example; if OA=   then its negative vector 3
 3
–4 4 X
AO = – OA = –   =   as shown in the adjoining figure.
X' O
 3   –3  4 B
–3
(ii) Equal and Unequal Vectors: Two vectors are said to be equal Y'
if they have the same magnitude and in the same direction. The B
vectors which are not equal, are called unequal vectors. For D
a c
example; in the adjoining figure, AB =   and CD =   are
b d A Equal vectors
C Q S
equal, then a = c and b = d. The vectors PQ, RS , XY are unequal
vectors because they have different magnitude and direction. P X Y
R Unequal vectors
(iii) Like and Unlike Vectors: The vectors are said to be like vectors
A B
if they have the same direction and their magnitude may or may C D
E F
not be equal. The vectors which don’t have the same direction are Like vectors
called unlike vectors. In the figure, the vectors AB, CD and EF are Q S
like vectors and the vectors PQ, RS and XY are unlike vectors. P
R X Y
Unlike vectors
(iv) Parallel and Collinear Vectors: The vectors are said to be
parallel if they have the same or opposite in direction to each A B
other. In the adjoining figure, the vectors AB, DC and EF are C D
E F
parallel vectors. Similarly, the parallel vectors are said to be Parallel vectors

collinear if they lie on the same line. In the adjoining figure, N K

M
the vectors LM, MN and NK lie on the same line. So, they are L Collinear vectors
collinear vectors.
Note: The vectors a and b are parallel if a = kb , where, k∈R.
(v) Perpendicular or Orthogonal Vectors: Two vectors are said to be A

perpendicular or orthogonal if they intersect at right angle to each 90°

C D
B
other. In the figure, the vectors AB and CD are intersected at 90°.
Vector

So, they are orthogonal or perpendicular vectors to each other.

2
Example - 1 Write down the negative vector of the vector  .
 –3 
2
Solution: Here, the given vector is  .
 –3 
Now, we have
2 2 –2
The negative vector of   is –   =  .
 –3   –3   3 
152 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8
Example - 2 It is given that the coordinates of the points A, B, C and D are (2, 3), (5, 6),
(– 4, 1) and (–1, 4) respectively. Prove that the vectors AB and CD are equal.
Solution: Given: The coordinates of the points A, B, C and D are (2, 3), (5, 6), (– 4, 1) and
(–1, 4) respectively.
To prove: AB = CD.
x2 – x1
Now, we have the column vector =  y – y ,
 2 1
5 – 2  3
The column vector of AB = 
 6 – 3  =  3 ,
–1 – (– 4)   3 
and the column vector of CD = 
 4 – 1  =  3 .
Hence, AB = CD. Proved.
Example - 3 Prove that vector PQ joining the points P(–3, –5) and Q(1, 1) and the vector
RS joining the point R(4, 3) and S(6, 6) are like or parallel vectors.
Solution: Given, the column vector of PQ joining the points P(–3, –5) and Q(1, 1),
1 + 3  4  2 
PQ = 
 1 + 5  =  6  = 2 3 .
The column vector of RS joining the points R(4, 3) and S(6, 6),
6–4 2
RS = 6 – 3 = 3 .
∴ PQ = 2RS
Hence, the vectors PQ and RS are like or parallel vectors. Proved.
x+1 –3
Example - 4 If the vectors AB = 4 and CD = – 2 are collinear, find the value of x.
x+1 –3
Solution: Given, AB = 4 , CD = – 2
4
Now, direction of AB, tan θ1 = x + 1
–2 2
Direction of CD, tan θ2 = – 3 = 3 .
Vector

Since the vectors AB and CD are collinear, so

tan θ1 = tan θ2
4 2
i.e., x+1=3
or, 2x + 2 = 12
10
or, 2x = 12 – 2 or, x = 2 ∴ x = 5.

Basics of Vector 153

 EXERCISE - 5.1 (B)
1. Define the following terms:
(a) Column vector (b) Position vector (c) Unit vector
(d) Null vector (e) Negative vector (f) Equal vectors
(g) Like vector (h) Parallel vector (i) Collinear vector
2. (a) What is the negative vector of AB?
(b) In which condition the vectors PQ and RS are orthogonal?
(c) In which condition a and b are parallel for k ∈ R?
3. Find the unit vectors along the following vectors.
4 –1 –5 0
(a) p = 3 (b) AB = 2 (c) d = 12 (d) PQ= 4
4. Write down the negative vector of the following vectors.
4 –2 4 –2
(a) a = 2 (b) p = 0 (c) t = – 2 (d) m = –4
5. Prove that AB = CD for the following points.
(a) A(1, 2), B(1, 4), C(–2, –3) and D(–2, –1)
(b) A(0, –2), B(–3, 1), C(–2, 0) and D(–5, 3)
6. Identify the following vectors are like or unlike vectors.
4 3 –2 –4
(a) a = 8 and b = 6 (b) p = 1 and q = 2
14 8 –2 –4
(c) m = 10 and n = 10 (d) s = – 4 and t = – 8

7. Show that the vectors PQ and RS are parallel for the following conditions.
–6 –1 12 –8
(a) PQ = 12 and RS = 2 (b) PQ = – 15 and RS = 10
(c) P(4, 3), Q(6, 5), R(6, –2) and S (2, –6) (d) P(–1, 0), Q(–3, –2), R(4, 0), and S(2, –2)
2
8. (a) If A(2, y), B(x, –3) and AB = – 4 , find the values of x and y.
2
(b) If P(–3, 4) and PQ = 0 , find the coordinates of Q.
Vector

(c) If P(4, –1), Q(2, a), R(b, 0), S(–2, 4) and PQ = RS , find the values of a and b.
4 2
(d) If the vectors KL = 2y – 1 and MB = 4 are collinear, find the value of y.
ANSWERS

4/5 – 1/ 5 – 5/13 0 –4 2 –4 2
3. (a) (b) 2/ 5 (c) (d) 4. (a) (b) (c) (d)
3/5 12/13 1 –2 0 2 4
6. (a) Like vectors: (b), (d); Unlike vectors: (a), (c)
8. (a) 4, 1 (b) (–1, 4) (c) 3, 0 (d) 9/2

154 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 6.2
1.1 OPERATIONS ON VECTORS

Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
� add and subtract the vectors. � multiply and divide the vector by a scalar.

There are four operations on the vector as in arithmetic. We can easily add, subtract, multiply and
divide two or more vectors as real numbers as follows:
Addition (Sum) of Vectors
x x
Let a = y1 and b = y2 be two column vectors, then the addition or sum of vectors a and
1 2
b is denoted by a + b and is defined as,
x x x +x
a + b = y1 + y2 = 1 2 .
1 2 y1 + y2
3 3
For example; Consider two vectors AB = and BC = . Then,
1 4
3 3 3+3 6
AB + BC = + = = ,
1 4 1+ 4 5
which is represented by a single vector AC as shown C
6
in the adjoining graph. 5
x1 x2 x3 3
Similarly, If a = y and b = y and c = y , then 4
1 2 3
3 B
x x x x +x + x A 1
a + b + c = y1 + y2 + y3 = y 1 + y2 + y3 .
1 2 3 1 2 3
Subtraction (Difference) of Vectors
x x
Let a = y1 and b = y2 be two column vectors, then the subtraction (difference) of
1 2

a and b is denoted by a – b and is defined as C'

–1
x x x –x x – x
a – b = y1 – y2 = y1 – y2 . i.e.,a + (–b ) = y1 – y 2 .
Vector
4
1 2 1 2 1 2 4 B
5 1 10
For example; Consider two vectors AB = 6 and BC = – 4 . Then, 1
–4
5 1 5–1 4 5
C
AB – BC = 6 – – 4 = 6 + 4 = 10 , 6

which is represented by AC', where BC' is the negative A

vector of BC as show in the adjoining figure.
x x x x –x –x
Similarly, if a = y1 , b = y2 and c = y3 , then a – b – c = y1 – y2 – y3
1 2 3 1 2 3

Operations on Vectors 155

 Multiplication of Vector by a Scalar
x
Let a = y and k be a scalar and the multiplication of a
a
x kx
by k is denoted by k. a , is defined by k.a = k y = ky . k.a
We have,
The magnitude of a , |a | = x2 + y2 and
the magnitude of ka , |ka | = (kx)2 + (ky)2
= k2x2 + k2y2 = k2(x2 + y2) = k x2 + y2
y ky y
Again, for the direction of a , tanθ1 = x and for the direction of ka , tan θ2 = kx = x .
Hence, it is clear that the magnitude of ka , is k-times more than the magnitude of a , but the
direction of a and ka are the same. Therefore, the vectors a and ka are parallel to each other.
2 4
Consider a = 3 and k = 2, then, the ka = 6 = b (say). i.e.,
ka = b. Here, the vectors a and b are parallel in the same direction.
2
–4 4
But k = –2. Then ka = –2a = – 6 = – 6 = –b. Here, a and –b 3
a
b 4
are parallel but in opposite direction. 6

Division of Vector by a Scalar

x
Let a = y and k be a scalar and the division of a by k is denoted by a ÷ k and defined by
x x

 
x
x y 1 x k k
a÷k= y ÷k= = k. y = . ∴ a÷k= .

 
k y y
k k
Here, a and a ÷ k are also parallel.
8 8 8/2 4
Consider a = 12 and k = 2, then a ÷ k = 12 ÷2 = 12/2 = 6 = b.
12 3
The direction of a, tan θ1 = 8 = 2.
4
6 3 6
b,
The direction of tanθ2 = 4 = 2.
Vector

∴ tanθ1 = tanθ2 8
12
8 4
Hence, the vectors 12 and 6 are parallel.

0 b 5 –5
Example - 1 If a = , = and c = , find,
–8 5 3
(a) a + b (b) a – b (c) b + c – a.

156 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 0 5 –5
Solution: Given, a = ,b= ,c=
–8 5 +3
Now, we have
0 5 0+5 5
(a) a + b = –8 + 5 = –8 + 5 = –3
0 5 0–5 –5
(b) a – b = –8 – 5 = –8 – 5 = – 13
5 –5 0 5–5–0 0
(c) b + c – a = 5 + 3 – –8 = 5 + 3 + 8 = 16 .
–2 1
Example - 2 If p = 3 and q = –2 , find the magnitude and direction of (p + 2 q).
–2 1
Solution: Given, p = 3 , q = –2
Now,
–2 1 –2 2 –2+2 0
(p + 2q) = 3 + 2 –2 = 3 + –4 = 3 – 4 = –1 .

The magnitude of (p + 2q), |p + 2q| = 02 + (–1)2 = 1 unit.

–1
The direction of p + 2q, tanθ = 0 = tan(180° + 90°) = tan 270°.
∴ θ = 270°.
8 3 m
Example - 3 If m = 12 and n = 4 , find the unit vector along  – 2n .
2
8 3
Solution: Given, m = 12 and n = 4
Now, we have
8
   
8
 m – 2n  = 12 – 2 3 2 2×3
–  2 × 4  =
4 6 4–6 –2
   
2  = – = = .
2 4 12 6 8 6–8 –2
2
m
The magnitude of  – 2n  = (–2)2 + (–2)2 = 4 + 4 = 8 = 2 2 units.
2
–2 1 1

    
–2 –
m –2 2 2 2 2
The unit vector along  – 2n  =
    
2 = –2 = 1 =– .
2 2 – 1 Vector
2 2 2 2

EXERCISE - 5.2
x1 x
1. (a) If p = and q = 2 ,what is the value of p + q?
y1 y2
a c
(b) If a = and b = , write the vector (a – b).
b d
x
(c) If a = and k ∈ R, write the vector ka.
y

Operations on Vectors 157

 2 1 3
2. (a) If AB = , BC = and CD = , find
3 5 0
(i) AB + BC (ii) BC + CD (iii) AB + CD (iv) AB + BC + CD
2 –1 4
(b) If a = ,b= and c = , find the following operations.
–3 4 5
(i) a + b (ii) b + c (iii) a + c (iv) a + b + c
2 5 –2
3. (a) If PQ = , QR = and RS = , find
4 6 –3
(i) PQ – QR (ii) PQ – RS (iii) RS – QR (iv) PQ – RS + QR
2 0 –3
(b) If p = ,q= and r = , find,
3 –3 1
(i) p – q (ii) p – r (iii) q–r (iv) r – q + p
4 –2
4. (a) If p = ,q= , find the following operations:
3 –1
(i) 2p (ii) 3q (iii) p + 2q (iv) 2p – 3q
–6 9
(b) If AB = and BC = , find the following operations.
12 3
1 1 1 1
(i) 2 AB (ii) 3 BC (iii) 3 AB + 2BC (iv) 3(2AB – 3BC)
2 4
5. (a) If AB = , BC = , find the magnitude and direction of,
–1 5
(i) AB + BC (ii) AB – BC
3 –1 2
(b) If r = ,s= and t = , find the magnitude and direction of,
4 2 –3
(i) r + s – t (ii) r – s – t
6. (a) If the vector a displaces A(1, 2) to B(–2, 4) and the vector b displaces B(–2, 4) to
C(2, – 4), find the unit vector along (i) (a + b) and (ii) (a – b).
(b) If AB shifts A(2, 0) to B(–2, 4) and CD shifts C(4, –1) to D(–2, 3), find the unit
vector along (i) AB + CD and (ii) CD – AB.
ANSWERS
Vector

3 4 5 6 1 3 6 5
2. (a) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (b) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
8 5 3 8 1 9 2 6
–3 4 –7 9 2 5 3 _1
3. (a) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (b) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
–2 7 –9 13 6 2 –4 7
8 –6 0 14 –3 3 16 –13
4. (a) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (b) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
6 –3 1 9 6 1 10 5
5. (a) (i) 2 13 units, 33.69° (ii) 2 10 units, 251.57° (b) (i) 9 units, 90° (ii) 29 units, 248.20°

1/ 37 –7/ 149 –5/ 41

4/ 41 –1
6. (a) (i) –6/ 37 (ii) 10/ 149 (b) (i) (ii)
0

158 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 7
UNIT
TRANSFORMATION
Where there is matter, there is geometry. – Johannes Kepler

Specific Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
”” find the image of an object under transformation (translation, reflection, rotation and
enlargement) with showing in graph.

What do you learn ?

Translation
– Introduction of Translation and Translation in Coordinate Plane
Reflection
– Introduction of Reflection and Reflection in Coordinate Plane
Rotation
– Introduction of Rotation and Rotation in Coordinate Plane
Enlargement
– Introduction of Enlargement and Enlargement in Coordinate Plane

Are you ready ?

� Sliding or moving of object/vehicle, etc. � Image in mirror, water surface
� Symmetric figures � Clock, Swing, Dhiki, etc.
� Photocopy, Camera, cinema, temple, etc. � Use of square grid or graph

Historical Background

The first systematic effort to use transformations as the foundation

of geometry was made by a German Geometer Christian Felix Klein
(1849–1925) in 19th century. Klein’s application of groups to geometry
Transformation

depends upon the concept of a transformation of a set S onto itself, by

which is simply meant a correspondence under which each element of S
corresponds to unique element of S.

C. F. Klein
 159
 7.1
1.1 TRANSLATION

Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
”” define translation with illustration
”” find the image under translation with showing in graph.

Transformation
Transformation is the way of changing the position, shape and size of an object under a certain
rule or condition. Looking appearance on mirror, looking image in water, shadow of an object,
dividing symmetrical figures, moving hands of watch/clock, moving in circular path, swing,
dhiki, threshing, planets in solar system, moving car, sliding the glass of the rack, kicking a ball,
sliding book, walking, taking photograph, looking by microscope, telescope, photocopy, etc. are
all examples of the transformations. So, the transformation is knowingly or unknowingly used in
our daily activities and other fields. Thus, the study of transformation is important in our daily life.
There are mainly the following types of transformation with examples.
SN Types Examples
1. Translation Walking on the foot path, rolling a ball, moving car on straight road, flying
aeroplane, sliding the glass of window, kicking a ball, brining up a book, etc.
2. Reflection Looking at mirror, looking at image in water, dividing symmetric figures, etc.
3. Rotation Moving hands in clock/watch, moving on a circular path, swing, dhiki,
threshing, movement of planets and moons in solar system, moving a dog
tying on a nail by chain, circular circus, etc.
4. Enlargement Projecting picture, taking photograph, photocopy, scanning, looking by
or Reduction microscope, telescope, looking an object by eye, shadow of an object, etc.

Translation
Study the following activities to understand the meaning of translation clearly.
Transformation

P
Pic. (i) A Pic. (ii) B

160 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

In the picture (i), the boy is walking on the road for some distance from P to Q in the reference
of its edge. Similarly, in the picture (ii), the boy is rolling a ball in which the ball covers some
distance from A to B.
In both activities, the man and the ball move some distance in specific direction as a vector. This
type of transformation is called translation.
A transformation which maps an object to its image under the given vector is called a
translation.

Notation of Translation
In translation, the object P is moved to its image P' along AB as shown A'
in the adjoining figure. Then we obtain the following information:
B'
(i) AB = A'B'. Q
(ii) AB//PP and AA'//BB'//PQ. A
(iii) AB and A'B' are congruent. i.e., the image has the same
shape and size of the object. B
P
(iv) The object AB moves to A'B' from one position to another.
(v) The object does not move along null vector.

The image P is P' under translation which is denoted by T(P) = P' or τ(P) = P'. [ τ is read as Tau.]
A vector on which the object moves into its image position in the translation, is called the
translation vector.

Translation in Coordinate Plane

In the adjoining figure, the point A(2, 3) moves to A'(6, 3) under the Y
4
4 P 0 Q
vector PQ with column vector 0 , which is moved 4 units right only. R
A A'
Similarly, the point B(–2, –1) moves to B'(–2, 2) under the vector RS 0
3 B' (–2, 2) (2, 3) (6, 3)
0
with column vector 3 , which is moved 3 units upward only. Again, S
X' X
the point C(3, –3) moves to C'(–1, –5) under the vector UV with the B O –4 U
–2
–4 (–2, –1)
V
column vector which is moved 4 units left and 2 units down. C
–2 (3, –3)
What do we find in this activity? Study it and come to conclusion. C'
(–1, –5)

We arrange the rule for this transformation as;

Y'
4 0
Transformation

3
A(2, 3) 0 A'(6, 3) = A'(2 + 4, 3 + 0). B(–2, –1)
B'(–2, 2) = B'(–2 + 0, –1 + 3).
–4
C(3, –3) –2 C'(–1, –5) = C'(3 – 4, –3 – 2).
Translation 161
 Hence, the coordinates of the image of any point (x, y) under the translation vector
a
a b
b is (x + a, y + b). i.e., (x, y) (x + a, y + b).
a
Note: If (x', y') is the image of (x, y) under the translation vector T = b , then
a x' – x
T = b = x' – y .

–1
Example - 1 Translate the point P(2, –3) by the translation vector 2 . Write the
coordinate of its image.
–1
Solution: Here, translating the point A(2, –3) by 2 , we get
–1
A(2, –3) 2 A'(2 – 1, –3 + 2) = A'(1, –1).
Hence, the coordinates of the image of the point A(2, –3) is A'(1, –1).
2
Example - 2 If (4, 2y + 1) is the image of a point (x + 1, 2) under the translation vector 3 ,
find the values of x and y.
2
Solution: Here, (4, 2y + 1) is the image of point (x + 1, 2) under the translation vector 3 .
So, (4, 2y + 1) = (x + 1 + 2, 2 + 3)
or, (4, 2y + 1) = (x + 3, 5)
∴ x + 3 = 4 and 2y + 1 = 5
or, x = 4 – 3 and 2y = 4
or, x = 1 and y = 2.
Example - 3 Plot the vertices A(1, 2), B(5, 1) and C(3, 4) of ∆ABC on the graph and translate
2
by the translation vector T = –1 . Find the coordinates of the vertices of the
image of ∆ABC.
Solution: Plot the vertices A(1, 2), B(5, 1) and C(3, 4) of ∆ABC Y
on the graph paper.
Now, translating these vertices under the translation
1 C
vector T = –2 . We obtain the following images: C'
Transformation

A(1, 2) → A'(1 + 2, 2 – 1) = A'(3, 1) A B

A'
2 X
B(5, 1) → B'(5 + 2, 1 – 1) = B'(7, 0) O –1 B'
A(3, 4) → C'(3 + 2, 4 – 1) = C'(5, 3)
Again, drawing the image ∆A'B'C' on the same graph paper.

162 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 EXERCISE – 7.1

1. (a) What is translation?

(b) What is translation vector?
a
(c) What is the image of a point P(x, y) under translation by the vector b ?
(d) What is the translation vector if (x', y') is the image of (x, y) under translation?
2. Draw the image of the following figures under the given vectors:

(a) B (b) B (c) c

D
A C
A
a
C b A

(d) K N (e) P (f) D C

T Q
d p q

L M A B
R
S

3. Translate the following points by the given translation vector:

1 –1 0
(a) A(3, –1) by 2 (b) B(0, 2) by –1 (c) C(–1, 4) by –2
1
4. (a) If (x, 2) is the image of the point (1, 2y) under the translation vector 4 , find the
values of x and y.
4
(b) If (2a – 1, 4) is the image of the point (3, 3b + 1) under the translation vector 6 , find
the values of a and b.

5. (a) If the image of the point (4, 3) is (2, 5) under certain translation vector, find the image
of the point (– 3, – 2) by the same translation vector.
Transformation

(b) If the image of the point (– 1, 2) is (– 2, – 5) under certain translation vector, find the
coordinate of the image of the point (0, – 4) by the same translation vector.

Translation 163
 6. Plot the following vertices of the given geometric shape on the graph and find the
2
coordinates of the vertices of its respective image under the translation vector –1 . Also,
draw the given geometric shape and its image on the same graph.

(a) P(1, –1), Q(4, 0) and R(2, 3) of ∆PQR.

(b) A(–1, 2), B(–4, 1), C(–3, 4) and D(0, 4) of the quadrilateral ABCD.

7. Find the coordinates of the vertices of the image of the given figure having the following
–2
vertices under the translation vector 3 and draw this translation on the graph paper.
(a) The rectangle ABCD having the vertices A(1, 1), B(1, 4), C(4, 4) and D(4, 1).
(b) The parallelogram PQRS with the vertices P(–3, 1), Q(1, 1) R(3, 5) and S(–1,5).

8. (a) Translate ∆ABC with vertices A(3, 4), B(1, 0) and C(–3, 2) by the translation vector
–3
2 . Write down the coordinates of the vertices of the image of ∆ABC and represent
the above translation in the graph.

(b) The vertices of the parallelogram KLMN are K(1, 2), L(5, 1), M(7, 3) and N(3, 4).
Find the coordinates of the vertices of the image parallelogram K'L'M'N' under the
–1
translation by the vector –3 . Show the above transformation in the graph.

ANSWERS
2. Show to your teacher.
3. (a) (4, 1) (b) (–1, 1) (c) (–1, 2)
4. (a) 2, –1 (b) 4, –1
5. (a) (–5, 0) (b) (–1, –11)
6. (a) P'(3, –2), Q'(6, –1), R'(4, 2) (b) A'(1, 1), B'(–2, 0), C'(–1, 3), D'(2, 3)
7. (a) A'(–1, 4), B'(–1, 7), C'(2, 7), D'(2, 4) (b) P'(–5, 4), Q'(–1, 4), R'(1, 8), S'(–3, 8)
8. (a) A'(0, 6), B'(–2, 2), C'(–6, 4) (b) K'(0, –1), L'(4, –2), M'(6, 0), N'(2, 1)
Transformation

164 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 7.2
1.1 REFLECTION

Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
”” define reflection with illustration.
”” find the image under reflection with showing in graph.

Introduction
Study the following pictures to be clear about the reflection.

Pic (i) Pic (ii) Pic (iii)

In the picture (i), a girl is standing in front of a mirror and her image casts in the mirror as same as
her. Similarly, in the picture (ii), a beer reflects an image in the water surface and its image casts
in the water as same as the beer. In the picture (iii), a human body made by the geometric shape
is equally divided by a line which is exactly drawn through its middle part, called symmetric line.
Then one half of its body is copied on either side of the symmetric line.
In the above pictures, the images cast in the given surface as same as them. Such type of
transformation is called reflection.
Now, we use a line to represent the mirror or water surface or the symmetric line as follows:
M

M Transformation

N N
Mirror level Water level Symmetric line
In each pictures, the perpendicular distance of the object from the mirror line or water level or
symmetric line is equal to distance of its image from the line.

Reflection 165
 A transformation involving a fixed point on line such that a line segment joining the
object to its image is perpendicularly bisected at that point is called reflection. The line
on which the image of the object casts in other half plane is called a reflecting axis.
A
In reflection, the object P is reflected in the reflecting axis AB in the adjoining
figure and its image is P'. Then, we obtain the following properties:
(i) OP = OP' P P'
O
(ii) PP'⊥AB
(iii) The object P and its image P' are same, but in inverse in appearance . B
(iv) If P is lies on the reflecting line, its image is also P. Reflecting axis

(v) The object P, its image P' and the reflecting point O lies on the same line.
Y
Reflection in Coordinate Plane B'(–2, 3) A(3, 3)

We can easily reflect an ordered pair on the reflecting axes as the

coordinate axes, y = –x, etc. X' D X
O C
(i) Reflection on x-axis or the line y = 0
B(–2, –3) A'
Consider the points A(3, 3) and B(–2, –3) and reflect them (3, –3)
on the x-axis or the line y = 0. For this, draw AC⊥XX' Y'
and produce AC upto A' such that AC = CA'. Then the Y
x-axis (x, y)
coordinates of A' is (3, –3) i.e., A(3, 3) A'(3, –3).
Similarly, the image of B(–2, –3) under the reflection in
X' X
x-axis is B'(–2, 3). i.e., B(–2, –3) x-axis B'(–2, 3). O

Thus, it is clear that, in general, the coordinates of the (x, –y)

image of (x, y) under reflection in x-axis or the line y = 0 Y'

x-axis Y
is (x, –y). i.e., (x, y) (x, –y)
A'(–2, 3) A(2, 3)
(ii) Reflection on y-axis or the line x = 0 C
Consider a point A(2, 3) and B(–3, –2) and reflect them X' X
O
in the y-axis or the line x = 0. For this, draw AC⊥YY'
and produce AC up to A' such that AC = CA'. Then the B(–3, –2) D B'(3, –2)

x-axis
coordinate of A' is (–2, 3). i.e., A(2, 3) A'(–2, 3). Y'
Similarly, the image of B(–3, –2) under the reflection in Y
x-axis (x, –y) (x, y)
y-axis is B'(3, –2). i.e., B(–3, –2) B'(3, –2)
Transformation

Thus, it is clear that, in general, the coordinates of the

X' O X
image of (x, y) under reflection in y-axis is (–x, y).
x-axis
i.e., (x, y) (–x, y)
Y'
166 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8
(iii) Reflection on the line y = x or x – y = 0 Y
A'(1, 3)
Consider the points A(5, 1) and B(–3, –1) and reflect them
C
on the line y = x or x – y = 0 as a line MN. For this, draw
A(3, 1)
ACMN and produce AC up to A' such that AC = CA'. Then X' B(–1, –2) O X
D
y=x
the coordinates of A' is (1, 5). i.e., A(5, 1) A'(1, 5) N
B'(–1,–2)
y=x
Similarly, the image of B(–3, –1) under reflection on the Y'
line y = x is B'(–1, –3). i.e., B(–3, –1) y = x B'(–1, –3). Y
(x, y)
Thus, it is clear that, in general, the coordinates of the
(y, x)
image of (x, y) under the reflection in the line y = x
X' X
y=x O
or x – y = 0 is (y, x). i.e., (x, y) (y, x)
(iv) Reflection on the line y = – x or x + y = 0
Y'
Consider the points A(3, 1) and B(–3, 1) and reflects in Y
the line y = – x or x + y = 0 as a line MN. For this, draw B'(–1,3)
D
AC⊥MN and produce AC up to A' such that AC = CA'. A(3, 1)
B(–3, 1)
Then the coordinates of A' is (–1, –3). X' O X
C
y = –x
i.e., A(3, 1) A'(–1, –3).
A'(–1, –3)
Similarly, the coordinates of the point B(–3, 1) under the
Y'
reflection on the line y = – x is B'(–1, 3).
Y
i.e., B(–3, 1) y = –x B'(–1, 3).
(x, y)
Thus, it is clear that, in general, the coordinates of the X' X
image of (x, y) under the reflection in the line y = – x or (–y, –x)O

x + y = 0 is (–y, –x).
y = –x Y'
i.e., (x, y) (–y, –x)

Example - 1 Find the coordinates of image of a point (–3, 4) under the reflection about
x-axis.
Transformation

Solution: Here,
The given point is (–3, 4).
Now, reflecting the point (–3, 4) about x-axis, we obtain the coordinates of the
image (–3, –4).

Reflection 167
 “Alternatively”
Reflecting the given point is (–3, 4) in x-axis, we have
x-axis
(x, y) (x, –y)
x-axis
∴ (–3, 4) (–3, –4)
Hence, the required coordinates of the image is (–3, –4).
Example - 2 Reflect the line segment AB joining the points A(0, 1) and B(–1, 4) in the line
x + y = 0. Find the coordinates of the image of the line segment AB.
Solution: We have, the coordinates of the image of a point (x, y) under the reflection
x+y=0
in the line x + y = 0 is (–y, –x). i.e., (x, y) (–y, –x)
x+y=0
∴ A(0, 1) A'(–1, 0)
x+y=0
and B(–1, 4) B'(– 4, 1)
Hence, the required coordinates of the image of the line segment AB are
A'(–1, 0) and B'(–4, 1).
Example - 3 The image of P(3a + 1, 3 – b) under the reflection in the line y = x is P'(b + 1,
a + 5). Find the values of a and b.
Solution: We have, reflecting P(3a + 1, 3 – b) in the line y = x,
x=y
P(3a + 1, 3 – b) P'(3 – b, 3a + 1)
x=y
Since P(3a + 1, 3 – b) P'(b + 1, a + 5), so P'(3 – b, 3a + 1) = P'(b + 1, a + 5)
∴ 3 – b = b + 1 and 3a + 1 = a + 5
or, 3 – 1 = b + b and 3a – a = 5 – 1
or, 2 = 2b and 2a = 4
or, b = 1 and a = 2.
Example - 4 If the image of the point (3, – 4) is (–3, – 4) under the reflection, find the
reflecting axis.
Solution: Since the image of the point (3, – 4) under the reflection is (–3, – 4).
Here, the object and its image have the same y-coordinate but only sign change
in x-coordinate which is, we know, perform under the reflection in y-axis. Hence,
the required reflecting axis is y-axis.
“Alternatively”
Suppose (x, y) be the mid-point of the line segment joining the points (3, – 4)
3–3 –4–4
Transformation

and (–3, – 4). So, x = 2 = 0 and y = 2 = – 4. Since y-coordinates are

constant and x-coordinates are not constant, so the reflecting axis is parallel to
y-axis, which is the line with equation x = 0. Hence, the required reflecting axis is
y-axis or the line x = 0.

168 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 Example - 5 The vertices of ∆ABC are A(–2, 3), B(0, 1) and C(3, 2). Reflect the vertices
of ∆ABC in the line x – y = 0 and then write the coordinates of the image
∆A'B'C'. Represent the above reflection on the same graph.
Solution: Given, the vertices of ∆ABC are A(–2, 3), B(0, 1) and C(3, 2).
Now, reflecting the vertices of ∆ABC in the line x – y = 0, we obtain the following
images:
x–y=0 Y
A(–2, 3) A'(3, –2)
A(–2, 3) C'(2, 3)
x–y=0
B(0, 1) B'(1, 0) C(3, 2)
x–y=0 B(0,1)
C(3, 2) C'(2, 3) X' O B' X
(1,0)
Hence, the coordinates of the image ∆A'B'C' x–y=0 A'(3, –2)
are A'(–3, 2), B'(1, 0) and C'(2, 3).
The above reflection is represented on the graph. Y'

EXERCISE – 7.2

1. (a) What is reflection?

(b) What is the coordinates of the image of a point (x, y) under reflection in x-axis?
(c) What is the coordinates of the image of a point (x, y) under reflection in the line x = 0?
(d) What is the coordinates of the image of a point (x, y) under reflection in the line y = x?
(e) What is the coordinates of the image of a point (x, y) under reflection in the line x + y = 0?
2. Reflect the following figures in the given reflecting axis l.

(a) l (b) (c)

l

l
(d) (e) (f) l
l

l
Transformation

3. Reflect the following points in x-axis or the line y = 0.

(a) (2, 3) (b) (–1, 2) (c) (0, 1) (d) (– 4, –5) (e) (–3, 0)
4. Find the images of the following points under the reflection along the line x = 0.
(a) (1, 2) (b) (2, –10) (c) (–5, 0) (d) (– 4, –6) (e) (2, 0)

Reflection 169
 5. Find the images of the following points under the reflection in the line y = x.
(a) (3, 4) (b) (–2, – 4) (c) (0, 5) (d) (–7, 2) (e) (2, –3)
6. Evaluate the coordinates of the images of the following points when reflecting in the line
y = –x or x + y = 0.
(a) (4, 0) (b) (– 4, 4) (c) (–3, –2) (d) (4, 5) (e) (0, –2)
7. Reflect a line segment PQ joining the points P(–1, 2) and Q(–3, –2) in the following
reflecting axes:
(a) x = 0 (b) y = 0 (c) x – y = 0 (d) x + y = 0
8. (a) The image of A(3 – a, 2b + 1) under the reflection in the x-axis is A'(2a, 2a + b). Find
the values of a and b.
(b) If (3x + 1, y – 4) is the image of a point (5 – 2y, x – 3) under the reflection in the line
x – y = 0, find the values of x and y.
9. (a) If the image of a point (1, 2) is (1, –2) under the reflection, find the reflecting axis.
(b) For what reflecting axis, the image of a point (–3, 2) is (–2, 3)?
10. (a) Reflect ∆ABC having the vertices A(1, 2), B(4, 2) and C(3, 5) in x-axis by using
graph.Write down the coordinates of the vertices of the image ∆A'B'C' of ∆ABC.
(b) The vertices of a rectangle PQRS are P(–1, 1), Q(2, 3), R(4, 0) and S(1, –2). Find the
coordinates of the vertices of the image of the rectangle PQRS under the reflection on
the line y = x. Represent the above reflection in the same graph.
11. (a) If K(–1, 1), L(–2, –1),M(–1, –3) and N(0, –1) are the vertices of a parallelogram
KLMN then find the coordinates of the image parallelogram K'L'M'N' obtained by
reflecting in y-axis and draw the above transformation on the graph.
(b) The rhombus ABCD having the vertices A(1, –2), B(0, 5), C(–3, –6) and D(–2, –3)
is reflected in the x = – y. Find the coordinates of the image of the vertices of the
rhombus ABCD and represent the above reflection on the same graph.
ANSWERS
1-2. Show to your teacher.
3. (a) (2, –3) (b) (–1, –2) (c) (0, –1) (d) (–4, 5) (e) (–3, 0)
4. (a) (–1, 2) (b) (–2, –10) (c) (5, 0) (d) (4, –6) (e) (–2, 0)
5. (a) (4, 3) (b) (–4, –2) (c) (5, 0) (d) (2, –7) (e) (–3, 2)
6. (a) (0, –4) (b) (–4, 4) (c) (2, 3) (d) (–5, –4) (e) (2, 0)
7. (a) P'(1, 2), Q'(3, –2) (b) P'(–1, –2), Q'(–3, 2)
(c) P'(2, –1), Q'(–2, –3) (d) P'(–2, 1), Q'(2, 3)
Transformation

8. (a) 1, –1 (b) –2, 3 9. (a) x-axis (b) y = – x

10. (a) A'(1, –2), B'(4, –2), C'(3, –5) (b) P'(1, –1), Q'(3, 2), R'(0, 4), S'(–2, 1)
11. (a) K'(1, 1), L'(2, –1), M'(1, –3), N'(0, –1)
(b) A'(2, –1), B'(–5, 0), C'(6, 3), D'(3, 2)

170 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 7.3
1.1 ROTATION

Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
”” define rotation with illustration.
”” find the image under rotation with showing in graph.

Introduction
Study the following pictures to be clear about the rotation:

11 12 1
10 2
90°
9 3

8 4
7 5
6

Pic. (i) Clock Pic. (ii) Dhiki Pic. (iii) Swing

In the picture (i), when the minute hand of a clock moves from 12 to 3, it turns through the angle
90o about its centre. In the picture (ii), when the liver of a dhiki goes upward from the ground
level, it makes an angle, say, 45o with the ground about the joint. Similarly, in the picture (iii),
when a girl swings, there is made an angle between the positions of chain or rope.
From these pictures, the object moves itself through an angle from a fixed point and its final image
is also same as the initial object. Such types of transformations are called rotations and the fixed
point is called centre and the angle of turning is called the angle of rotation. The distance of the
object from the centre is always equal. This constant distance is called the radius of the rotation.
A transformation in which an object moves about a fixed point with constant distance
through an angle is called a rotation.

Notation of Rotation P'

In the adjoining figure showing rotation, the object P is rotated about

center O through the angle θ with anti-clockwise direction and its image
is P'. Then we obtain the following information:
Transformation

θ
O P
(i) OP = OP'.
(ii) The object P and its image P' are of the same shape and size.
(iii) The perpendicular bisector of PP' passes through the center of rotation O.

Rotation 171
 (iv) The rotation of the centre is itself.
(v) Every point of the object turns through the same angle in the same direction.
The image of P is P' under the rotation through the angle θ about the centre O,
which is denoted by ρ(P) = P' and is read as rho of P. Generally, it is also denoted
R[O; θ]
by P P'.

Rotation in coordinate planes

We can use the coordinate plane to identify the image of the given object in rotation. We can take
the centre of the rotation as the origin O(0, 0) of the coordinate plane. Generally, we can rotate
the given object with centre O(0, 0) through 90o, 180o, 270o and 360o in­
anticlockwise direction
and clockwise direction.
(i) Rotation through 90° about origin Y
A(–1, 4)
In the adjoining figure, the points A(4, 1) and B(–3, –2)
are rotated about the centre as origin O(0, 0) through 90o in +90º
A(4, 1)
anticlockwise direction (i.e., + 90o). We obtain the images X' O X
B +90º
A'(–1, 4) and B'(2, –3) respectively. (–3, –2)
B'(2, –3)
R[O; +90°]
i.e. A(4, 1) A'(–1, 4) Y'
R[O; +90°]
and B(–3, –2) B'(2, –3)
These examples show that, while rotating + 90o about the origin, the position of coordinates
are interchanged and also sign is changed in x-coordinate only.
R[O; +90°]
i.e., (x, y) (– y, x) Y

(-y, x) (x, y)
This type of rotation is called positive quarter turn. +90o
Again, the point (x, y) is rotated through 270o in clockwise X' X
O
direction about the origin as centre of rotation, which is the -270o

same as the rotation through +90o about the origin. That is

their images are the same. Y'
R[O; –270°]
So, (x, y) (– y, x). Y
(ii) Rotation through 180 about origin
°
A(2, 3)
Transformation

In the adjoining graph, the point A(2, 3) is rotated about the 180º
X' O X
origin through 180o in anticlockwise direction (i.e., +180o).
We obtain the image A'(–2, –3).
A'(–3, –2)
R[O; +180°]
i.e., A(2, 3) A'(–2, –3) Y'

172 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 This shows that, while rotating +180o about the origin, the
position of coordinate remains the same but only sign is Y
changed. (x, y)
R[O; +180°]
i.e., (x, y) (–x, –y) +180o

X' X
This type of rotation is called half turn about the origin. O –180°

Again, the point (x, y) is rotated through also about the origin (–x,–y)
as centre of rotation in clockwise direction, which is the same Y'
as the rotation through –180° about the origin. That is their
R[O; –180°]
images are the same. So, (x, y) (–x, –y).
(iii) Rotation through 270o about origin Y
In the adjoining graph, the point A(3, 2) is rotated about the
A(3, 2)
origin through 270o in anticlockwise direction (i.e., +270o).
–90°
We obtain the image A'(2, –3). X' +270° O X
R[O; +270 ] °
i.e., A(3, 2) A'(2, –3)
A'(–2, –3)
R[O; –90°] Y'
Similarly, A(3, 2) A'(2, –3)

This shows that, while rotating +270° or –90° about the Y

origin, the position of coordinates is interchanged and also
sign changed in y-coordinate only. (x, y)
R[O; +270°]
i.e., (x, y) (y, –x) X' –90°
X
+270° O
R[O; –90 ]
°
and (x, y) (y, –x)
(y, –x)
This type of rotation is called positive third quartile turn or Y'
negative quarter turn.
Note: When a point is rotated through 360° about any point, it remains unchanged. This is called
full turn. Transformation

Example - 1 Rotate the adjoining figure through 90o about

the given point in anticlockwise direction.
Solution: Rotate the given figure through 90o about the +90°
given point O in anti-clockwise direction. O

Rotation 173
 Example - 2 Find the image of the point (–3, 2) under the rotation of negative quarter turn
about the origin.
Solution: Rotating a point (–3, 2) under negative quarter turn about the origin, we have
R[O; –90°]
(x, y) (y, – x)
R[O; –90 ]°
∴ (–3, 2) (2, 3)
Hence, the image of a point (–3, 2) under R[O; –90o] is (2, 3).
Example - 3 If the image of a point (2a, b – 1) is (–2, –1) under the rotation through 180o
about the origin, find the values of a and b.
Solution: We have, the image of a point (2a, b – 1) is (– 2a, – b + 1) under the reflection180°
about the origin.
R[O; 180°]
But, by given, (2a, b – 1) (–2, –1)
∴ (–2a, –b + 1) = (–2, –1)
i.e., –2a = –2 and –b + 1 = –1
or, a = 1 and b = 2. Ans.
Example - 4 If the image of the point (2, –3) is (–3, –2) under the rotation about the origin,
find the image of the next point (–3, –4) under the same rotation.
Solution: Here, the image of a point (2, –3) is (–3, –2) under the rotation about the origin, in
which the coordinates are interchanged and sign is changed in y-coordinate only.
This rotation is performed in the case of rotation through +270o (or –90o) about the
origin. Hence, the image of another point (–3, –4) under the same rotation is (–4, 3).
Example - 5 The vertices of a rectangle ABCD are A(3, 0), B(6, 3), C(4, 5) and D(1, 2).
Rotate the vertices of ABCD and write down the coordinates of the vertices
of the image ABCD when rotated through +90o about the origin. Represent
the above transformation on the same graph.
Solution: Given, the vertices of a rectangle ABCD are A(3, 0), B(6, 3), C(4, 5) and D(1, 2).
Now, rotating the vertices of ABCD about the origin through +90°, we have
R[O; +90°]
(x, y) (–y, x) B' Y
C
R[O; +90°]
∴ A(3, 0) A'(0, 3) C'
A' A(2, 3)
B
R[O; +90°] D
B(6, 3) B'(–3, 6) +90°

R[O; +90°] X' D'

O A X
C(4, 5) C'(–5, 4)
R[O; +90°]
Transformation

D(1, 2) D'(–2, 1)
Therefore, the coordinates of the vertices of the image Y'
A'B'C'D' are A'(0, 3), B'(–3, 6), C'(–5, 4) and D'(–2, 1).
Representing the above transformation on the same graph:

174 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 EXERCISE – 7.3

1. (a) What is rotation?

(b) What is the image of a point (x, y) under rotation through +90° about the origin?
(c) What is the image of a point (x, y) under rotation through –180° about the origin?
(d) What is the image of a point (x, y) under rotation through –90° about the origin?
2. Rotate the following figures through the following angles about the given point:

(a) A (b) R Q (c) A B

C O
P E[O; 180°] D C
E[C; +90°] B E[C; –90°]

(d) A (e) P S (f) B

D C
B O A
C E F
E[C; –270°]
Q R E[G; –180°] G
E[O; 270°]

3. Find the image of the following point about the origin through the given instructions:
(a) A(2, 3); R[O; 90o] (b) B(–1, 2); positive third quarter turn
(c) C(–3, –5); half turn (d) D(2, 0); full turn.

4. Rotate the line segment PQ joining the points P(0, 2) and Q(–2, 5) taking (0, 0) as center of
rotation of the following rotation:
(a) Positive quarter turn (b) Negative quarter turn
(c) Half turn (d) Full turn
5. (a) If the image of a point (2x + 1, 2 – y) is (4, 3) under the rotation through +90o about
the origin, find the values of x and y.
(b) If the image of a point (3x + 1, 2y – 1) is (3y + 1, x – 3) under the rotation through
270° about the origin in anticlockwise direction, find the values of x and y.
6. (a) If the image of a point (3, 4) is (4, –3) under the rotation through an angle about the
Transformation

origin, find the angle of rotation.

(b) If the image of a point (–2, 4) is (2, – 4) under the rotation through certain angle about
the origin, find the angle of rotation.

Rotation 175
 7. (a) If the image of a point (–2, 5) is (5, 2) under the rotation about the origin through an
angle. Find the image of the point (–3, – 4) under same rotation.
(b) (–2, 0) is the image of a point (0, –2) under the rotation through certain angle about
the origin. Find the coordinates of the point (4, –3).
8. (a) If the vertices of ∆PQR are P(1, 2), Q(5, 2) and R(3, 5), find the coordinates of the
vertices of the image ∆P'Q'R' of ∆PQR under the rotation R[O; 90o]. Represent the
above rotation on the graph.
(b) A(–5, 0), B(0, 0), C(0, 3) and D(–5, 3) are the consecutive vertices of a rectangle
ABCD. Rotate the rectangle ABCD by R[(0, 0); 180o] and find the coordinates of the
vertices of the image of ABCD. Draw this rotation on the same graph.
9. (a) Draw the parallelogram KLMN with vertices K(0, –2), L(–2, –4), M(–6, –4) and
N(–4, –2) on the graph and rotate it by [0; 270°] on the same graph. Write down the
coordinates of the image K'L'M'N' of KLMN.
(b) Find the coordinates of the vertices of the image of a square PQRS with the vertices
P(–1, 2), Q(1, 4), R(–1, 6) and S(–3, 4) under the rotation of [(0,0); –180°] and
represent this rotation on the same graph.

ANSWERS
1-2. Show to your teacher.
3. (a) A'(–3, 2) (b) B'(–2, –1) (c) C'(3, 5) (d) D'(2, 0)
4. (a) P'(–2, 0), Q'(–5, –2) (b) P'(2, 0), Q'(5, 2)
(c) P'(0, –2), Q'(2, –5) (d) P'(0, 2), Q'(–2, 5)
1
5. (a) 1, 6 (b) 2, –2
6. (a) – 90° (b) ±180°
7. (a) (–4, 3) (b) (3, 4)
8. (a) P'(–2, 1), Q'(–2, 5), R'(–5, 3) (b) A'(5, 0), B'(0, 0), C'(0, –3), D'(5, –3)
9. (a) K'(2, 0), L'(4, –2), M'(4, –6), N'(2, –4) (b) P'(1, –2), Q'(–1, –4), R'(1, –6), S'(3, –4)
Transformation

176 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 7.4
1.1 ENLARGEMENT
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
”” define enlargement with illustration.
”” find the image under enlargement with showing in graph.

Introduction
Study the following activities to understand the concept of enlargement and reduction

Pic. (i) Pic. (ii) Pic. (iii)

In the picture (i), the shadow (image) of a boy is larger or bigger than himself, which is similar
to him but not equal in shape and size when projecting through torch-light. In the picture (ii), the
photocopy of the photo is smaller than itself by projecting photo through the lighting rod in the
photocopy machine. But, in the picture (iii), the photo of a man is smaller and inverse to himself
in the camera when projecting light of the man through its pin hole.
Hence, the transformation at the picture (i) is called an enlargement and the transformation at the
picture (ii) is called a reduction. But the transformation of the picture (iii) is also the reduction as
well as inversion. In these transformations, the torch–light, the lighting rod and the pin hole of
camera are called the center of enlargement and reduction.

A transformation in which the image of an object is longer and bigger than the object itself
about a center is called enlargement. A transformation in which the image of an object is
smaller than the object itself about a center is called reduction.
A'
Notation of Enlargement and Reduction
In the adjoining figure, the line AB is enlarged from the point C to the image A
A'B'. So, ∆ABC and ∆A'C'B' are similar and ratios of their sides are equal.
Transformation

CA CA' AB
i.e., CB = CB' = A'B' = k (Say) C
B
B'

This constant ratio k is called a scale factor and the point C is called the center of the enlargement.
Thus, the enlargement is denoted by,
E[O; k] or E[C; k].

Enlargement 177
 The size of image of the object depends upon the scale factor k. Now, we discuss the following
illustrated examples;
P'

M X
P M'
Y' Y
C L' L O

Q' N'
O
Q N X'

1 -3
fig. (i) E[O; 2] fig. (ii) E[C; 2 ] fig. (iii) E[O; 2]

In the enlargement E[O; 2], OP' = 2OP and OQ' = 2OQ. So, P'Q' = 2PQ. Here, P'Q' is longer
1 1 1 1
than PQ. Similarly, in the enlargement E[C; 2, CL' = 2CL, CM' = 2CM, and CN' = 2 CN. So,
1 3
∆L'M'N' =2 ∆LMN. Hence, ∆L'M'N' is smaller than ∆LMN. But, in the enlargement E[O; – 2],
3 3 3
OX' = – 2 OX, OY' = – 2 OY, and XY' = – 2XY. That means the image X'Y' casts backward
on the center of the enlargement and is the inverse of XY.
Hence, (i) If k > 1 then the object is enlarged into its image.
(ii) If 0 < k < 1 then the object is reduced into its image.
(iii) If k < 0 then the object is inverse to the backward of the center of the enlargement.
(iv) If k = 1 then the object and its image are the same and overlapping.

Enlargement in Coordinate Plane

We can use the coordinate plane to identify the image of the given object in the enlargement. We
can take a center of the enlargement as the origin of the coordinate plane.
Let us enlarge a line segment AB joining the points A(3, 2) and B(2, –1)
about the centre O(0, 0) by scale factor 2. Then its image A'B' has the
Y
point A'(6, 4) and B'(4, –2) as shown in the adjoining figure;
i.e., A(3, 2) → A'(6, 4) = A'(2×3, 2×2) = A'(2(3, 2)).
A'(6, 4)
B(2, –1) → B'(4, –2) = B'(2×2, 2×(–1)) = B'(2(2, –1)). A(3, 2)

Hence, the image of a point (x, y) under the enlargement A

X' O X
E[O; k] is k.(x, y) = (kx, ky). B(2, –1)
B'(4, –2)
E[(0, 0) k] Y'
i.e., (x, y) (kx, ky).
Transformation

Example - 1 Find the coordinates of the image of a point P(–3, 2) under the enlargement
with centre (0, 0) and scale factor 3.

178 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

Solution: Enlarging the point P(–3, 2) about the centre (0, 0) and scale factor 3.
E[(0, 0); k]
(x, y) (kx, ky)
∴ P(–3, 2) → P'(3 × (–3), 3 × 2) = P'(–9, 6);
Hence, the coordinates of the image point P' is (–9, 6).
Example - 2 If the point A(2, b) is enlarged with centre as the origin and scale factor 3 to
its image A'(2a, 6), find the values of a and b.
E[O; 3]
Solution: Here, A(2, b) A'(2a, 6)
But, we have
E[O; 3]
A(2, b) A'(3×2, 3b) = (6, 3b)
∴ (2a, 6) = (6, 3b)
i.e., 2a = 6 and 6 = 3b
or, a = 3 and b = 2.
Example - 3 Transform the unit square OABC with the vertices O(0, 0), A(1, 0), B(1, 1)
and C(0, 1) by the enlargement E[(0, 0); –3]. Write down the coordinates
of the vertices of the image square O'A'B'C' and represent the above
transformation on the graph.
Solution: Here, the vertices of the unit square OABC are O(0, 0), A(1, 0), B(1, 1) and C(0, 1).
Now, enlarging the unit square OABC by E[(0, 0), –3], we get
E[(0, 0); –3]
O(0, 0) O'(–3×0, –3×0) = O'(0, 0) Y
E[(0, 0); –3]
A(1, 0) A'(–3×1, –3×0) = A'(–3, 0) C B
E[(0, 0); –3] X' A' O'
X
B(1, 1) B'(–3×1, –3×1) = B'(–3, –3) OA

E[(0, 0); –3]

C(0, 1) C'(–3×0, –3×1) = C'(0, –3) B' C'

Hence, the required coordinates of the image square

O'A'B'C' are O'(0, 0), A'(–3, 0), B'(–3, –3) and C'(0, –3). Y'
The above transformation is represented on the graph as alongside.

EXERCISE – 7.4
1. (a) Define the enlargement.
(b) What is the coordinate of the image of a point (x, y) under enlargement about the
centre O(0, 0) and scale factor k?
(c) What will be the image of a point (x y) under E[(0, 0); 1]?
2. Transform the following figures by the given enlargement:
(a) B (b) B (c) P
Transformation

A
O
O E[O; 2] O
A
E[O; 3] C Q R
3
E[O; 2]

Enlargement 179
 (d) R Q (e) X (f) O

N
O 1 P L
E[O; 2]
Z O Y M
E[O; 4] E[O; –2]

3. Enlarge the following points by the given enlargement.

1
(a) P(2, –3) by E[O; 1] (b) R(–3, 3) by E[(0, 0); 3 ] (c) S(3, 0) by E(0, 0); –2]
4. (a) If the image of (2a, b) under the enlargement with centre as origin and scale factor 3
is (12, 9), find the values of a and b.
(b) If P'(3x + 1, y – 2) is the image of the point P(5, 0) under the enlargement E[O; 2], find
the values of x and y.
5. (a) If the image of (4, 6) is (2, 3) under the enlargement with the centre (0, 0), find the
coordinates of the image of the point (–2, –1) under the same enlargement.
(b) The point P(– 4, 6) maps with P'(2, –3) under the enlargement with centre as origin.
Find the coordinates of the image of the line segment AB with A(8, 6) and B(–6, 4).
6. (a) Enlarge a ∆LMN with vertices L(0, 1), M(– 4, 3) and N(–1, 1) from the origin with
scale factor 2. Write down the coordinates of the vertices of the image of ∆LMN and
show the above transformation in the graph.
(b) The vertices of a unit square OPQR are O(0, 0), P(1, 0), Q(1, 1) and R(0, 1). Write
down the coordinates of the vertices of the image of the square OPQR under the
enlargement with centre as origin and scale factor 11. Represent the above enlargement
2
on the same graph.
7. (a) A(1, 0), B(3, 2), C(1, 4) and D(–1, 2) are the vertices of a square ABCD. Find the
coordinates of the vertices of the image of the square ABCD under the enlargement
E[(0, 0); 2]. Draw the square ABCD and its image on the same graph.
(b) A kite PQRS having the vertices P(0, 1), Q(1, 3), R(–1, 2) and S(–3, 1) is enlarged by
E[(0, 0); –2]. Find the coordinates of the vertices of the image of the kite PQRS and
represent it on the same graph.
ANSWERS
1-2. Show to your teacher.
3. (a) P'(2, –3) (b) R'(–1, 1) (c) S'(– 6, 0)
4. (a) 2, 3 (b) 1, 2
2
Transformation

5. (a) (– 4, –2) (b) (– 4, –3)

6. (a) L'(0, 2), M'(–8, 6), N’(–2, 2) (b) O'(0, 0), P'(11, 0), Q'(11, 11), R'(0, 11)
2 2 2 2
7. (a) A'(2, 0), B'(6, 4), C'(2, 8), D'(–2, 4) (b) P'(0, –2), Q'(–2, – 6), R'(2, – 4), S'(6, –2)

180 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 8
Statistics
UNIT
STATISTICS
“A single death is a tragedy; a million deaths is a statistics.” ― Joseph Stalin

Competency
”” To describe the partition value, dispersion and its coefficient.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
”” find the partition values; median and quartiles of the given data.
”” compute the range and quartile deviation of the given data.

What do you learn ?

Partition values
- Median of the given data
- Quartiles of the given data
Dispersion
- Range of the given data
- Quartile deviation of the given data

Are you ready ?

� Collection of data � Classification of data � Variable and frequency
� Uses of sigma (summation) � Average � Position and middle term
� Equally division � Quantity of frequency � Mean or Average

Historical Background
The Word statistics has been derived from Latin word “Status” or the Italian
word “Statista”, meaning of these words is “Political State” or a Government.
Shakespeare used a word Statist in his drama Hamlet (1602). In the past, the
statistics was used by rulers. The application of statistics was very limited
but rulers and kings needed systematic information about lands, agriculture,
commerce, population of their states to assess their military potential, their
wealth, taxation and other aspects of government. In India, an efficient system
of collecting official and administrative statistics existed even 2300 years
ago. In particular during, the reign of Chandragupta Maurya (321–297BC). Vishnugupta 'Chanakya'
The good systematic collection of births and deaths even before 300BC are
available in Kautilya’s “Arthashastra”.
 181
 8.1
1.1
Statistics

PARTITION VALUES

8.1 (A) Median

Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
”” find the median of the given data.

Introduction
Consider a data of weight of 7 students of the class 8,
41 kg, 35 kg, 45 kg, 40 kg, 43 kg, 39 kg, 52 kg
Can you arrange the data in ascending order?
Ascending order: 35 kg, 39 kg, 40 kg, 41 kg, 43 kg, 45 kg,
52 kg
How many equal parts is divided the data by its terms?
Discuss it.
The weight 41 kg divides the data into two equal parts. This is called median of the data.
Similarly, the weight 39 kg, 41 kg and 45 kg divide the data into four equal parts. These are called
quartiles.
Consider another data of sheets of 9 copies of 9 students of the class 8.
88, 70, 78, 92, 98, 72, 120, 108, 110.
Now, arrange the data in ascending order,
70, 72, 78, 88, 92, 98, 108, 110, 120
Which number is in the middle part?
What is it called?
Can you divide the data into four equal parts by the given number?
But, how many parts divide it equally further more?
It is divided into 10 equal parts by each number. The first number divides it into one-tenth part.
The second number divides it into second-tenth part and so on. These parts are called deciles.
Similarly, if the data is divided into hundred equal parts, these dividing parts are called percentiles.
The values of median, quartiles, deciles and percentiles are called partition values of the data.

182 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

Median

Statistics
The middle observation or item of a data arranging in ascending or descending order of magnitude
is a median. The median divides the data into two equal parts. It lies in a distribution in such a
way that half (i.e., 50%) of the observation lies above the median and another half (i.e., 50%) lies
below the median. The median is average position of the data. The median is denoted by Md.

Calculation of Median
Every data should be arranged in ascending or descending order of magnitude for calculating
median.

For Individual Data

Median of N observation is computed by the formula as,
th
N+1
Median (Md) = The position of 2 item.
th
N+1
Note: (1) If N is an odd number then 2 is a whole number. So, the median is
found by counting the items from beginning of the data.
th
N+1
(2) If N is an even number then 2 is half of whole number such as 1.5, 2.5, 3.5,
etc. So, the median is found by taking the average (mean) of preceding and posting
items of that half of the whole number.
For Discrete Data
Consider a discrete series with cumulative frequency (cf),

x x1 x2 x3 …… xn
f f1 f2 f3 …… fn
cf f1 f1 + f2 f1 + f2 + f3 …… f1 + f2 + f3 + …. + fn = N
Then we use the following formula for computing the median of the data.
th
N+1
Median (Md) = The position of 2 item.
th th
N+1 N+1
Note: The value of 2 is positive integer. For finding the median, the value of 2 is
greater than the preceding cf and less and equal to posting cf.
N+1
i.e., cf < 2 ≤ cfk ,
where cf and cfk are any two successive cumulative frequencies.

Partition Values 183

 For Continuous Data
Statistics

Consider the continuous series with cf as,

x x1­–x2 x2–x3 x3–x4 …… xi–xj …… xn–1 – xn
f f1 f2 f3 …… fi …… fn
cf f1 f1+f2 f1+f2+f3 …… f1+f2+f3+….+fi …… f1+f2+f3+….+fn = N
At first, we obtain the median class by using the formula given below.
th
N
Median class = 2 class = (xi – xj) (suppose)
Now, identity the following:
Lower limit of the median class (L) = xi
Frequency of the median class (f) = fi
Class size or interval of the median class (i) = xj – xi = h or i
Cumulative frequency of the class preceding the median class,
cf = f1 + f2 +…….+ fi – 1 = k
Then the value of the median is computed by the formula below,
N
2 – cf i N
Median (Md) = L + f × i or, L + f × 2 – cf

Example - 1 Find the median of the given data: 28, 27, 25, 38, 37, 39.
Solution: Arrange the given data into ascending order,
25, 27, 28, 37, 38, 39
The number of item (N) = 6
Now, we have
th
N+1
Median (Md) = The position of 2 item
th
6+1
= The position of 2 item
th
7
= The position of 2 item

= The position of 3.5 item

3rd item + 4th item

= 2
28 + 37 65
= 2 = 2 = 32.5.

184 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

Example - 2 Compute the median from the following frequency distribution table:

Statistics
Obtained marks 12 8 14 19 16 24
No. of students 3 5 4 6 2 3
Solution: Arrange the given data in ascending order making cf table:
Obtained marks (x) 8 12 14 16 19 24 Total
No. of students (f) 5 3 4 2 6 3 N = 23
cf 5 8 12 14 20 23
Now, we have
th
N+1
Median (Md) = The position of 2 marks
th
23 + 1
= The position of 2 marks

= The position of 12 marks = 14.

Example - 3 Derive the median from the given data below:
Age (in years) 20–25 25–30 30–35 35–40 40–45
No. of people 2 5 7 4 5
Solution: Making cf table,
Age (in years) 20–25 25–30 30–35 35–40 40–45 Total
No. of people (f) 2 5 7 4 5 N = 23
cf 2 7 14 18 23
Now, we have
th
N
Median class = 2 class
th
23
= 2 class
= 11.5th class = (30 – 35)
Here, L = 30, f = 7, cf = 7, i=5
N
2 – cf
∴ Median (Md) = L + f ×i
11.5 – 7 4.5
= 30 + 7 × 5 = 30 + 7 ×5 = 30 + 3.21 = 33.21.

EXERCISE - 8.1 (A)

1. (a) What is median?
(b) In which percentage does the median divide the given data?
(c) Write the position of the median in a data having 28 terms.
(d) Write the formula to calculate the median of a continuous data.

Partition Values 185

 2. Find the median from the following data:
Statistics

(a) 25, 37, 27, 38, 29, 20, 39.

(b) 29 cm, 18 cm, 9 cm, 45 cm, 27 cm, 45 cm, 40 cm.
(c) Rs. 25, Rs. 15, Rs. 35, Rs. 45.
(d) 35, 75, 25, 15, 5, 65, 45, 55.
3. Find the median of the data given below:
(a) x 15 25 35 45
f 3 4 2 3
(b) Wages (in Rs.) 300 325 340 360 375 390 395
No. of workers 5 7 4 3 2 1 4
(c) Ages (in yrs.) 3 4 5 6 7 8
No. of children 14 15 10 8 9 7
(d) OM 5 10 15 20 25 30
f 1 5 4 6 2 4
4. Calculate the median from the following frequency distribution:
(a) Obtained Marks 0–10 10–20 20–30 30–40 40–50
No. of students 7 8 3 5 2

(b) Weight (in kg) 20–25 25–30 30–35 35–40 40–45 45–50
No. of people 30 25 37 40 35 23

(c) Heights (in cm) 25–40 40–55 55–70 70–85 85–100

No. of plants 90 85 105 50 70

(d) CI 2–4 4–6 6–8 8–10 10–12 12–14 14–16

f 3 4 2 4 5 3 2
ANSWERS

2. (a) 29 (b) 29 cm (c) Rs. 30 (d) 40

3. (a) 25 (b) 340 (c) 5 (d) 20
4. (a) 16.875 (b) 41.875 (c) 58.571 (d) 9.25

186 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

8.1 (B) Quartiles

Statistics
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
”” find the quartiles of the given data.

Quartile is a term which means one-fourth of something. So, the quartile is a certain fourth of a
data. When the data is arranged in the ascending order that is from lowest value to highest value,
the three values divide the data into four equal groups.
In statistics, there are three quartiles, the quartile that divides the data in the first 25%, is called
first quartile (Q1) or lower quartile. The quartile that divides the data in the first 50%, is called
second quartile (Q2) or median. The quartile that divides the data in the first 75%, is called third
quartile (Q3) or upper quartile.
Q1 Q2 Q3

0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

Calculation of Quartiles
For Individual Data
The first quartile (Q1) divides the data in the ratio of 1:4. So, the first quartile Q1 is calculated
1
by the position of of the (N + 1)th term after arranging the data in ascending order.
4 th
N+1
i.e., Q1 = The position of the 4 term
The second quartile (Q2) divides the data in the ratio of 2:4 = 1:2. So, the second quartile
Q2 is calculated by the position of half of the (N + 1)th term.
th
2(N + 1)
i.e., Q2 = The position of the 4 term = Median (Md)
The third quartile (Q3) divides the data in the ration of 3:4. So, the third quartile Q3 is
3
calculated by the position of 4 of the (N + 1)th term.
th
3(N + 1)
i.e., Q3 = The position of the 4 term
th th
N+1 3(N + 1)
It is noted that if the values of the 4 item and the 4 item are in the decimal
form, i.e., n.25 or n.75 where n is a whole number, then Q1 = the position of whole number
part item + 0.25 or 0.75 times the difference between that part and its forward part/item.
i.e., Q1 = The position of the nth item + 0.25 or 0.75 × {(n + 1)th item – nth item}
Similarly, Q3 = The position of the nth item + 0.25 or 0.75 × {(n + 1)th item – nth item}

Partition Values 187

 For Discrete Data,
Statistics

In the discrete data, we can calculate the first quartile (Q1), the second quartile (Q2) and
third quartile (Q3) similar in the individual data as follows:
th
N+1
Q1 = Value of the 4 term
th th
2(N + 1) N+1
Q2 = Value of the 4 = 2 term = Median (Md)
th
3(N + 1)
Q3 = Value of the 4 term
th th
N+1 3(N + 1)
It is noted that the values of the 4 and 4 terms are compared just greater in
the cumulative frequency (cf) of the data.
Consider the discrete data,
x x1 x2 x3 …… xn
f f1 f2 f3 …… fn
cf cf1 cf2 cf3 …… cfn
th th
N+1 (N + 1)
If cf2 < 4 item or 4 item < cf3, the required quartile is x3.
For Continuous Data,
For computing the first quartiles Q1 in the continuous data, at first, we find the class of the
first quartile in which Q1 lies between the lower limit (L) and upper limit (U).
th
N
∴ First quartile (Q1) class = The class of the 4 term = (L – U)
Now, identify the following:
Lower limit of the Q1 class = L
Frequency of the Q1 class = f
Class size or interval = i or h
cf of the class preceding the Q1 class = cf
Then the value of Q1 is computed by the formula below,
N
4 – cf N h
Q1 = L + f × i or, L + 4 – cf × f
Similarly, for computing the third quartile (Q3), we use the following formula,
th
3N
Third quartile (Q3) class = 4 class.
3N
4 – cf N h
∴ Q3 = L + × i or, L + 4 – cf × f
f

188 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 Statistics
Example - 1 Find the first quartile from the given data: 50, 70, 10, 30, 20, 40, 60
Solution: Here, arranging the given data in ascending order,
10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70
The number of items ( N) = 7
Now, we have th
N+1
The first quartile (Q1) = The position of the 4 item
th
7+1
= The position of the 2 item
= The position of the 2nd item
= 20.
Example - 2 Find the third quartile from the given data: 5, 25, 15, 35
Solution: Here, arranging the given data in ascending order,
5, 15, 25, 35
The number of items (N) = 4
Now, we have th
3 (N + 1)
The third quartile (Q3) = The position of the 4 item
th
3 (4 + 1)
= The position of the 4 item
= The position of the 3.75th item.
= The position of the 3rd item + 0.75× (4th item – 3rd item)
= 25 + 0.75 × (35 – 25)
= 25 + 0.75 × 10 = 25 + 7.5 = 32.5.
Example - 3 Find the quartiles of the data given below.
x 20 15 35 40 25 30
f 5 3 5 6 4 3
Solution: Making cumulative frequency (cf) table in ascending order,
x 15 20 25 30 35 40 Total
f 3 5 4 3 5 6 N = 26
cf 3 8 12 15 20 26 –
Now, we have. th
N+1
The first quartile (Q1) = The value of the 4 item
th
26 + 1
= The value of the 4 item
= The value of the 6.75th item,

Partition Values 189

 which is greater than 3 and less than 8.
Statistics

∴ Q1 = 20.
th
2 (N + 1)
The second quartile (Q2) = The value of the
4 item
th
2 (26 + 1)
= The value of the 4 item
= The value of the 13.5th item = 30.
th
3 (N + 1)
The Third quartile (Q3)
4 item = The value of the
th
3 (26 + 1)
= The value of the 4 item
= The value of the 20.25th item = 40.
Example - 4 Calculate the third quartile from the given data.
Obtained marks 10–20 20–30 30–40 40–50 50–60 60–70
No. of students 3 5 4 3 2 3
Solution: Making cumulative frequency table,
Obtained Marks (x) 10–20 20–30 30–40 40–50 50–60 60–70 Total
No. of students (f) 3 5 4 3 2 3 N = 20
Cumulative frequency (cf) 3 8 12 15 17 20 –
Now, we have
th
3N
The third quartile (Q3) class
= The position of the 4 item
3 × 20th
= The position of the item
4
= The position of the 15th item = (40 – 50)
Here, the lower of the Q3 class (L) = 40
The frequency of the Q3 class (f) = 3
The class–interval of the Q3 class (i) = 10
The cf of the class preceding the Q3 class (cf) = 12
3N
4 – cf
∴ The third quartile (Q3) = L + ×i
f
15 – 12
= 40 + × 10
3
= 40 + 10
= 50.

190 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 EXERCISE - 8.1 (B)

Statistics
1. (a) What is the first quartile?
(b) In which percentage does the third quartile divide the given data?
(c) Write the position of the class where Q1 lies in the data having 11 terms.
2. Find the first quartile and third quartile from the following data.
(a) 13, 12, 25, 19, 21, 11, 17 (b) 2, 3, 3, 4, 6, 4, 2, 1
(c) 20, 10, 25, 5, 12 (d) 16, 25, 45, 14, 38, 42, 54, 65, 25, 27
3. Find the quartiles of the following series.
(a) x 5 10 15 20 25
f 2 5 4 3 7
(b) Marks 12 15 10 17 22
Frequency 4 3 4 2 6
(c) Ages (in yrs.) 12 16 17 15 13 14
No. of students 7 9 6 5 6 9
(d) Lengths (in cm) 150 300 250 600 550 400 375
No. of Sticks 3 3 5 6 2 2 4
4. Calculate Q1 and Q3 from the data given below.
(a) Heights (in meter) 0–10 10–20 20–30 30–40 40–50
No. of trees 4 3 5 4 2
(b) Obtained marks 2–4 4–6 6–8 8–10 10–12 12–14
No. of students 10 15 13 18 18 9
(c) x 10–20 40–50 30–40 20–30 50–60
f 4 6 4 1 3
(d) x 3–6 12–15 18–21 21–24 6–9 15–18 9–12
f 14 19 20 24 10 12 30

ANSWERS

2. (a) 12, 21 (b) 2, 4 (c) 7.5, 22.5 (d) 22.75, 47.25

3. (a) 10, 25 (b) 12, 22 (c) 13, 16 (d) 250, 600
4. (a) 11.67, 33.75 (b) 5.43, 10.69 (c) 25, 47.5 (d) 9.85, 19.76

Partition Values 191

Statistics

8.2
1.1 DISPERSION

8.2 (A) Range

Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
”” introduce the measure of variability (dispersion).
”” compute range and its coefficient.

Measure of Variability or Dispersion

The measure of central tendency or average (i.e. mean, median, mode, etc) gives us an idea of
the concentration of the observation about the central part of the distribution of the data. Each
of these measures gives single value that represents the entire data. But that single value alone
cannot describe a set of observation perfectly. Since there may exist a number of distributions
whose average are the same but which may differ widely from each other in a number of ways.
The following example will illustrate this view point.
Let us consider the following series:
(i) 25 25 25 25 25 25 25
(ii) 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
(iii) 1 7 8 25 30 34 70

Can you find the mean and median from the above series? Yes, all series have the same mean and
median i.e., 25. But these series are entirely different in structures and compositions, but having
the same mean and median. From the above illustration, we see that the measures of central ten-
dency are inadequate to give us a complete idea of the distribution. Thus, the measures of central
tendency must be supported and supplemented by some other measures. One such measure is
dispersion.
The literal meaning of dispersion is ''Scatteredness'' which measures the variability of the
distribution of the data. In this chapter, we study dispersion to have an idea of the homogeneity
(compactness) or heterogeneity (scatter) of the distribution. In the above illustration, we say that
the series (i) is stationary i.e., it is constant and show no variability. Series (ii) is slightly dispersed
and the series (ii) is relatively more dispersed. We say that the series (iii) is more heterogeneous
than series (ii). That means the difference between the largest and smallest values of the series is
zero, i.e. 25 – 25 = 0 in series (i). But that of the series (ii) is 6, i.e., 28 – 22 = 6 and that of the
series (iii) is 69, i.e., 70 – 1 = 69. Similarly, the difference of the mean from the smallest and largest
values are also zero in the series (i). But that of the series (ii) are both 3, i.e., 25 – 22 = 3 and 28
– 25 = 3 and that of the series (iii) are 24 and 45 respectively, i.e., 25 – 1 = 24 and 70 – 25 = 45.

192 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

The measure of variation of items of the data is called dispersion or the measures of variability.

Statistics
We measure the dispersion in the following methods:
(i) Range
(ii) Semi-inter quartile range or quartile derivation.
(iii) Mean deviation and
(iv) Standard deviation

Introduction to Range
The range is the simplest of all measures of dispersion, but it is crude. Since it is based on two
extreme observations, it measures the scatter or spread between the maximum and minimum
observation of the distribution. So, it is defined as the difference between two extreme observations
of the distribution. In other words, the difference between the largest (maximum) value and the
smallest (minimum) value of the observation of the distribution is called range.
i.e., Range = Xmax – Xmin .
It can be also written as,
R = L – S,
where,
Xmax = L = the largest or maximum observation and
Xmin = S = smallest or minimum observation.
In case of the grouped frequency distribution (or the continuous data), the range is defined as the
difference between the upper limit of the highest class and the lower limit of the smallest class.
i.e., Range (R) = U – L,
where, U = Upper limit of the highest class and
L = Lower limit of the smallest class.
Coefficient of Range

The range is an absolute measure of dispersion and depends upon the units of measurement. We
use the range for comparing the variability of two or more distributions with the same units of
measurement. However, to compare the variability of the distributions given in different units
of measurement. We cannot use the range, but we need a relative measure which is independent
of the units of measurement. This relative measure, called the coefficient of range, is defined as
follows:
L–S
Coefficient of Range (CR) = L + S

In other words, the ratio of the difference between two extreme observations (largest and smallest)
of the distribution to their sum.

Dispersion 193
 Illustrated Examples
Statistics

Example - 1 Find the range and coefficient of range from the data below:
Temperature: 23° C, 18° C, 27° C, 39° C, 32° C, 49° C, 17° C, 28° C
Solution: Here,
Largest temperature (L) = 49° C
Smallest temperature (S) = 17° C
∴ Range (R) = L – S = 49 – 17 = 32°C
L–S
Coefficient of range (CR) = L + S
49 – 17 32
= 49 + 17 = = 0.485
66
Hence, the range is 32° C and its coefficient is 0.485.
Example - 2 Find the range and its coefficient from the following data:
Weight (in kg) 8 10 12 13 14
No. of children 3 5 4 3 2
Solution: Here,
Largest weight (L) = 14 kg
Smallest weight (S) = 8 kg
Range (R) = ?
Coefficient of range (CR) = ?
Now, we have
L – S 14 – 8 6
R = L – S = 14 – 8 = 6 kg CR = L + S = = = 0.273
14 + 8 22
Hence, the range and its coefficient are 6 kg and 0.273 respectively.

Example - 3 Calculate the range and its coefficient from the following data:
Class interval 20–30 30–40 40–50 50–60 60–70 70–80
Frequency 2 3 4 1 5 7
Solution: Here,
Upper limit of the highest class (70 – 80) (U) = 80
Lower limit of the smallest class (20 – 30), (L) = 20

∴ Range (R) = U – L = 80 – 20 = 60
U – L 80 – 20 60
Again, the coefficient of range (CR) = U + L = = = 0.6
80 + 20 100

194 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 Example - 4 The maximum student weight among 30 students is 18 kg and their range is
12 kg. Find the minimum weight and the coefficient of range.

Statistics
Solution: Here, the maximum weight (L) = 18 kg
The range (R) = 12 kg
The minimum weight (S) = ?
The coefficient of range (CR) = ?
Now, we have
R=L–S or, 12 = 18 – S or, S = 18 – 12 or, S = 6 kg
L – S 18 – 6 12
Again, CR = L + S = = = 0.5
18 + 6 24
Hence, the required minimum weight is 6 kg and the coefficient of range is 0.5.
Example - 5 If the mean of the data 2, 4, 9, x, 12, 15 is 10, find the range and its coefficient.
Solution: Given, the data is 2, 4, 9, x, 12, 15
Mean (X) = 6, No. of item (N) = 6 Range (R) = ?
Coefficient of Range(CR) = ?
Now, we have
Σx
X= N
2 + 4 + 9 + x +12 + 15
or, 10 =
6
or, 60 = 42 + x
or, x = 60 – 42
or, x = 18
Again,
The largest item of the data (L) = 18
The smallest item of the data (S) = 2
∴ The range of the data (R) = L – S = 18 – 2 = 16
L – S 18 – 2 16
The coefficient of range (CR) = L + S = = = 0.8
18 + 2 20

EXERCISE - 8.2 (A)

1. (a) Define range of a data.
(b) Write the formula to find the coefficient of range of a data.
(c) What is the range of the data 5, 8, 2, 4, 9?
2. Find the range and its coefficient from the following data:
(a) Obtained marks: 18, 35, 40, 46, 47, 60, 82, 94
(b) Volume (in litre) : 21, 25, 27, 28, 30, 32, 35

Dispersion 195
 (c) Weight (in kg) : 30, 22, 45, 32, 19, 25, 35
Statistics

(d) Height (in cm) : 125, 135, 127, 129, 132, 140, 139, 130
3. Calculate the range and the coefficient of range from the following data:
Height (ft) 4.5 4.7 4.8 4.9 5.1 5.3 5.5 5.7 5.8
(a)
No. of people 20 18 21 19 20 7 10 15 9
Ages (months) 5 10 15 20 25 30
(b)
No. of children 3 15 12 4 7 2
Marks 10 25 48 47 49 50
(c)
No. of students 2 4 3 2 1 1
4. Calculate the range and its coefficient from the data given below:
Obtained marks 0 – 10 10 – 20 20 – 30 30 – 40 40 – 50
(a)
No. of students 2 1 5 10 7

Wages (Rs.) 100 – 200 200 – 300 300 – 400 400 – 500 500 – 600
(b)
No. of students 7 3 12 10 4

(c) Height (cm) 5 – 10 15 – 25 25 – 35 35 – 45 45 – 55 55 – 65

No. of plants 115 200 195 140 45 20
5. (a) The highest obtained mark among 25 students in Optional Math is 99 and their range is
75. Find the lowest obtained mark and the coefficient of range among them.
(b) The minimum price among 100 shirts is Rs. 300 and their range is Rs. 350. Find the
maximum price and the coefficient of range among 100 shirts.
6. (a) If the range and its coefficient of a data are 16 and 0.4 respectively then find the largest
value.
(b) In a data, the range is 200 and the coefficient of range is 0.25. Find the maximum and
maximum values.
7. (a) If the mean of the data 20, 30, x, 45, 50, 60, 75 is 42, find the range and its coefficient.
(b) If the median of the series 1, 2, x – 1, 4, x + 1 is 3, find the range and its coefficient.

ANSWERS

2. (a) 76 marks, 0.68 (b) 14 l, 0.25 (c) 26 kg, 0.41 (d) 20 cm, 0.074
3. (a) 1.3 feet, 0.126 (b) 25 months, 0.714 (c) 40 marks, 0.667
4. (a) 50 marks (b) Rs. 500, 0.714 (c) 60 cm, 0.857
5. (a) 24 marks, 0.61 (b) Rs. 650, 0.3
6. (a) 28 (b) 500, 300 7. (a) 61, 0.685 (b) 4, 0.667

196 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

8.2 (B) Quartile Deviation

Statistics
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
”” introduce the quartile deviation.
”” compute the QD and its coefficient quartile deviation.

Introduction
The quartile divides the data into four equal parts. There are three quartiles such as first quartile
(Q1), second quartile (Q2) and third quartile (Q3) which divide the data into four equal parts. In
this section, we discuss the difference between Q1 and Q3. The quartile deviation is a measure of
dispersion based on Q1 and Q3. The difference between Q3 and Q1 is called inter quartile range and
the semi-inter quartile range is called the quartile deviation.
1
i.e., Inter quartile range = Q3 – Q1 Quartile deviation (QD) = 2 (Q3 – Q1).

Coefficient of QD
The quartile deviation is only an absolute measure of dispersion. For comparative study of
variability of two distributions we need a relative measure which is known as coefficient of
quartile deviation and is given by,
Q3 – Q1
2 Q3 – Q1
CQD = =
Q3 + Q1 Q3 + Q1
2
Formula for Computing Q1, Q2 and Q3
The formulae of Q1, Q2 and Q3 are important for computing QD and its coefficient which are given
below:
Quartile Individual Data Discrete Data Continuous Data
N th
The value of The value of Q1 class = item
4
Q1 N+1 th N+1 th N
4
item
4
item 4 – cf
Q1 = L + f ×i
2N th
The value of The value of Q2 class = item
4
Q2 2(N + 1)th 2N
2(N + 1)th
item 4
item 4 – cf
4 Q2 = L + f ×i
3N th
The value of The value of Q3 class = item
4
Q3 3(N + 1)th 3(N + 1)th 3N
4
item
4
item 4 – cf
Q3 = L + f ×i

Dispersion 197
 where, L = Lower limit of Q1 / Q2 / Q3 classes
Statistics

cf = cf just above the cf of Q1 / Q2 / Q3 classes

f = frequency of Q1 / Q2 / Q3 classes
i = class interval of Q1 / Q2 / Q3 classes

Note: For computing Q1, Q2, or Q3, the data should be in ascending or descending order.

Illustrated Examples

Example - 1 Find the inter-quartile range, the quartile deviation and its coefficient from
the given data: 20, 40, 10, 50, 30, 70, 60.
Solution: Here,
Arranging the given data in ascending order, we get
10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70
The no. of items (N) = 7
Now, we have
N + 1 th 7 + 1 th
First quartile (Q1) = item = item
4 4
8 th
= item = 2th item = 20
4
3(N + 1)th 3(7 + 1)th
Third quartile (Q3) = item = item
4 4
8 th
=3×
item = 6th item = 60
4

∴ Inter quartile range = Q3 – Q1 = 60 – 20 = 40
1 1
Quartile deviation (QD) =
(Q – Q1) = × 40 = 20
2 3 2
Q3 – Q1 60 – 20 40
Coefficient of QD = = = = 0.5.
Q3 + Q1 60 + 20 80
Example - 2 Calculate the coefficient of quartile deviation from the given data:
x 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
f 2 4 5 4 3 4 8 7
Solution: Here,
Making cumulative frequency table,
x 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Total
f 2 4 5 4 3 4 8 7 N = 37
cf 2 6 11 15 18 22 30 37 –

198 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 Now, we have

Statistics
N+1 th 3(N + 1)th
First quartile (Q1) = item Third quartile (Q3) = item
4 4
37 + 1 th
3(37 + 1)th
= item = item
4 4
38 th
= item 38 th
4 =3× item
4
= 9.5th item = 28.5th item

= 20 = 40

Q3 – Q1 40 – 20 20
∴ The coefficient of quartile deviation (CQD) = = = = 0.33.
Q3 + Q1 40 + 20 60
Example - 3 Calculate the quartile deviation from the following data:
Marks 0 – 10 0 – 20 0 – 30 0 – 40 0 – 50 0 – 60 0 – 70
No. of students 3 5 10 14 16 19 20

Solution: Here,
Making cumulative frequency table,
Marks (x) 0 – 10 10 – 20 20 – 30 30 – 40 40 – 50 50 – 60 60 – 70
No. of students (f) 3 2 5 4 2 3 1
cf 3 5 10 14 16 19 20
Now, we have
N th 20 th
Q1 class =
class = class = 5th class = 10 – 20,
4 4
where, L = 10, cf = 3, f = 2, i = 10
N
4 – cf
∴ Q1 = L + f ×i
5–3
= 10 +
× 10 = 10 + 10 = 20.
2
3N th 3 × 20 th
Q3 class = class = class = 15th class = 40 – 50,
4 4
where, L = 40, cf = 14, f = 2, i = 10
3N
4 – cf
∴ Q3 = L + f × i = 40 + 15 – 14 × 10 = 40 + 5 = 45.
2
Q3 – Q1 45 – 20 25
∴ Quartile deviation (QD) = = = = 12.5.
2 2 2

Dispersion 199
 EXERCISE - 8.2 (B)
Statistics

1. (a) Define the quartile deviation.

(b) Write the formula to calculate the QD of a data.
(c) What is the formula to find the coefficient of QD of a data?
2. Find the inter-quartile range, quartile deviation and coefficient of quartile deviation
from the following data:
(a) Salary (Rs.) : 28, 20, 21, 27, 26, 24, 25 (b) Share stock (Rs.) : 20, 30, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40
(c) Height (ft.) : 70, 80, 90, 120, 110, 100 (d) Length (cm) : 37, 48, 42, 29, 20
3. Calculate the quartile deviation and its coefficient from the given data:
Obtained marks 37 42 53 65 72 81
(a)
No. of students 4 5 2 6 4 3
Income per day (Rs.) 50 250 150 200 100 300 350
(b) No. of persons 12 14 17 13 18 15 11

Length (cm) 15 18 12 19 25 20 23
(c) No. of sticks 6 8 4 7 6 5 4
4. Find the quartile deviation and its coefficient from the data below:

Marks 0 – 15 15 – 30 30 – 45 45 – 60 60 – 75 75 – 90
(a) No. of students 5 6 8 4 2 5
Height (in inch) 15 – 20 20 – 25 25 – 30 30 – 35 35 – 40 40 – 45
(b) No. of children 2 4 8 10 4 5
Wages(Rs.) 100 – 150 250 – 300 300 – 350 200 – 250 150 – 200
(c) No. of men 2 4 5 3 6
Marks 10 – 18 10 – 26 10 – 34 10 – 42 10 – 50
(d) No. of students 4 7 12 17 20

ANSWERS

2. (a) 6, 3, 0.125 (b) 40, 20, 0.4 (c) 35, 17.5, 0.184 (d) 20.5, 10.25,
0.295
3. (a) 15, 0.263 (b) 100, 0.5 (c) 2.5, 0.122
4. (a) 18.44, 0.46 (b) 4.77, 0.15 (c) 62.5, 0.26 (d) 9.07, 0.305

200 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 Statistics
APPENDIX - A
 Glossary
APPENDIX - B
 Home Assisment
APPENDIX - C
 Model Question
APPENDIX - D
 Unit Test Papers
APPENDIX - E
 CAS Record Form

Dispersion 201
Statistics

202 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 APPENDIX - A
GLOSSARY 1 : ALGEBRA
Ordered Pair: A pair of objects separated by Function: Relation in which every element of the
comma and enclosed by parenthesis (small domain is associated with a unique element of the
brackets) occurring in a specific order. co-domain. It is denoted by f:A→B or A→B for
x-component: The first component of the ordered two non-empty sets A and B. If x is the variable
pair. of the domain, its range is denoted by f(x), g(x),
y-component: The second component of the h(x), etc.
ordered pair. Domain of Function: A set of all the elements of
Equal Ordered Pairs: Ordered pairs with equal the first set of a function.
corresponding components. Co-domain of Function: A set of all the elements
Cartesian product: The set of all of the possible of the second set of a function.
ordered pairs obtained from two non-empty sets Range of Function: A set of all the assigned
A and B. It is denoted by A × B and is defined by elements of the second set with the element of the
A × B = {(x, y): x ∈ A, y ∈ B}. It is also known as first set of the function.
the cross product from A to B. Image of Function: Element in the range of the
Tree Diagram: Diagram with branches for function
showing the components or objects. Pre-image of Function: Element in the domain
Mapping/Arrow Diagram: Diagram with ovals/ of the function.
circles for showing the components of the ordered
Value of Function/Functional Value: If f is a
pair.
function and (a, b) be in f, then we write f(a) = b,
Lattice Diagram: Diagram for showing the where f(a) is called the value of the function at a.
ordered pairs in the graph or square grid.
Constant: Quantity which has only one
Relation: A subset of the Cartesian product of value.
two non-empty sets. If A and B are two non-empty
Variable: Quantity which has more than one
sets then the relation from A to B is denoted by
values.
R : A → B and is defined as,
R = {(x, y) : x ∈ A, y ∈ B} ⊆ A × B. Algebraic Expression: Expression which
is connected by signs of basic fundamental
Domain of Relation: The set of all first
operations of arithmetic (+, –, ×, ÷).
components of the ordered pairs of a relation R. It
is symbolically written as, Coefficient: Repeated number of the same objects
in addition, which multiplies to the variable.
Domain (D) = {x: (x, y) ∈ R}.
Numerical Coefficient: Real number, which
Range of Relation: The set of all second
multiplies to the variable.
components of the ordered pairs of a relation
Literal Coefficient: A variable, which multiplies
R. It is symbolically written as,
to the real number or another variable.
Range (Re) = {y: (x, y) ∈ R}.
Non-negative Integer: Integer which is either
Inverse Relation: The relation obtained by positive or zero, i.e., not negative number.
interchanging the domain and range of a relation
R to each other. It is denoted by R–1 and is defined Term: Form of multiplication or division of
for R = {(x, y): x ∈ A, y ∈ B} by R–1 = {(y, x): constant and variable or only constant or only
y ∈ B, x ∈ A}.1 variable.

Appendix - A 203
Polynomial: An algebraic expression having polynomials:
non-negative integer as the power of variable in xm xm n
x mn
xn
1. yn = xm ÷ xn = xm – n 2.  ym  =  y  =  yn 
each term.      
General or Standard form of Polynomial: Rules of signs (+ and –) for division: The
Polynomial of n degree with variable x which is following rules of signs (+ and –) are useful while
in the form of, division of the polynomial:
anxn–1 + an–1xn–1 + an–2xn–2 + .….. + a2x2 + a1x1 + 1. (+) ÷ (+) = (+) 2. (+) ÷ (–) = (–)
a0x , where an ≠ 0 and a0, a1, a2,……, an–2, an–1, an,
0

are constants, n is non–negative integer. 3. (–) ÷ (+) = (–) 4. (–) ÷ (–) = (+)
Standard Polynomial: Polynomial in general or Long Division Method: Process of division in
standard form. which the polynomial d(x) is divisor and when
d(x) divides p(x), we obtain quotient q(x) and
Degree of Polynomial: The highest sum of
exponent of the variables of the term of the remainder r(x).
polynomial. Synthetic Division Method: Process of division
Monomial: A polynomial having only one term. which helps to find the quotient and remainder in
simple, easier and shorter way when a polynomial
Binomial: A polynomial having only two terms.
p(x) is divided by a linear polynomial (x – a).
Trinomial: A polynomial having only three terms.
Sequence: Set of numbers or objects having
Constant Polynomial: A polynomial having definite or specific rule.
only one constant term.
Term of Sequence: The number or object of the
Zero Polynomial: A polynomial in which all the sequence.
numerical coefficients are zero.
Common Difference: The same or constant
Sum or Addition of Polynomials: Addition of difference of any two consecutive or successive
the coefficients of like terms of the polynomial. terms. It is obtained by the subtraction of the term
Difference or Subtraction of Polynomials: from the preceding term.
Subtraction of the coefficients of like terms of the
∴ Common Difference (d) = Backward Term –
polynomial. Preceding Term
Product or Multiplication of Polynomials: Finite Sequence: Sequence having finite/
Multiplication of the coefficients and addition of countable number of terms.
the indices with the same variables of terms of the
Infinite Sequence: Sequence having infinite/
polynomial.
uncountable number of terms.
Division of Polynomials: Division of the
Linear Sequence: A sequence which has the
coefficients and subtraction of the indices with
same differences at first time or has equal first
the same variable of the term of a polynomial.
differences.
Laws of Exponent for Multiplication: The
Quadratic Sequence: A sequence which has the
following laws of exponents are useful while
same difference at second times or have equal
multiplying the polynomials.
second differences.
1. xm × xn = xm+n 2. (xm)n = xmn = (xn)m
General Term: The specific term of a sequence.
Rules of signs (+ and –) for multiplication: The It is a rule of the sequence, which helps to find the
following rules of signs (+ and –) are useful while any term of the sequence.
multiplying the polynomials.
General or nth Term of Linear Sequence: The
1. (+) × (+) = (+) 2. (+) × (–) = (–) general term or the nth term or rule of a linear
3. (–) × (+) = (–) 4. (–) × (–) = (+) sequence is dn + (a – d) or a + (n – 1)d, where a,
Laws of Exponent for Division: The following b ∈ Q and n ∈ N. It is the first degree algebraic
laws of exponents are useful while dividing the expression in the variable n.

204 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 GLOSSARY 2 : LIMIT

Sequence: A list of numbers or objects that are Negative Infinite Number: A number that goes
in order. to infinite large number at left side of number
Numerical Sequence: A sequence formed by line. It is symbolised by – ∞.
numbers. Midpoint: A point that halves the given line
General Term of Sequence: A specific term of segment or object.
a sequence. Limit: A number such that the value of the
p given function that remains arbitrarily close
Rational Number: A number in the form of th
q to this number when the independent variable
where, p, q ∈ Z (integer) and q ∈ 0. It is terminating
is insufficiently close to a specified point or is
and repeating or recurring decimal number.
sufficiently large.
Fractional Number: A number in the form of
Limit of Sequence: A specific value that the term
fraction or rational number.
of infinity sequence "tends to" or "approaches".
Irrational Number: A number that is not
Series: The addition of the terms of the
rational. It is not terminating and repeating or
corresponding sequence.
recurring decimal number.
Infinite Series: The sum form of the terms of the
Real Number: A union of rational and irrational
corresponding infinite sequence.
number.
Absolute Value: The non-negative value of
Decimal Number: A non-integer that is
variable without regard to its sign.
represented by using a dot called decimal point.
Limiting Value of Infinite Series: Approaching
Scientific Notation: A special way of writing
specific value of the sum of all the terms of an
numbers that are represented in the tenths decimal
infinite series.
part and multiple of 10.
Function: A relation between a set of inputs and
Infinity: A concept describing something without
a set of permissible outputs with the property that
any bound or larger than any natural number. It is
each input is related to exactly one output.
symbolised by ∞. It has no end.
Domain: A set of inputs of a function.
Infinite Number: An indefinitely large number
Range: A set of outputs of a function.
Countable Infinite Number: An infinitely large
number that is countable. Limit of Function: A value of a function near a
particular input. For f(x) a real function, the limit
Positive Infinite Number: A number that goes to
of f as x approaches infinity is L.
infinite large number at right side of number line.
It is symbolised by + ∞.

Appendix - A 205
 GLOSSARY 3 : MATRIX
Horizontal Line: Line parallel to plain ground Scalar Matrix: A diagonal matrix with the same
level. diagonal elements.
Vertical Line: Line perpendicular to plain ground Identity/Unit Matrix: A diagonal matrix with
level. unit diagonal elements.
Row: Horizontally arrangement of objects. Equal Matrices: Two matrices with the same
Column: Vertically arrangement of objects. order and equal corresponding elements. If two
matrices are equal then their corresponding
Matrix: Arrangement of numbers systematically
elements are separately equal.
in row and column form and enclosed by round or
square brackets. Addition of Matrices: Matrix obtained by
adding the corresponding elements of two or
Component/Entry of Matrix: A number/
more matrices with the same order.
element of the matrix.
Order of Matrix: Number of rows and columns Subtraction of Matrices: Matrix obtained by
taken together in the form of cross (using ‘×’ subtracting the corresponding elements between
between them). two matrices with the same order.

Notation of Matrix: Matrices are denoted by the Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar:

capital letters of the English alphabet as A, B, C, Multiplication by a scalar to each component of
…., X, Y, Z and their elements are denoted by the
the given matrix. Let A =  a b  be a matrix
small letters of the English alphabet as a, b, c, …,  c d
x, y, z or numbers. and k be a scalar, then the multiplication of A by k
a b  =  ka kb .
Standard form of Matrix: The general form of is given by kA = k
a11 a12 a1n c d   kc kd 
matrix is Mm×n=  a21 a22 a2n
 Transpose of Matrix: Matrix obtained by
interchanging the elements of rows and columns.

 am1 am2 amn  m ×n

Generally, it is denoted by A′ or At or AT.

Row Matrix: Matrix having only one row. Determinant of Matrix: Numerical value of a
a b
Column Matrix: Matrix having only one column. square matrix. Let A = be a square matrix,
c d
Null or Zero Matrix: Matrix with all the elements the determinant of the matrix A is denoted by
as zeroes, is generally denoted by O.
det.A or |A| and is defined to be a number ad – bc.
Square Matrix: Matrix having equal number of a b –
rows and columns. i.e., determinant of A, |A| = = ad – bc.
c d +
Rectangular Matrix: Non-square matrix. There It is noted that (i) If A1×1= [a], |A | = a. (ii) If
are not equal number of rows and columns in the
rectangular matrix. A = [–a], the determinant of A, |A| = |–a| = –a, but
Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix with all the in the case of absolute value, |–a| = a.
off-diagonal elements as zero. That means all the
elements are zero except the elements of the main
or principal or leading diagonal.

206 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 GLOSSARY 4 : COORDINATE GEOMETRY

Plane Surface: Surface made by two Rectangular Plane or Two Dimensional Plane
perpendicularly intersected real lines. or Cartesian Plane: The coordinate plane has
only two dimensions as length and breath i.e., the
Axis (Pl. Axes): Two perpendicularly intersected
coordinate plane or xy-plane.
real lines which make plane surface.
Distance between Two Points: The distance
Origin: The point of intersection of the axes and
between two points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) is given
is usually denoted by O. The origin represents for
by,
zero value in the axes.
x-axis: The horizontal axis whose equation is y = 0
d= (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2 units.
in which the value of y is always zero. The distance of the points (x1, y1) from the
origin (0, 0) is (x1)2 + (y1)2.
y-axis: The vertical axis whose equation is x = 0
in which the value of x is always zero. Scalene Triangle: Triangle which is not equal in
length of sides.
Coordinate Axes: The axes of x and y in graph.
Isosceles Triangle: Triangle with equal any two
xy-plane: Plane made by the x-axis and y-axis.
sides.
Quadrant: Each part of coordinate plane which
Equilateral Triangle: Triangle with equal three
is divided by x-axis and y-axis into four equal
sides.
parts. It is quarter of xy-plane.
Right-angled Triangle: Triangle with any angle
First Quadrant: The first quarter enclosed by the
as right angle.
positive axes of xy-plane. It contains (+, +) of the
axes. Right-angled Isosceles Triangle: Triangle with
any angle as right angle and equal any two sides.
Second Quadrant: The second quarter enclosed
by negative x-axis and positive y-axis of xy- Parallelogram: Quadrilateral with parallel
plane. It contains (–, +) of the axes. opposite sides.
Third Quadrant: The third quarter enclosed by Rectangle: Parallelogram with any angle as right
negative axes of xy-plane. It contains (–, –) of angle.
the axis.
Rhombus: Parallelogram with equal adjacent sides.
Fourth Quadrant: The fourth quarter enclosed by
Square: Rectangle with equal adjacent sides or
positive x-axis and negative y-axis of xy-plane. It
rhombus with any angle as right angle.
contains (+, –) of the axis.
Locus: Path of a moving point under certain
Co-ordinate Point: The order pair (a, b) in
condition.
coordinate plane which means a units runs left or
right and b units moves up or down. Equation of Locus: Equation which represents
the locus of a moving point under given condition.
Abscissa/x-coordinate: Component of
coordinate point along x-axis which is generally Section formula for Internal Division: When
represented by x. a point (x, y) divides internally the line segment
joining the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) in the ratio
Ordinate/y-coordinate: Component of
m1:m2, the coordinates of the dividing point (x, y)
coordinate point along y-axis which is generally
m x + m2x1 m1y2 + m2y1
represented by y. are 1 2 , .
m1 + m2 m1 + m2

Appendix - A 207
Section Formula for External Division: Parallel: The lines never intersected, whose
When a point (x, y) divides externally the perpendicular distance is always constant. The
line segment joining the points (x1, y1) and slopes of the parallel lines are also equal.
(x2, y2) in the ratio m1:m2, the coordinates of Perpendicular: The lines which are intersected
the dividing point (x, y) are at right angle, whose slopes are reciprocal with
m1x2 – m2x1 m1y2 – m2y1 opposite sign (+ or –), i.e., the product of their
, . slopes is – 1.
m1 – m2 m1 – m2
Midpoint Formula: When a point (x, y) Reciprocal: A pair of quantities which is reversed
bisects the line segment joining the points 1
to each other. If a is a number, its reciprocal is .
(x1, y1) and (x2, y2), the coordinates of the a
x +x y +y Equation of Straight Line Parallel to x-axis:
midpoint (x, y) are 1 2, 1 2 . The equation of the straight line parallel to the
2 2
Angle of Inclination: The angle made by x-axis or perpendicular to the y-axis is given by,
the straight line with x-axis in anti-clockwise
y=b,
direction. It is usually denoted by θ.
where b is the constant y-coordinate (ordinate).
Slope of Straight Line: The inclination of a
straight line in the reference of the x-axis. It is the Equation of Straight Line Parallel to y-axis:
tangent ratio of angle θ made by the straight line The equation of the straight line parallel to the
with x-axis. It is denoted by m and is given by, y-axis or perpendicular to the x-axis is given by,

m = tan θ.
x = a,

Slope of Line Passing Through Two Points: where a is the constant x-coordinate (abscissa).
The slope of the line passing through the given Equation of Oblique Line: The equation of the
two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is given by, oblique line is given by,
y2– y1
y = mx + c,
m = x – x .
2 1 where m is the slope of the line and c is the
Slope of Line Passing Through Origin and a
y-intercept.
Point: The slope of line passing through the origin
and a given point is given by, Equation of Oblique Line Passing through
y Origin: The equation of the oblique line passing

m= . through the origin is given by,
x
Collinear: The points lying on the same line. If the
y = mx,
three points lie on the same line then the slope of where m is the slope of the line.
the line joining first two points is equal to the slope
of the line joining the last two points.

208 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 GLOSSARY 5 : TRIGONOMETRY

Trigonometry: The branch of mathematics One Radian (1c): A central angle subtended by
which deals with the relation between the sides an arc equal to the length of the radius of the
and angles of a triangle (specially right triangle). circle.
Angle: Inclination between two lines which is Radian Measure: A measurement which
denoted by ∠. measures a right angle equal to half of pi (π).
πc
Measurement Angle: Quantity of angle which is i.e., 1 rt.∠ = 2 .
denoted by  or m∠. Circular System: Angle measured in radian, also
Positive Angle: Angle formed by turning the line called circular measure.
in anti-clockwise direction about the fixed point. Relation between Degree, Grade and Radian
Negative Angle: Angle formed by turning the Measures: There are the following relations
line in clockwise direction about the fixed point. between degree, grade and radian measures:
πc 10g πc 9°
Angles in Coordinate Plane: When the measure (i) 1° = 180 = 9 , (ii) 1g = 200 = 10 ,
of the positive angle is an acute, it lies in the first 180° 200g
quadrant of the coordinate plane. i.e., 0o < θ < 90o, (iii) 1c = π = π
θ lies in the first quadrant. Similarly, when 90o Polygon: Closed geometric figure made by three
< θ < 180o, θ lies in the second quadrant. When or more sides. In polygon, the number of sides,
180o < θ < 270o, θ lies in the third quadrant and interior and exterior angles are equal.
when 270o < θ < 360o, θ lies in the fourth quadrant. Regular Polygon: A polygon having equal sides.
But, the negative acute angle (– θ) also lies in the Irregular Polygon: A polygon having unequal
fourth quadrant. sides.
Protractor: Circular or semi-circular instrument Interior Angle: An angle formed by two
which measures the angle in anti-clockwise or consecutive sides inside the polygon. Measure
clockwise direction in degree. of each interior angle of the regular polygon is
Degree Measure: Measurement of angle which calculated by,
(n – 2)180°
measures a right angle in 90 equal parts, each part 1-interior angle = n ,
is called a degree (1o). and sum of interior angles = (n – 2)180°.
Sexagesimal System: In this system, a right Exterior Angle: The supplementary angle of the
angle is divided into 90 equal parts. Each part is interior angle of the polygon. The sum of exterior
called degree (o). A degree is also divided into 60 angles of the polygon is 360o. Measure of each
equal parts, each part is called a minute (′). Again, exterior angle of the regular polygon is calculated
a minute is also divided into 60 equal parts, each by,
part is called second (′′). Therefore, 1 rt.∠ = 90o, 360°
1-exterior angle = n .
1o = 60′, 1′ = 60′′.
Trigonometric Ratios: Set of ratios of two sides
Grade Measure: Measurement of angle which
of the right-angled triangle.
measures a right angle in 100 equal parts, each
part is called a grade (1g). Sine of Angle θ: The ratio of the perpendicular
(p) to the hypotenuse (h) of right triangle. i.e.,
Centesimal System: In this system, a right p
angle is divided into 100 equal parts. Each part is sin θ = h.
called grade (g). A grade is also divided into 100 Cosine of Angle θ: The ratio of the base (b) to
b
equal parts, each part is called a minute ( ). Again, the hypotenuse (h) of right triangle. i.e., cos θ = h .
a minute is also divided into 100 equal parts, each Tangent of Angle θ: The ratio of the perpendicular
part is called second ( ). Therefore, 1 rt.∠ = 100g, p
1g = 100 , 1 = 100 . (p) to the base (b). of right triangle. i.e., tan θ = h .

Appendix - A 209
Cotangent of Angle θ: The ratio of the base (b) Equation: An expression which is true for
b specific value of the given variable.
to the perpendicular (p). i.e., cot θ = p .
Secant of Angle θ: The ratio of the hypotenuse Trigonometric Identity: An identity involving
h the trigonometric ratios which is true for any value
(h) to the base (b). i.e., sec θ = b . of an angle. It has two equivalent expressions,
Cosecant of Angle θ: The ratio of the hypotenuse (h) which are proved from right hand side (RHS) to
h h left hand side (LHS) or vice versa.
to the perpendicular (p). i.e., cosec θ = p or csc θ = p.
Standard Angles: Specific angles such as 0o, 30o,
Fundamental Trigonometric Ratio: The
45o, 60o, and 90o.
trigonometric ratios sin θ, cos θ and tan θ.
Trigonometric Ratios of 0o and 90o: The values
Reciprocal or Complementary Ratios: The
of trigonometric ratios of 0o and 90o as follows:
trigonometric ‘co’ ratios (cosec θ, sec θ and cot θ).
sin 0o = tan 0o = cos 90o = cot 90o = 0,
Reciprocal Relations: The relations which consist
the product of two trigonometric ratios as 1. cos 0o = sec 0o = sin 90o = cosec 90o = 1,
(i) sin θ × cosec θ = 1. cot 0o = cosec 0o = sec 90o = tan 90o = ∞.
1 1 Trigonometric Ratios of 30o and 60o: The values
∴ sin θ = cosec θ and cosec θ = sin θ. of trigonometric ratios of 30o and 60o as follows:
(ii) cos θ × sec θ = 1. 1 3
sin 30o = cos 60o = 2, sin 60o = cos 30o = ,
1 1 2
∴ cos θ = sec θ and sec θ = cos θ . 1
tan 30o = cot 60o = , tan 60o = cot 30o = 3,
(iii) tan θ × cot θ = 1. 3
2
1 1 sec 30o = cosec 60o = , sec 60o = cosec 30o = 2.
∴ tan θ = cot θ and cot θ = tan θ . 3
Trigonometric Ratios of 45o: The values of
Quotient Relations: The relations which consist trigonometric ratios of 45o as follows:
the trigonometric ratios represented as the ratio of 1
another two trigonometric ratios. sin 45o = cos 45o = , tan 45o = cot 45o = 1,
2
sin θ sec 45o = cosec 45o = 2.
(i) tan θ = tan θ
Solution of Right-angled Triangle: Finding the
cos θ remaining parts of the right-angled triangle under
(ii) cot θ = sin θ .
given condition by using Pythagorean theorem
Pythagorean Relations: Relations derived from and trigonometric ratios.
the Pythagoras theorem as h2 = p2 + b2.
Height: Length of erected object.
(i) sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1;
Distance: Length between any two places or
sin2 θ = 1 – cos2 θ; sin θ = 1 – cos2 θ. objects or points.
cos2 θ = 1 – sin2 θ; cos θ = 1 – sin2 θ. Angle of Elevation: The angle formed by the
(ii) sec2 θ – tan2θ = 1; observing line to the horizontal line (ground)
when the observer observes the upward object.
sec2 θ = 1 + tan2 θ; sec θ = 1 + tan2 θ.
Angle of Depression: The angle formed by the
tan2 θ = sec2 θ – 1; tan θ = sec2θ – 1.
observing line to the horizontal line when the
(iii) cosec2 θ – cot2 θ = 1; observer observes the downward object.
cosec2 θ = 1 + cot2θ; cosec θ = 1 + cot2 θ. Altitude of Sun: An angle made by the sunlight
cot2 θ = cosec2 θ – 1; cot θ = cosec2θ – 1. to the ground (horizontal line).
Identity: An expression which is true for any
value of the given variable.

210 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 GLOSSARY 6 : VECTOR

Straight Line: Line which is extended on both Column Vector: A vector representing in the
sides infinitely in fixed direction. form of column.
Line Segment: A piece/part of straight line, Position Vector: A column vector of a point on
which has fixed length. the coordinate plane in the reference of the origin.
Ray: Line which is initiated from a fixed point Unit or Identity Vector: A vector having magnitude
and extends only one side infinitely. unity i.e., 1. The unit vector along a is denoted by a
Directed Line Segment: Line segment with a
read as cap a and is defined by a =
specific direction. |a |
Magnitude: Physical quantity with only mass Null or Zero Vector: A vector having magnitude
(length, weight, etc.). zero (0).
Direction: Physical quantity which makes fixed Negative Vector: A vector having the same
angle with specific base/line. magnitude but in opposite direction of any vector.
Vector: Physical quantity with magnitude and
For the vector AB, the negative is BA and
direction.
BA = – AB.
Scalar: Physical quantity with only magnitude.
Equal Vectors: Two vectors with same magnitude
Displacement: A movement of an object in
and in same direction. When two vectors are
specific direction or along a vector.
equal, their components are separately equal and
Component of Vector: A displacement of vector. vice versa.
x-component: A component along horizontally Unequal Vectors: Two vectors which are not
or x-axis. equal.
y-component: A component along vertically or Like Vectors: The vectors which have the same
y-axis. direction and their magnitude may or may not be
x equal.
Notation of Vector: A vector is denoted by
y
Unlike Vectors: The vectors which don’t have
that means, a displacement with x units run left or
the same direction.
right and y units run up or down. When x (or y) is
Parallel Vectors: The vectors which have the
positive, it runs right (or up) and when x (or y) is
same or opposite in direction to each other.
negative, it runs left (or down). When the component
is zero, it remains the same. Collinear/Coincident Vectors: The parallel
Magnitude of Vector: The measurement of vectors which lie on the same line.
length of vector a . It is usually denoted by the Perpendicular or Orthogonal Vectors: Two
vectors which intersect at right angle to each
absolute value or modulus (or | |) of the vector
other.
and is given by,
Addition (Sum) of Vectors: Addition of
|a | = x2 + y2 , initial point as origin. corresponding components of the vectors.
|a | = (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2, initial point as Subtraction (Difference) of Vectors: Subtraction
other than origin. of corresponding components of the vectors.
Direction of Vector: The angle made by the Multiplication of Vector by a Scalar:
vector with the horizontal axis or x-axis. It is Multiplication by a scalar to each component of
usually denoted by θ and is given by, the vector.
y Division of Vector by a Scalar: Division by a
θ = tan–1 x , initial point as origin.
scalar to each component of the vector.
y2 – y1
θ = tan-1 x – x , initial point as other than origin.
 2 1

Appendix - A 211
GLOSSARY 7 : TRANSFORMATION
Transformation: Way of changing the position, Notation of Rotation: The image of P is P'
shape and size of an object under a certain rule or under the rotation through the angle θ about the
condition. centre O, which is denoted by ρ(P) = P' and is
Translation: A transformation which maps an read as rho of P. Generally, it is also denoted by
object to its image under the given vector. P(x, y) R[O; θ] P'(x', y').
Notation of Translation: The image of P is P' Rotation in Coordinate Plane: When reflecting
a a point.(x, y) in the coordinate plane under the
under translation by the vector , which is
b
denoted by T(P) = P'. Generally, it is given by following angle of rotation as,
a SN Object Notation of Rotation Image
P(x, y) b P'(x', y'). R[0; + 90°/– 270°]
1. (x, y) (–y, x)
Translation in Coordinate Plane: When
translating a point (x, y) in the coordinate plane 2. (x, y) R[0; + 180°/– 180°]
(–x, –y)
a
under the translation vector , its image will be
b 3. (x, y) R[0; – 90°/ + 270°]
(y, –x)
(x + a, y + b).
Translation Vector: A vector on which the Positive Quarter Turn: Rotation about the origin
object moves into its image in the translation. It through 90o in anti-clockwise direction (i.e., + 90o).
a x1 – x Negative Quarter Turn: Rotation about the origin
is denoted by T = and is given by T = 1 .
b y –y through 90o in clockwise direction (i.e., – 90o).
Congruent: The objects which is the same shape
Positive Third Quarter Turn: Rotation about the
and size to each other.
origin through 270o in anti-clockwise direction
Reflection: A transformation involving a fixed
(i.e., + 270o).
point on the line such that the line segment joining
Negative Third Quarter Turn: Rotation about
the object to its image is perpendicularly bisected
the origin through 270o in clockwise direction
at that point.
(i.e., – 270o).
Reflecting Axis: The line on where the image of
Half Turn: Rotation about the origin through
the object casts.
180o in any direction (i.e., ± 180o).
Symmetric Line: Line which is exactly drawn its
Full Turn: Rotation about the origin through
middle part of the geometric figure.
360o in any direction (i.e., ± 360o).
Notation of Reflection: The image of P is P' in
Enlargement: A transformation in which the
the reflecting axis, which is denoted by R(P) = P'.
image of an object is longer and bigger than the
Generally, it is given by
Reflecting Axis object.
P(x, y) P'(x', y'). Reduction: A transformation in which the image
Reflection in Coordinate Plane: When reflecting of an object is smaller than the object.
a point.(x, y) in the coordinate plane under the Center of Enlargement: A point from where
following reflecting axes as, enlarge or reduce the object.
SN Object Reflecting Axis Image Scale Factor: The constant ratio k of the distance
1. (x, y) x-axis or y = 0 (x, –y) between the center of enlargement with the object
2. (x, y) y-axis or x = 0 (–y, x) and its image.
3. (x, y) x=y (y, x) Notation of Enlargement: Enlargement with
4. (x, y) y = –x (–y, –x) scale factor k about the center as the origin O is
Rotation: A transformation in which an object denoted by E[O; k] or E[(0, 0); k] and is given by
moves about a fixed point through an angle. E[O; k]
P P'.
Centre of Rotation: Fixed point of the rotation.
Enlargement in Coordinate Plane: When
Angle of Rotation: The rotating angle around the
enlarging/reducing a point (x, y) in the coordinate
center of rotation.
plane under the following enlargement as,
Radius of Rotation: The distance of the object
(x, y) E[O; k] (kx, ky).
from the centre.

212 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

GLOSSARY 8 : STATISTICS
Partition Values: The points which divide the Third Quartile (Q3): The third quartile lies at
data into equal parts. They are (i) Median, 75% of the data, which is the lower 75% or the
(ii) Quartiles, (iii) Deciles and (iv) Percentiles. upper 25% of the data. It is denoted by Q3 and is
Central tendency: Central part of the distribution given by, th
3(N + 1)
of data such as mean, median, mode, etc. Q3 = The position of the 4 term
Median: The middle observation or item of a data for individual data.
th
arranging in ascending or descending order on 3(N + 1)
magnitude. The median divides the data into two Q3 = The position of the 4 term in cf
equal parts, 50% – 50%. The median is denoted for discrete data.
th
by Md and is given by, 3N
th Q3 class = 4 class and then
N+1
Md = The position of the 2 item 3N
for individual data. 4 – cf
N+1
th Q3 = L + × i,
f
Md = The position of the 2 item in cf for continuous data.
table for discrete data.
th Dispersion: The extent to which a distribution is
N+1
Md Class = 2 class for continuous data and then stretched or squeezed in statistics. It is also called
N variability, scatter, or spread.
– cf
Median (Md) = L + 2 ×i Deviation: The absolute difference between the
f element of central tendency and a given point in
where, L = Lower limit of the median class,
statistics.
f = Frequency of the median class, i = Class size
or interval of the median class, cf = Cumulative Range: Value obtained by subtracting the two
frequency of the class preceding the median class. extreme observations of the distribution. i.e., the
difference between maximum and minimum items of
Quartiles: The variate values which divide the
the distribution. Range = Xmax – Xmin i.e., R = L – S,
given data (frequency distribution) into four equal
where L = Largest item and S = Smallest item.
parts. There are three quartiles which divide the
Coefficient of Range: Relative measure to
data into four equal parts. They are (i) first/lower
compare the variability of distribution with
quartile (Q1), (ii) second/middle quartile (Q2) and
different units of measurements and is computed
(iii) third/upper quartile (Q3), where Q1 < Q2 < Q3.
as the ratio of the difference between two
First Quartile: The first quartile lies at the first extreme assertions (Largest and smallest) of the
25% of the data, which is the first/lower 25% or distribution to their sum. i.e., Coefficient of range
the last/upper 75% of the data. It is denoted by Q1 L–S
and is given by, (CR) = L + S , which is independent of the units
th
N+1 of measurement.
Q1 = The position of the 4 term
Semi-inter Quartile Range: Half of the inter
for individual data. Q3 – Q1
th quartile range, i.e., .
N+1 2
Q1 = The position of the 4 term in cf Quartile Deviation: Measure of dispersion based
for discrete data. on the first quartile (Q1) and the third quartile (Q3)
th 1
N and is computed by, QD = 2 (Q3 – Q1).
Q1 class = 4 class and then
Coefficient of Quartile Deviation: Absolute or
N relative measure of dispersion for comparative
4 – cf studies of variability of two distributions with
Q1 = L + × i, for continuous data.
f different units of measurement and is computed
Second Quartile (Q2): The second quartile lies at Q3 – Q1
50%, which is the median of the data. as .
Q3 + Q2

Appendix - A 213
 APPENDIX - B
HOME ASSESSMENT - 1 (ALGEBRA)
1. Find the values of x and y if (a) (2x + y, 2y + 1) = (4, 1) and (b) (3x – y, 2) = (–2, x + y).
2. If A = {a, b, c} and B = {4, 5} then find (a) A × B, (b) B × A, (c) A2.
Also, show these Cartesian products in the table and mapping diagram.
3. If P = {0 ≤ x < 3} and Q = {–2 < x ≤ 1}, find P × Q and derive relations which describe below:
(a) “is less then” (b) “is square of” (c) x + y = 2 (d) x2 = y + 1
4. If A = {2, 3, 4}, B = {4, 9, 16, 25} and relation R : A → B is defined by “is square root of
”, represent the relation R by the following methods.
(a) Roster (b) Set-builder (c) Tabulation (d) Mapping diagram (f) Graphic
5. Which as the following relation is function?
(a) {(2, 5), (5, 8), (1, 4), (1, 6)} (b) {(3, 5), (4, 7), (5, 7), (1, 6)}
6. Find the domain, range and inverse of the following functions.
(a) {(2, 3), (4, 5), (6, 7), (8, 9)} (b) {(5, 4), (6, 5), (7, 6), (8, 7)}
3x – 1
7. (a) If the domain of the function h(x) = 2x + 1 is {0, 2, 7}, find its range.
(b) If the range of the function k(x) = 2x – 3 is {1, 5, 9}, find its domain.
2x2 – 1
8. (a) The function g is define as g: x→ 7 . If the pre-image of g is 5, find its image.
2x + 3
(b) Find the pre-image of 3 under the function f: x → 3 .
9. If the function f is given by f(x) = 3x + 4, find the following:
f(3 + h) – f(3)
(a) f(0) (b) f(–2) (c) h
10. (a) If f(x) = 2x2 + 3, then prove f(a) = f(–a).
(b) Show that h(a) = h(–a) if the function g is defined as g(x) = 3x4 + 2x2 – 3.
11. If the polynomial p(x) be 5x4y + 3x3y2 – 4x2y3 + 2xy – 1 then,
(a) Write the numerical coefficient of x3y2? (b) What is the literal coefficient of y3?
(c) Write down the constant term. (d) What is the degree of polynomial?
12. (a) Subtract p(x) = 3x3y2z + 3x2y3z2 – 4xy3z3 from the sum of
q(x) = 2x2y3z2 + 3xy3z3 – 2x3y2z and r(x) = 3xy3z3 + 3x2y3z2 + x3y2z.
(b) What must be subtracted from 2ax3y2 – 3bx2y3 + 3c to get ax3y2 + 2b x2y3 – 4c?
13. Simplify: (a) (3x2 + 2x) (3x + 2) + ( 2x3 – 2x2 + 6x + 3)
(b) (2x2y – 3xy + 1) (xy – 1) – (3x3y2 + 3x2y + 4x2y2 + 4xy)
14. (a) Divide (3x3 + 4x2 – 3x + 2) by (x + 2) and write the degree of quotient.
(b) What must be multiplied to (3x3 – 2x2 + 4x – 1) to get ( 3x4 + 2x3 + 8x2 + 7x – 2)?

214 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

15. Divide the following polynomials by using synthetic division method. Also, find the
quotient and remainder.
(a) p(x) = 5x2 + 2x + 3 by d(x) = x – 2
(b) g(x) = 2x3 – 3x2 + x + 4 by d(x) = x – 1
(c) f(x) = 4x3 + 3x – 4 by g(x) = x + 1
(d) – 3x3 + 5x2 + 4 by d(x) = 3x + 1
16. (a) Find the value of p(x) = 5x3 – 3x2 + 2x + 1 at x = – 1 by using synthetic division
method.
(b) Find the value of g(x) = 2x3 + 3x – 1 at x = 3 by using synthetic division method.
17. (a) If the polynomial p(x) = 2x3 – 4x2 – x + 2k is exactly divided by d(x) = x – 2, find the
value of k.
(b) What is the value of a when p(x) = 3x3 – 4x + 3 + a is divisible by x – 2, the remainder
will be 12?
(c) If f(x) = 2x3 + x2 + 2kx – 2 and f(– 2) = 2, find the value of k.
18. Identify the following sequences as linear or quadratic:
(a) 15, 19, 23, 27, ………. (b) 4, 10, 18, 28, ………………….
(c) 28, 25, 22, 19, …….…. (d) 1000, 987, 962, 922, ……..
19. Write down the next three terms and find the 30th term and 50th term of the following
linear sequences.
(a) 24, 30, 36, 42, …………. (b) 5, –1, –7, –13, ………………….
20. Draw the next one figure just after the following pattern.

(a) , , , ______, ......... (b) , , , ______, ..........

Also, find the number of dots in the 20th figure in the same pattern.
21. Find the first four terms of the sequences whose nth term is given below.
(a) tn = 4n + 3; (b) tn = 8 – 2n.
22. Write down the series of the following sequences.
(a) 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, ……… (b) 65, 58, 51, 44, 37, 30
23. Write the following summation forms into expanded form and find their values.
5 8
(a) ∑ (2n – 1) (b) ∑ (–1)n (5n – 4)
n=2 n=4

Project Work
Request your family member who is saving continuously some money per day in the local
cooperative or finance company. If nobody saves any money to save such cooperative or
finance, ask a shopkeeper nearby your home. If he/she saves money, how much does
he/she save in 30th day?

Appendix - B 215
 HOME ASSESSMENT - 2 (LIMIT)
1. Find the general term of the following sequences and also find their twentieth term. Also, find
out the approximately last term when their number of terms are increased countable infinite.
9 9 9 1 1 1 1
(a) 9, 10, 100, 1000, ........................ (b) 10, 100, 1000, 10000, ........................
(c) 9.9, 9.99, 9.999, ........................ (d) 2.51, 2.501, 2.5001, ........................
2. What are the limit of the following sequences?
(a) 3.9, 3.99, 3.999, ........................ (b) 5.01, 5.001, 5.0001, .......................
3. Write the sequences obtained from the following general terms and convert into decimal
form. Write their limits when n is countable infinitely large number.
1 2
(a) 5n (b) 3n – 1
D C
4. (a) Draw a line segment of the length 10 cm. Bisect the line segment 6 times
towards 10 and show them in a number line. When it bisects 50 times,
what is the value of the 50th midpoint? Find the limit of the sequence.
(b) Write the sequences of the sides, perimeters and areas of the squares
A 6 cm B
formed by joining the midpoints of the successive sides of the given
square ABCD having side 6 cm. Write their limits.
(c) A 200 ml glass has full of juice. A boy drinks half of the
juice at once in each drink. At what times does he finish
the glass of juice? What amount of juice remains in the
glass at last?
1
5. (a) If tn = 2n – 1 is the nth term of a sequence, find S1, S2, S3, S4 and S5.
2n
(b) If the nth term of a sequence is 3 + n2 + n, find the values of the first six terms and the
partial sums up to 6 terms.
6. (a) What is the sum of the odd number of the terms of the infinite series 2 – 2 + 2 – 2 + .....?
(b) What is the sum of the even number of the terms of the infinite series having the nth term
(– 1)n
3(– 1)n – 3 ?
∞ n ∞
1 1 1
7. Find the sum of the following infinite series: (a) Σ
n=1 2
(b) Σ
n=1
+
3n 5n
2x – 1 3 2
8. (a) What are the values of the function f(x) = at x = 1, 2.09, and ?
4 2 5
(b) In which whole number rounds off the value of f(2.001) in the function f(x) = 2x2 + 1.567?
1–x
9. Does the value of g(1) denote a fixed real number in the function g(x) = ? For this,
2–x–1
perform the following questions:
(a) What are the values of g(x) at x = 0.9, 0.99, 0.999 and 0.9999?
(b) What are the values of g(x) at x = 1.1, 1.01, 1.001 and 1.0001?
(c) Can the values of g(x) that are calculated in (i) and (ii) express in whole numbers by
rounding off?
10. Estimate the limit numerically for the following functions:
x2 – 4 x2 + 2x – 3
(a) f(x) = at x = 2 (b) g(x) = at x = 1
x–2 x–1

216 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 HOME ASSESSMENT - 3 (MATRIX)
1 5 –1
1. If the matrix A = 3 0 9 then,
8 –4 –3
(a) Write down the elements in the second row of the matrix A.
(b) What is the number of elements in the matrix A?
(c) How many rows and columns are in the matrix A?
2. Find the order of the following matrices.
1 3
(a) [0 4] (b) (c) [1]
4 –1
5 2 6 –1 0 3 1 4 5 –4
(d) (e) (f) 1 1 –1
–1 4 –3 4 6 9 –2
0 0 8
3. Find the values of a11, a21, a32 and a13 in each matrices.
5 6 5 1 –1 0 1 12
(a) –1 –1 2 (b) (c) 2 40
7 0 8
5 –9 3 3 9
4. Construct a 2 × 2 matrix whose elements aij are given below.
(a) aij = i + 2j (b) aij = ji (c) aij = 3i – j3
5. Write the types of the following matrices.
1 0 0
(a) [–1 4] (b) (c) (d) [1]
0 0 0
1 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 0
(e) (f) (g) (h)
0 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 1
6. Find the value of x, y and z in each of the following cases.
2x – 1   3 
(a) 
 5y  =  10 
3x – 1 0   9 – 2x 0 
(c)  =
 7 2z + 1   2y + 1 1 
3 – 2x 4   12 – 5x 4 
(d)  =
 5 2z + 3   2x + y z – 4 
3 y + 3z –1 3 1 –1

(e) –1 0  
2 = –1 y – 4 2 
 3 3 1  1 3 3x – 2y 
b + 1 2c – 1 7
7. (a) For what values of a, b and c, the matrix is equal to the matrix
–1 9 a–4
0 3+c 7
?
–1 9 –2
2x – 3y 0 
(b) For what values of p and q, the matrix 
 3y + 2 1  is an identity matrix?
Appendix - B 217
 –3 5 5 –7
8. (a) If A = and B = , find 3A + 2B.
4 1 4 9
3 1 –1 2 0 1 0 –1 2
(b) If P = ,Q= and R = then find 4P – 5Q + R.
4 5 0 5 –1 2 4 0 –2
–3 1 5 0
9. (a) If M = and N = then prove that: M + N = M + N
5 3 1 –2
3 1 –1 2 0 1 0 –1 2
(b) If A = ,B= and C = then prove that.
4 5 0 5 –1 2 4 0 –2
(A + B ) – C = A + (B – C)
10. (a) If A = [4 –2 7], B = [–3 0 5] and k = 3 then prove that: k(A + B) = kA + kB.
5 –3
(b) If M = , c = 2 and k = 3 then prove that c(kM) = (ck)M.
8 0
3 4 9 8
11. (a) If 2A + = , find the matrix A.
1 2 7 8
7 –1 –1 3
(b) If P = ,Q= and 3P + 2R = Q, find the matrix R.
5 0 1 8
12. Find the values of a, b and c in the following cases.
2a 0 2+a 2 0 –2
(a) = +
2b + 1 3c – 2 4 1 1 0
x y x+1 3 2 y–2
(b) 3L + 2M = N, where L = ,M= and N =
0 z 3 y 6 1
3 3
13. (a) If A = and k = 4 then prove that: (kA)T = kAT
5 –1
3 4 5 1 –2 4
(b) If C = and D = then prove that: (C + D)T = CT + DT
1 0 –2 2 3 5
14. Find the determinant of the following matrices.
1 –2 6 4 a2 – b2 –2b2 cosec θ cot θ
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 4 5 3 2a2
a –b
2 2
cot θ cosec θ
5 4 0 –4
15. If P = and Q = , find the determinant of the followings matrices.
6 –1 2 1
(a) 3P + 2Q (b) 2P + QT (c) 2PT + 3QT.
Project Work
Look a purchased bill including quantity, rate and amount at your house and copy it in full page
of A4 paper. Write the answers of the following questions:
(i) Write a matrix obtained by the values of the records of amount. Name the type of matrix.
(ii) Write a matrix obtained by the values of the records of quantity, rate and amount. Name the type of matrix.
(iii) How many rows and columns are there in the matrix (ii) ?
(iv) Write the order of matrices obtained at the numbers (i) and (ii).
(v) What are the elements there in the second column? Write.

218 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 HOME ASSESSMENT – 4 (COORDINATE GEOMETRY)
1. In which axis do the given points lie? Also, show them in the Cartesian plane.
(a) (0, 7) (b) (–3, 0)
2. In which quadrant do the following points lie? Also, show them in the Cartesian plane.
(a) (4, –5) (b) (–1, 6)
3. Plot the following set of the points on the graph and name the figure formed by joining the
points in order.
(a) P(4, 1), Q(–1, 4) and R(–3, 1) (b) A(3, 0), B(6, 1), C(6, 3) and D(4, 3)
4. (a) If (1, –2), (4, 1) and (6, –1) are first three vertex of a rectangle then find the fourth vertex
of the rectangle by using graph paper.
(b) If (3, 2), (6, 4) and (5, 6) are three vertices of a parallelogram, find the coordinate of the
midpoint of its diagonals by using graph paper.
5. (a) Plot the point A(– 4, 3) and B(8, –2) on the graph and find the distance between them.
(b) Find the distance of the point (6, –8) from the origin.
6. (a) Find the length of the line segment which makes the x-intercept 3 units in left and
y-intercept 4 units in upward.
(b) If the distance between the points (–3, y) and (5, –2) is 10 units, find the value of y.
7. (a) Find the coordinate of the points on the x-axis whose distance from the point (4, –1) is 1 unit.
(b) Find the coordinate of the points on the y-axis which are at the distance of 5 units from the
point (–3, 7).
8. (a) Prove that the points (4, 4), (– 4, – 4) and (– 4 3 , 4 3 ) are the vertices of an equilateral triangle.
(b) Verify that the points P(– 4, 2), Q(–7, 2) and R(– 4, 6) are the vertices of a right-angled triangle.
9. (a) Prove that the quadrilateral with vertices (5, 4), (3, 6), (–1, 2) and (1, 0) is a rectangle.
(b) Verify that the points (1, –1), (2, –3), (–3, –5) and (– 4, –3) form a parallelogram.
10. (a) Prove that the points (0, 7), (3, 10), (0, 13) and (–3, 10) form a square.
(b) Prove that the parallelogram with vertices (1, 1), (4, –1), (1, –3) and (–2, –1) is a rhombus.
11. (a) Find the equation of the locus of a moving point so that its distance from the origin is
always 5 units.
(b) Find the equation of the locus of a point which moves such that its distance from x-axis is
5 units.
12. (a) Find the equation of the locus of a point which moves so that its abscissa is always 8 units.
(b) Find the equation of the locus of a point which moves so that its ordinate is 5 times its abscissa.
13. (a) Find the equation of the locus of a point which moves so that its distance from y-axis is
half of its distance from x-axis.
(b) Evaluate the equation of the locus of a point which always moves at a distance of 3 units
from the point (5, –1).
14. (a) Find the equation of the locus of a point which moves such that its distance from the point
(–2, 1) is twice as far as from the point (4, 1).
(b) Find the equation of the locus of a moving point which moves such that its distance from
y-axis is double of the distance from the point (3, 1).
15. (a) If the point (3, –2) lies on the locus whose equation is 2x – ky = 6, find the value of k.
(b) If the locus having the equation kx – 4y = 4 contains the points (– 4, 3), prove that another
point (2, –3) also contains on the same locus.
Appendix - B 219
16. (a) A(–1, 3) and B(2, –5) are fixed points. Find the equation of the locus of the moving point
P such that 3PA = 2PB.
(b) C(3, 0) and D(–3, –2) are two fixed points. Find the equation of the locus of the moving
point P such that PC2 = PD2 + CD2.
17. (a) Find the coordinates of a point which divides the line segment joining the points (4, –2) and
(4, 2) internally in the ratio 3:2.
(b) Find the coordinates of a point which divides externally the line joining the points A(3, 4)
and B(–2, 4) in the ratio 1:4.
18. (a) In what ratio does the point (4, 4) divide the line segment joining the points (1, 2) and (5, 3)?
(b) In what ratio the line joining the points (3, 5) and (–2, – 4) is divided by the y-axis?
19. (a) The point (x, –1) divides the line joining the points (3, 1) and (– 2, 4). Find the value of x.
(b) If the point P(3, y) divides the line segment joining the points A(2, 4) and B(7, 5) then find
the value of y.
20. (a) If A(3, 0) and C(5, 6) are the opposite vertices of a parallelogram ABCD, find the midpoint
of the diagonal BD.
(b) If (1, 4) is the midpoint of the line segment joining the points (p, 4) and (– 3, 6) then find
the value of p.
21. (a) Find the coordinates of two points which divide the line joining the points (5, 7) and (5, 1)
into three equal parts.
(b) Find the coordinates of two points which trisect line segment AB joining the points
A(– 3, – 3) and B(0, 6).
22. (a) Find the slope of the straight line which makes the angle 135° with x-axis in the positive
direction.
(b) Find the slope of the line joining points (– 4, 5) and (–2, 3). Also, find its angle of inclination.
23. (a) If the slope of the line passing through the points (2, k) and (3,–1) is 3, find the value of k.
(b) If the slope of the line passing through the points (4, –2) and (3a, 2) is 5, find the value of a.
24. (a) Prove that the points A(–1, 0), B(1, 1) and C(3, 4) are collinear.
(b) Prove that the points A(–10, 3), B(–7, 2) and C(2, –1) are collinear.
25. (a) Find the equation of the line parallel to the x-axis at the distance of the 3 units above it.
(b) Find the equation of the line parallel to the y-axis passing through the point (2, –3).
26. (a) Find the equation of the line that makes an angle of 30° with x-axis and cuts y-intercept
equal to 4 units.
2
(b) Find the equation of the line having the slope 3 and the y-intercept 4.
27. (a) Find the equation of the line passing through the origin and making the angle 45° with x-axis.
(b) Find the equation of the line parallel to x-axis and y-intercept = 5.
28. (a) Find the equation of the line making an angle of 60° with x-axis and passing through (1, 2).
(b) Find the slope, angle of inclination and y-intercept for which the line 3x – 2y + 5 = 0.

Project Work
Draw a rectangle in a graph paper with identifying the coordinates of the vertices and label it. Prove
the following properties:
(i) The opposite sides are equal. (ii) The length of the diagonals is equal.
(iii) Each angle is right angle.

220 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 HOME ASSESSMENT – 5 (TRIGONOMETRY)
1. Convert the given angles into degrees and seconds. (a) 24o35′05′′ (b) 45o35′40′′
2. Convert the given angles into centesimal system. (a) 54402.50' (d) 34.23056g
3. Reduce the given angles into degrees. (a) 70g (d) 8g05 40
4. Reduce the given angles into grades. (a) 55o47′ (b) 65o65′48′′
5. Reduce the given angles into sexagesimal system. (a) 15g25 48 (b) 69g35 74
6. Convert the given angles in centesimal system. (a) 40o05′75′′ (b) 75o35′30′′
7. Find the ratios of the given pair of angles. (a) 54o and 70g (b) 25g and 27o
8. One angle of a right-angled triangle is 40g. Find the remaining angle in degree.
9. One angle of a triangle is two-thirds of the right angle. If the remaining two angles are in
the ratio 1:2, find all the angles in circular measure.
10. The angles of a quadrilateral are in the ratio of 1:2:2:1. Find the angles in grades.
11. Find the sum of interior angles of the Heptagon.
12. Find the angle made by two hands of a clock at half past 2 O'clock.
13. Write down the trigonometric ratios of the angles α and β in the following figures.
(a) D (b) K N

β
A

α
β
α L M
B C
14. In the following right-angled triangle, find the fundamental trigonometric ratios of
the angle θ.
(a) A 15 (b) S
D
P
10 β 4
17 12
B θ θ
C
Q 13 R
15. (a) If 5cos A = 4, find the values of other trigonometric ratios.
cos θ + sin θ
(b) If 5cos θ = 12sin θ, find the value of 13sin θ – cos θ.
(c) If 13 – 12 cosecA = 0, find the value of 3cosA + 2tanA.

Appendix - B 221
16. (a) If 1 – 2cos θ = 0, prove that: 3sin θ – 4sin3 θ = 0
cos A + 4 1 – cot2 A 7
(b) If cos A = 6, prove that: 2 cot A = – 24
x –1
(c) If cos θ = , prove that: tan θ = 2 x
x+1 x–1
17. Simplify:
(a) sin θ(sin θ + cos θ) + cos θ(cos θ – sin θ) – 2sin θ.cos θ
(b) 3tan α(cot α.cosec α + 2cosec α) – cot α(tan α.sec α + 6sec α)
138. Factorize:
(a) 8 – 2sin2 A (b) 54 – 2sin3 A (c) 7cos2 A – 22cos A + 3
(d) tan2 x – 5 + 6cot2 x (e) cos2 θ – 5cos θ – 6 (f) 21sec2 A + 5sec A – 4
19. Prove that:
1 1
(a) tan2 α – sin2 α = tan2 α.sin2 α (b) 1 + cos α + 1 – cos α = 2cosec α
2

1 – sin x 1 + sin x 1 – cosec θ sin θ –1

(c) 1 + sin x – 1 – sin x = –4tan x.sec x (d) 1 + cosec θ = sin θ +1
1 + cos A 1 + cos A 2(1 + cos A) 1 – tan x 1 – 2sin x.cos x
(e) 1 – sin A + 1 + sin A = cos2 A (f) 1 + tan x = cos2 x – sin2 x
20. Prove that:
sec2 x – 1
(a) (1 + cos A)2 – (1 – cos A)2 = 4cos A (b) sin2 x = sec x
2

2 – cos2 θ sin3 x – cos3 x

(c) sec4 θ – tan4 θ = cos2 θ (d) sin x – cos x = 1 + sin x.cos x
1 – sin θ sec A –1 sin A
(e) 1 + sin θ = sec θ – tan θ (f) sec A +1 = 1 + cos A

21. Find the value of:

4 2 o 4 2 o 1
(a) sin 60o.cos 30o + cos 60o.sin 30o (b) 3sin 60 + 3cos 45 – 2 cosec 30
2 o

πc πc πc πc πc
πc

(c) cosec2 4 . sec2 3 .(cosec 6 – cosec 2 ) (d) tan 4 – tan 6

πc πc
1 + tan 4 . tan 6
22. Prove that:
(a) cos(60o – 30o) = cos 60o.cos 30o + sin 60o.sin 30o
tan 60°– tan 30°
(b) tan(60o – 30o) = 1 + tan 60°.tan 30°
πc
πc 1 – tan2 6
(c) sin 6 = πc
1 + tan 6
2

πc πc πc
(d) cos 6 = sin2 – cos2
3 3

222 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

23. If θ = 30o and α = 45o then verify that:
2 tan α
(a) cos(θ + α) = sin θ.cos α + cos θ.sin α (b) sin2 α =
1 + tan2 α
2 tan θ
(e) tan 2θ = (c) cos2 α = 1 – 2sin2 α = 2cos2 α – 1
1 – tan2 θ
cot3 θ – 3cot θ
(d) cos 3θ = 4cos3 θ – 3cos θ (f) cot3 θ = 3cot2 θ – 1
24. Solve the following right-angled triangle if,
(a) ∠A = 30o, ∠C = 90o, AB = 5 (b) ∠B + ∠C = 90o, a = 6, b = 3 2
25. (a) In right-angled triangle, the sides containing the right angle are 6 cm and 6 3 cm.
Find the hypotenuse and acute angles
(b) In the right-angled triangle, the side opposite to 30o is 6 cm. Solve the triangle.
26. The angle of depression of a point on the ground from the roof of the house with the height
of 15 m is found to be 60o. What is the distance of the point from the house?
27. The angle of elevation of the top of a column from a point at a distance of 100 m from its
foot on the horizontal plane is found to be 30o. Find the height of the column.
28. What is the altitude of the sun when a pole casts the shadow of 3 times longer than the
height of the pole?
29. A 1.42 m tall man observes the top of a tower from a distance of 175 m away from it. If he
is found to be 45o of angle of elevation, find the height of the tower.
30. A 125 m long string of a kite flying by a boy makes an angle of 60o with horizontal line.
Find the height of the kite from the ground if the height of the boy is 1.3 m.
31. A tower of the bank of a river is of 225 m high and the angle of elevation of the top of the
tower from the opposite bank is 30o. Find the breadth of the river.
32. The upper part of a straight tree broken by the wind makes an angle of 60o with plain
surface at point 25 m away from the foot of the tree. Find the length of the broken part of
the tree and the height of the tree before broken.

Project Work
Draw a right-angled triangle on the chart paper. Measure the length of its legs and find the measure of
its acute angles without using protractor.

Appendix - B 223
 HOME ASSESSMENT – 6 (VECTOR)
1. Write down the column vectors of the following directed line segments.
(a) (b) T (c) (d)
Q M

A B
N
S
P

2. Represent the following vectors on separate squared grid.

–2 –2
(a) AB = 0 (b) PQ = –3
3. Find the position vectors as the column vector of the following points and show it in
the graph:
(a) A(2, 0) (b) B(–2, 3)

4. Find the magnitude and direction of position vectors of the following points.
(a) A(4, – 2) (b) B(0, – 4)

5. Write down the column vectors joining the following pair of points.
(a) A(–1, 3) and B(5, 1) (b) P(–3, 2) and Q(4, –2)

6. Find the magnitude and direction of the vectors joining the following pair of
points.
(a) P(3, 2) and Q(–3, 4) (b) M(2, 0) and N(4, –1)

7. Find the unit vectors along the following vectors.

4 –1
(a) P = –3 (b) AB = –2

8. Write down the negative vector of the following vectors.

3 –2
(a) a = –2 (b) p = 4
9. (a) Prove that AB = CD for the points A(1, 2), B(1, 4), C(–2, –3) and D(–2, –1).
–5 1
(b) Show that the vectors PQ = 10 and RS = –2 are parallel.
3
10. (a) If P(–1, 3) and PQ = 2 , find the coordinate of Q.

(b) If P(3, –2), Q(3, k), R(l, 2), S(0, 2) and PQ = RS , find the values of k and l.
224 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8
 4 –6 0
11. If a = –2 , b = 2 and c = 2 , find the following operations:
(a) a + b (b) b + c (c) a + b + c
3 0 –3
12. If p = –1 , q = 3 and r = 5 , find the following operations.

(a) p – q (b) q – r (c) p – q – r

3 –4 5
13. If m = –1 , n = 2 and l = 2 , find the following operations.

(a) 3m (b) 2m + 5 n (c) 4m – 2 n + 3l

6 –9 5
14. If m = –2 , n = 6 and l = 10 , find the following operations:
1 1 1 1 1
(a) 2m (b) 3 n + l (c) 2m – 3 n + 5l

15. (a) If the vector a displaces A(4, –3) to B(1, 1) and the vector b displaces B(–2, 3)
to C(0, –3), find the unit vector along (i) ( a + b ) and (ii) ( a – b ).

(b) If AB shifts A(3, 2) to B(0, 3) and CD shifts C(3, –2) to D(–1, 4), find the unit
vector along (i) AB + CD and (ii) AB – CD.

Project Work
Draw a right-angled triangle on the graph paper. Find the column vectors of its each side and find the
measure of its acute angles by using vector method.

Appendix - B 225
 HOME ASSESSMENT – 7 (TRANSFORMATION)
1. Translate the following points by the given translation vector.
1 0
(a) A(3, –1) by 2 (b) B(0, –3) by –1

2. (a) If the image of the point (– 2, 5) is (1, – 3) under certain translation vector, find the
image of the point (– 4, – 1) by the same translation vector.
4
(b) If (2p – 3, 7) is the image of the point (5, 3q + 1) under the translation vector 6 , find
the values of p and q.
3. (a) Plot the vertices A(– 3, 3), B(– 1, 3), C(– 4, 3) and D(0, 3) of the quadrilateral ABCD
on the graph and find the coordinates of the vertices of its respective image under the
2
translation vector –1 . Also, draw the quadrilateral ABCD and its image on the same
graph.
(b) Find the coordinates of the vertices of the image of the parallelogram ABCD with the
5
vertices A(–3, 1), B(1, 1), C(2, –2) and D(–2, –2) under the translation vector –3 and
draw this translation on the graph paper.
4. Reflect the following points in x-axis, y-axis, x – y = 0 and x + y = 0:
(a) (–2, 4) (b) (5, –1) (c) (0, 3) (d) (–2, – 6) (e) (–2, 0)
5. (a) The image of A(4a – 7, 3b + 2) under the reflection on the x-axis is A'(2a + 1, 3a – b).
Find the values of a and b.
(b) For what reflecting axis, the image of a point (2, – 4) is (–2, – 4)?
6. (a) Reflect ∆ABC having the vertices A(4, 5), B(1, 6) and C(3, 1) in y-axis by using
graph. Write down the coordinates of the vertices of the image ∆A'B'C' of ∆ABC.
(b) The rhombus PQRS having the vertices P(1, 0), Q(4, 1), R(1, 2) and S(– 2, 1) is
reflected in the x + y = 0. Find the coordinates of the image with the vertices of the
rhombus PQRS and represent the above reflection in the same graph.
7. Find the image of the following point about the origin through the given instructions.
(a) A(– 4, 2); R[O; + 90o] (b) B(– 3, – 2); positive third quarter turn
(c) C(– 3, 6); half turn (d) D(5, 6); full turn.
8. (a) If the image of a point (2x, y – 1) is (– 2, – 1) under the rotation through 180o about
the origin, find the values of x and y.
(b) If the image of a point (–3, 5) is (3, –5) under the rotation through certain angle about
the origin, find the angle of rotation. Also, find the image of the point (– 2, 4) under
the same rotation.

226 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

9. (a) If the vertices of ∆ABC are A(3, 2), B(5, 2) and C(4, 5), find the coordinates of the
vertices of the image ∆A'B'C' of ∆ABC under the rotation R[O; 90o]. Represent the
above rotation in the graph.
(b) Find the coordinates of the vertices of the image of a square PQRS with the vertices
P(2, 0), Q(4, 1), R(3, 3) and S(1, 2) under the rotation of [(0, 0); –180o] and represent
this information in the same graph.
10. Enlarge the following points by the given enlargement.
1
(a) P(1, – 2) by E[O; 3] (b) R(– 6, 9) by E[(0, 0); 3 ]
(c) S(2, 4) by E(0, 0); – 2]
11. (a) If the image of (2x, y) under the enlargement with centre as origin and scale factor 2
is (12, 4), find the values of x and y.
(b) The point P(– 6, 8) maps with P'(3, – 4) under the enlargement with centre as origin.
Find the coordinates of the image of the line segment AB joining the points A(–5, 4)
and B(3, 5).
12. (a) Enlarge ∆ABC with vertices A(3, 1), B(4, – 3) and C(– 1, 1) from the origin with scale
factor 2. Write down the coordinates of the vertices of the image of ∆ABC and show
the above transformation in the graph.
(b) The vertices of a unit square KLMN are K(0, 0), L(1, 0), M(1, 1) and N(0, 1). Write
down the coordinates of the vertices of the image of the square KLMN under the
1
enlargement with centre as origin and scale factor 12. Represent the above enlargement
on the same graph.
13. (a) A(1, 0), B(3, 2), C(1, 4) and D(–1, 2) are the vertices of a square ABCD. Find the
coordinates of the vertices of the image of the square ABCD under the reflection in
the line x – y = 0. Draw the square ABCD and its image on the same graph.
(b) A kite PQRS having the vertices P(0, 1), Q(1, 3), R(–1, 2) and S(–3, 1) is rotated by
R[(0, 0); + 270o]. Find the coordinates of the vertices of the image of the kite PQRS
and represent it on the same graph.

Project Work
Draw a triangle ABC in any shape on the graph paper and follow the following activities in the same
graph paper and find the coordinates of the vertices of the images.
(i) Reflect the triangle in the x-axis and name the image ∆A1B1C1.
(ii) Rotate the image ∆A1B1C1 about the origin through + 90° and name the image ∆A2B2C2.
(iii) Enlarge the image ∆A2B2C2 with centre (0, 0) and the scale factor 2 and name the image ∆A3B3C3.
3
(iv) Translate the image ∆A3B3C3 by the vector
2 and name the image ∆A4B4C4.

Appendix - B 227
 HOME ASSESSMENT – 8 (STATISTICS)
1. Find the median from the following data.
(a) 29 cm, 18 cm, 9 cm, 45 cm, 27 cm, 45 cm, 40 cm (b) 34, 24, 34, 29, 58, 72, 60
2. Find the median from the following data.
(a) Wages (in Rs.) 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
No. of Workers 6 8 5 4 9 6 4
(b) Ages (in yrs.) 14 20 17 23 8 11
No. of students 9 8 6 4 5 3
3. Find the median from the following data.
(a) Weight ( in kg) 0–5 5–10 10–15 15–20 20–25 25–30
No. of people 5 8 7 3 8 9
(b) Classes 0–10 10–20 20–30 30–40 40–50
Frequency 6 8 4 9 3
4. Find the first quartile and third quartile from the following data.
(a) 45, 49, 59, 62, 70, 73, 78
(b) 29, 32, 38, 43, 50, 54, 67, 75
(c) 18, 29, 24, 12, 24, 17
5. Calculate Q1 and Q3 from the data below:
(a) x 19 29 39 49 59
f 5 4 9 10 3
(b) Ages (in yrs.) 26 34 14 27 30 45
No. of students 32 29 34 30 24 41
6. Find the quartiles of the following series.
(a) Heights (in meter) 20–25 25–30 30–35 35–40 40–45
No. of trees 8 12 10 7 5
(b) Obtained marks 4–8 8–12 16–20 24–28 20–24 12–16
No. of students 9 8 6 4 10 12
7. Find the range and its coefficient from the following data:
(a) Obtained marks: 35, 38, 48, 55, 67, 85, 87, 92, 95
(b) Volume (in cm3) : 22, 28, 35, 25, 45, 55, 32, 35
8. Calculate the range and the coefficient of range from the following data:
(a) Height (inch) 5.7 5.8 6.2 6.3 6.5 6.7 6.9 7.5
No. of plants 5 12 10 18 9 15 14 8

228 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 (b) Male 7 8 10 12 15 18
No. of Children 4 5 10 8 9 5

9. Calculate the range and its coefficient from the data given below:
(a) Wages (Rs.) 400-500 500-600 600-700 700-800 800-900 900-1000
No. of Labour 6 5 13 12 15 15
(b) Height (cm) 12 - 15 15 - 18 18 - 21 21 - 24 24 - 27 27 - 30
No. of Shoe 105 190 250 223 135 150
10. (a) The highest obtained mark among 30 students in Science is 92 and their range is 65.
Find the lowest obtained mark and the coefficient of range among them.
(b) In a data, the range is 250 and the coefficient of range is 0.25. Find the maximum and
maximum values.
11.(a) If the median of the series 12, 15, x -13, 17, x + 2 is 5, find the range and its coefficient.
(b) The weight of 7 gas cylinders of two gas companies S and N are as follows:
Cylinder S: 28 kg, 28.5 kg, 27.5 kg, 29.2 kg, 27.5 kg, 30.1 kg, 29.5 kg
Cylinder N: 27.5 kg, 28.3 kg, 29.5 kg, 29.7 kg, 30.8 kg, 27.2 kg, 28.5 kg
Use range and its coefficient, state which company has less variability in weight of gas?
12. Find the inter-quartile range, quartile deviation and coefficient of quartile deviation
from the following data:
(a) Share stock (Rs.) : 825, 630, 720, 830, 950, 890, 780
(b) Height (ft.) : 12, 15, 17, 20, 14, 20, 21, 25
13. Calculate the quartile deviation and its coefficient from the given data:
(a) Obtained Marks 48 52 57 60 64 70
No. of Students 5 7 2 6 2 3
(b) Length (cm) 14.7 15.2 17.2 15.4 14.5 13.5 18.2
No. of Mobiles 2 4 6 3 7 5 4

14. Find the quartile deviation and its coefficient from the data given below:
(a) Height (Inch) 5 – 15 15 – 25 25 – 35 35 – 45 45 – 55 55 – 65
No. of Children 3 5 8 4 5 7
(b) Marks 12 – 14 14 – 16 16 – 18 18 – 20 20 – 22 22 – 24 24 – 26
No. of Students 5 8 10 15 10 15 13
State which has more variation by using the coefficient of quartile deviation.

Appendix - B 229
 ANSWERS
HOME ASSESSMENT - 1
1. (a) 2, 0 (b) 0, 2 2. (a) {(a, 4), (a, 5), (b, 4), (b, 5), (c, 4), (c, 5)}
(b) {(4, a), (4, b), (4, c), (5, a), (5, b), (5, c)}
(c) {(a, a), (a, b),(a, c), (b, a), (b, b), (b, c), (c, a), (c, b), (c, c)}.
3. {(0, –1), (0, 0), (0, 1), (1, –1), (1, 0), (1, 1), (2, –1), (2, 0), (2, 1)}
(a) {(0, 1)} (b) {(0, 0), (1, – 1), (1, 1)} (c) {(1, 1), (2, 0)} (d) {(0, -1), (1, 0)}
4. (a){(2, 4), (3, 9), (4, 16)} (b) {(x, y): x ∈ A, y ∈ B and x = y}
(c), (d) and (e) Show to your teacher. 5. (a) Not function (b) Function
6. (a) Domain = {2, 4, 6, 8}, Range = {3, 5, 7, 9}; Inverse, R = {(3, 2), (5, 4), (7, 6), (9, 8)}.
-1

(b) Domain = {5, 6, 7, 8}, Range = {4, 5, 6, 7}; Inverse, R-1 = {(4, 5), (5, 6), (6, 7), (7, 8)}.
4
7. (a) {–1, 1, 3 } (b) {2, 4, 6} 8. (a) 7 (b) 3 9. (a) 4 (b) –2 (c) 3
11. (a) 3 (b) x 2
(c) –1 (d) 5 12. (a) 2x y z + 10xy z – 4 x y z (b) ax y – 5bx2y3 + 7c
2 3 2 3 3 3 2 3 2

13. (a) 11x + 10x + 10x + 3 (b) – x3y2 – 5x2y2 – 7x2y –1.
3 2

14. (a) 3x2 – 2x + 1 (b) x + 2

2 14
15. (a) 5x + 1, 27 (b) 2x2 – x, 4 (c) 4x2 – 4x + 7, –11 (d) –x2 + 2x – 3 , 2
16. (a) – 9 (b) 62 17. (a) 1 (b) – 7 (c) – 4
18. Linear sequences: (a), (c); Quadratic sequences: (b), (d)
19. (a) 48, 54, 60, t30 = 198, t50 = 318; (b) –19, –25, –31, t30 = – 169, t50 = – 289.
20. (a) t20 = 115 (b) t20 = 41 21. (a) 7, 11, 15, 19 (b) 6, 4, 2, 0
22. (a) 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 ... (b) 65 + 58 + 51 + 44 + 37 23. (a) 24 (b) 26
HOME ASSESSMENT - 2
9 1 1 5 1
1. (a) 10n-1, 9×10-19, 0 (b) 10n, 10-20, 0 (c) 10 – 10n, (1021–1)×10-20, 10 (d) 2 + 10n+1, 2.5+10-21, 2.5
1 1 1 1
2. (a) 4 (b) 5 3. (a) 5, 25, 125, 625, ...........; 0.2, 0.04, 0.008, 0.0016; 0
1 1 1 1
(b) 5, 25, 125, 625, ...........; 0.2, 0.04, 0.008, 0.0016; 0
4. (a) 8.882 × 10-15; 0 (b) 3, 1.5, 0.75, 0.375, ... ; 12, 6, 3, 1.5, ...; 9, 2.25, 0.5625, 0.140625, ...; 0, 0, 0
(c) Countable infinite times; 0
5. (a) 1, 1.333, 1.533, 1.676, 1.787 (b) 4, 7.8, 11.4, 14.87, 18.26, 21.58 6. (a) 2 (b) 0
1 1 1
7. (a) 1 (b) 0.75 8. (a) 4, – 0.205, 2, – 20 (b) 9.575002
9. No, (a) 2.0488, 2.00499, 2.004999, 2.00004999
(b) 1.9487, 1.99499, 1.999499, 1.9999499 (c) Yes, 2 10. (a) 4 (b) 4

HOME ASSESSMENT - 3
1. (a) 3, 0, 9 (b) 9 (c) 3, 3
2. (a) 1 × 2 (b) 2 × 2 (c) 1 × 1 (d) 2 × 3 (e) 2 × 4 (f) 3 × 3
3 5 1 1 2 –5
3. (a) 5, –1, –9, 5 (b) 1, 7, 0 (c) 1, 1, 9 4. (a) (b) (c)
4 6 2 4 5 –2
5. (a) Rectangular and row (b) Rectangular and column
(c) Square and zero (d) Square & Identity (e) Rectangular
(f) Scalar and square (g) Identity and square (h) Square

230 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

6. (a) 2, 2 (b) 2, 3, 0 (c) 3, –1, –7 (d) 3, 4, –1
1 2 1 1 2 3 –7
7. (a) 2, -1, 4 (b) –2, –3 8. (a) (b)
20 21 –5 25 –12
3 2 –11 3
11. (a) (b) 12. (a) 2, 2 ,1 (b) 0, – 4, 3
3 3 –7 4
14. (a) 8 (b) – 2 (c) (a + b)2 (d) 1 15. (a) –103 (b) – 90 (c) 82

HOME ASSESSMENT - 4
1. (a) y-axis (b) x-axis 2. (a) Fourth (b) Second 4. (a) (3, – 4) (b) (4, 4)
5. (a) 13 units (b) 10 units 6. (a) 5 units (b) 4 or –8
7. (a) (4, 0) (b) (0, 3), (0, 11) 11. (a) x2 + y2 – 25= 0 (b) y – 5 = 0
12. (a) x – 8 = 0 (b) 5x – y = 0 13. (a) 2x – y = 0 (b) x2 + y2 – 10x + 2y + 17 = 0
14. (a) 3x + 3y – 36x – 6y + 63 = 0
2 2
(b) 3x + 4y – 24x – 8y + 40 = 0
2 2

15. (a) 0 (b) – 4 16. (a) 5x + 5y + 34x – 14y – 26 = 0

2 2
(b) 3x + y + 11 = 0
11 21
17. (a) (4, 0) (b) (5, 4) 18. (a) 3:1 (b) 2:1 19. (a) (b)
3 5
20. (a) (4, 3) (b) 5 21. (a) (5, 5), (5, 3) (b) (– 2, 0), (– 2, 3)
8
22. (a) – 1 (b) –1, 315° 23. (a) – 4 (b)
5
25. (a) y – 3 = 0 (b) x – 2 = 0 26. (a) x – 3 y + 4 3 = 0 (b) 2x – 3y + 12 = 0
3 3 5
27. (a) x – y = 0 (b) y – 5 = 0 28. (a) 3 x – y + 2 – 3 = 0 (b) , tan-1 2 ,
2   2

HOME ASSESSMENT - 5

1. (a) 24.584722°, 88505'' (b) 45.59444°, 164140'' 2. (a) 544g02 50 (b) 34g23 05.6

3. (a) 63° (b) 7.605° 4. (a) 61.98148g (b) 66.09667g

5. (a) 13°43'45.55'' (b) 62°25'17.98'' 6. (a) 44g56 01.85 (b) 83g99 07.41
� 2� 4� 1g 1g 1g 1g
7. (a) 6:7 (b) 5:6 8. 54° 9. 3 , 9 , 9 10. 333 , 663 , 663 , 333
4 3 4 3 4 3
11. 9000 12. 1050 14. (a) 5, 5, 3 (b) 5, 5, 4
3 3 4 5 5 17 62
15. (a) 5, 4, 3, 4, 3 (b) 53 (c) 565 17. (a) (sin θ – cos θ)2 (b) 5sec α – 3cosec α )

18. (a) 2(2 + sin A)(2 – sin A) (b) 2(3 – sin A)(9 + 3sin A + sin2 A) (c) (cos A – 3)(7cos A – 1)

(d) (tan x – 3cot x)(tan x – 2cot x) (e) (cos (θ – 6) (cos θ + 1) (f) (7sec A + 4)(3sec A – 1)

1 1 5 3
21. (a) 1 (b) – 3 (c) 8 (d) 2 – 3 24. (a) 60°, 22, 2 (b) 90°, 45°, 45°, 3 2
100
25. (a) 12, 30°, 60° (b) 60°, 12 cm, 6 3 cm 26. 5 3cm 27. 28. 30°
3
29. 176.42 m 30. 109.55 m 31. 225 3 m 32. 50 m, 25 3 m

Appendix - B 231
 HOME ASSESSMENT - 6
6 2 4 –5
1. (a) (b) (c) (d) 2. Show to your teacher.
6 –6 0 3
2 –2 6 7
3. (a) (b) 4. (a) 2 5 units; 153.43° (b) 4 units; 90° 5. (a) (b)
0 3 –2 –4
4/5
6. (a) 2 10 units, 153.43° (b) 5 units, 333.43° 7. (a) (b) –1/ 5
–3/5 –2/ 5
–3 2 –2 –6 –2
8. (a)
2 (b) –4 10. (a) (2, 5) (b) -2, 0 11. (a)
1 (b) 2 (c)
3
3 3 6 0 –20 23 3 2 7
12. (a)
–4 (b) –2 (c) –9 13. (a) –6 (b) 6 (c) –6 14. (a) –1 (b) 12 (c) –1
–1/ 5 –1/ 5 –1/ 2 –1/ 26
15. (a) (i) (ii) (b) (i) (ii)
–2/ 5 2/ 5 2/ 2 2/ 26

HOME ASSESSMENT - 7
4 0 –1
1. (a) (b) 2. (a) (b) 6, 0
1 –4 –9
3. (a) A'(–1, 2), B'(1, 2), C'(–2, 2), D'(2, 2) (b) A'(2, –2), B'(6, –2), C'(7, –5), D'(3, –5)
4. (a) (–2, –4), (2, 4), (4, –2), (–4, 2) (b) (5, 1), (–5, –1), (–1, 5), (1, –5)
(c) (0, –3), (0, 3), (3, 0), (–3, 0) (d) (–2, 6), (2, –6), (–6, –2), (6, 2)
(e) (–2, 0), (2, 0), (0, –2), (0, 2) 5. (a) 4, –7 (b) y–axis
6. (a) A'(–4, 5), B'(–1, 6), C'(–3, 1) (b) P'(0, –1), Q'(–1, – 4), R'(–2, –1), S'(–1, 2)
7. (a) A'(–2, –4) (b) B'(–2, 3) (c) C'(3, –6) (d) D'(5, 6)
8. (a) 1, 2 (b) ±180°, (2, –4)
9. (a) A'(–2, 3), B'(–2, 5), C'(–5, 4) (b) P'(–2, 0), Q'(–4, –1), R'(–3, –3), S'(–1, –2)
10. (a) P'(3, –6) (b) R'(–2, 3) (c) S'(– 4, –8)
11. (a) 3, 2 (b) A'(10, –8), B'(– 6, –10)
1 1 1 1
12. (a) A'(6, 2), B'(8, –6), C'(–2, 2) (b) K'(0, 0), L' 12, 0 , M' 12, 12 , N' 0, 12
13. (a) A'(0, 1), B'(1, 3), C'(4, 1), D'(2, – 1) (b) P'(1, 0), Q'(3, – 1), R'(2, 1), S'(1, 3)

HOME ASSESSMENT - 8
1. (a) 29 cm (b) 34 2. (a) 450 (b) 17 3. (a) 15 (b) 22.5
4. (a) 49, 73 (b) 33.5, 63.75 (c) 15.75, 25.25
5. (a) 29, 49 (b) 26, 34 6. (a) 26.04, 36.04 (b) 9.63, 20.7
7. (a) 60, 0.46 (b) 33, 0.43 8. (a) 1.8, 0.14 (b) 11, 0.44
9. (a) 600, 0.43 (b) 18, 0.43 10. (a) 27, 0.55 (b) 1625, 375
11. (a) 8, 0.25 (b) S 12.(a) 170, 85, 0.106 (b) 6.5, 3.25, 0.186
13. (a) 4, 0.071 (b) 1.35, 0.085 14. (a) 14.594, 0.366 (b) 3.025, 0.149

232 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 APPENDIX - C
BLE MODEL QUESTION SET
Class: 8
Subject: Opt. Mathematics Time: 1 hr 30 minutes FM: 100
As far as practicable candidates are required to give their answers in their
own words according to the given instructions.
Attempt all the questions.
GROUP “A” [5 × (1 + 1) = 10]
1. (a) In which condition two ordered pairs are equal?
(b) Define binomial.
2. (a) What is the approximately last term of the sequence 1.1, 1.01, 1.001, ........ ?
(b) Write the order of the matrix [1 2 4]?
3. (a) What is the coordinates of the midpoint of a line segment joining the points (4, 2) and (8, 4)?
(b) Write down the equation of a line parallel to the y-axis and having x-intercept 3 units.
4. (a) How many seconds are there in a grade ?
(b) List the pairs of reciprocal trigonometric ratios.
5. (a) What is the column vector of PQ in the P
given graph?
(b) Write down the coordinates of the image of
a point (2, 4) under translation by the vector
 2 . Q
 –1 
GROUP “B” [2 × (2 + 2) + 2 × (2 + 2 + 2) = 26]
6. (a) Find a and b if (2a – 1, 3) = (5, 3 – 4b).
(b) Find the first four terms of the sequences whose nth term is 3n – 5.
(c) What must be subtracted from 5x2y4 – 3x2y4 + 3yz3 to get 2x2y4 + 4x2y4 – 3yz3?
7. (a) Construct a 2×2 matrix whose element is aij = i3 + 2j.
5x – 7   3 
(b) Find the value of x and y if 
 3y + 1  =  7 .
8. (a) Find the length of the line segment, which makes the x-intercept 6 units and y-intercept
8 units.
(b) If the slope of the line passing through the points (2, 2a) and (3, –1) is 3, find the value of a.
9. (a) Convert the angle 45g65'50'' into degrees.
(b) Prove that: (1 – sin2 θ) (1 + cot2 θ) = 1
(c) Find the length of AC in the right-angled triangle ABC if ∠A = 30o, ∠C = 90o, AB = 5 cm.
10. (a) Find the magnitude and direction of position vector of the point A(4, –2).
2 1 –2
(b) If a =  , b =   and c =  , find a – b + c .
 –3  4 4
(c) Find the range of the following data:

Appendix - C 233
 x 8 6 12 18 21 24 28 30
f 12 13 10 14 10 12 15 13
GROUP “C” [11 × 4 = 44]
11. If P = {0 ≤ x < 3} and Q = {–2 < y ≤ 1}, find P × Q by using table and find the relation R
which describes x2 = y + 1.
12. If the range of the function f(x) = 2x – 3 is {1, 5, 9}, find its domain. Show the function f
in the mapping diagram and graph.
1
13. Find the sum of infinite series having the nth term 2n.
4 0 1 7 3 1 –3 –1 0
14. If A = ,B= and C = then prove that:
–1 4 0 5 –1 2 –4 4 –2
(A + B ) – C = A + (B – C)
15. Prove that the quadrilateral with vertices (4, 0), (1, 2), (–2, 0) and (–1, 2) is a parallelogram.
16. The angles of a quadrilateral are in the ratio of 1:4:6:7. Find the angles in degrees.
1 – sinx 1 + sinx
17. Prove that: 1 + sinx – 1 – sinx = – 4tan x. sec x.
18. The angle of elevation of the top of a tower from a point at a distance of 80 m far from its
foot is found to be 60o. Find the height of the tower.
19. The triangle PQRS having the vertices A(5, 1), B(1, 2) and C(–2, 1) is reflected in the
x = –y. Find the coordinates of the image the vertices of the ∆ABC.
20. Find the median from the following data.
Ages (in yrs.) 10 30 50 70 89 10
No. of students 7 8 10 15 10 7
21. Calculate the quarter deviation from the data given below.
Ages (in yrs.) 26 34 14 27 30 45
No. of students 32 29 34 30 24 41
GROUP “C” [4 × 5 = 20]
22. Draw the next two figures just after the following pattern.

, , , , … , …. , …….
Also, find the number of dots in the 50th figure in the same pattern.
23. A(2, –1) and B(3, –2) are fixed points. Find the equation of the locus of the moving point
P such that 2PA2 = PB2. Identify the point (1, 5) lies on the same locus or not.
24. If the vector a displaces A(2, –3) to B(3, 1) and the vector b displaces B(–2, 3) to C(0, –3),
find the magnitude, direction and unit vector along (2a + 3b ).
25. The vertices of a square PQRS are P(0, 0), Q(1, 0), R(1, 1) and S(0, 1). Write down the
coordinates of the vertices of the image of the square PQRS under the enlargement with
centre as origin and scale factor 2. Represent the above enlargement in the same graph.
Best of Luck

234 Illustrated Optional Mathematics-8

 APPENDIX - D
UNIT TEST – 1 [Algebra ] UNIT TEST – 2 [Limit]
FM: 20 FM: 20
Time: 40 mins. PM: ... Time: 40 mins. PM: ...
Attempt all the questions. Attempt all the questions.
Group ‘A’ [1 × (1 + 1 + 1) = 3] Group ‘A’ [2 × (1 + 1) = 4]
1. (a) Define an ordered pair. 1. (a) Define the limit of a sequence..
(b) What is the literal coefficient of x3 in the polynomial (b) What is the limit of the sequence 1.9, 1.99, 1.999, ..... ?
2x3y2z + 4x2yz2 – 5 xy3z4 ? 2. (a) If f(x) = 2x2 – 1, what is the value of f(1.0001)?
3
(c) If p(x) = 2x – 3, what is the value of p(1) ? Group ‘B’ [4 × 4 = 16]
Group ‘B’ [1 × (2 + 2) = 4] 1 1 1 1
3. Find the general term of the sequence 2, 4, 8, 16 , ..... . Also,
2. (a) If A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {1, 4, 6}, find the relation R from find the 10th term of the same sequence and its approximately
A to B, which is defined by, last term.
R = {(x, y): x ∈ A, x ∈ B and x < y} A
4. Find the sequences of the sides and
3 2
(b) Divide (2x + x – 4x – 2) by (2x + 1) and find the degree perimeters of the triangles formed by
of quotient. joining the midpoints of the successive
Group ‘C’ [2 × 4 = 8] sides of the given equilateral triangle ABC
3. If P = {2, 4, 6} and Q = {1, 5}, find the Cartesian product having the sides 8 cm. Write their limits. B 8 cm C
P × Q. Show it in tree diagram and mapping diagram. 5. Find the first six terms of the sequence formed by the general
4. If the range of the function f:x→ 3x + 1 is {–2, 4, 7}, find (–1)n
term tn = 3(–1)n – 3 . Also, find the sum of odd and even
its domain. 2
numbers of the terms of the infinite series formed by the same
Group ‘D’ [1 × 5 = 5] general term.
5. Draw next one shape in the following figures of sequence and x2 – 9
6. Calculate the limit of the function f(x) = x + 3 at x = – 3 by using
find the number of knots in the 25th shape. tables.
BEST OF LUCK
, , , , ...........
BEST OF LUCK
 UNIT TEST – 3 [Matrix] UNIT TEST – 4 [Coordinate Geometry]
FM: 20 FM: 20
Time: 40 mins. PM: ... Time: 40 mins. PM: ....
Attempt all the questions. Attempt all the questions.
Group ‘A’ [1 × (1 + 1) = 2] Group ‘A’ [1×(1 + 1 + 1) = 3]
1. (a) What is an identity matrix? 1. (a) Write the section formula to find the coordinates of the
3 4 dividing point of the line segment joining two points
(b) Write the transpose of the matrix .
5 –3 externally.
Group ‘B’ [1 × (2 + 2 + 2) = 6] (b) In which axis does the point (–2, 0) lie ?
3x + 2 1 5 1 (c) What is the slope of the line which
2. (a) If = , find the values of x and y. makes 135o with x-axis?
– 4 x + 3y 4 4
(b) Construct a 2×2 matrix whose elements is aij = 4i – ij. Group ‘B’ [1×(2 + 2) = 4]
2 –3
(c) If P = and Q = 4 –0 , 2. (a) Find the distance between the points Y
1 0 –2 2
prove that (P + Q)T = PT + QT. A and B in the given graph.
Group ‘C’ [3 × 4 = 12] (b) Find the equation of a straight A
2 3 –1 line passing through the point X' O X
3. If the matrix M = , write the answer of (–2, –3) and parallel to the
4 5 0
B
the following questions. y-axis. Y'
(a) Write the elements in the second column. Group ‘C’ [2 × 4 = 8]
(b) Find the order of the matrix M. 3. Find the equation of the locus of a moving point P(x, y) such
(c) Find the value of a11, a13, a22 and a23. that its distance from the point A(3, –1) is 3 times the distance
3 –2 –2 2 –4 2 from B(–2, 0).
4. If A = ,B= and C = , then
–4 6 3 –3 1 –1 4. Find the equation of the straight line that makes an angle of
prove that: 2A + 3B – 4I = C 30o with the x-axis and cuts the y-axis at 3 units below from
1 –1 2 2 3 –1 the origin.
5. If P = ,Q= and R = , find the
4 0 –1 2 2 4 Group ‘D’ [1 × 5 = 5]
determinant of 2PT – 3QT + RT. 3. Prove that the points A(–1, –1), B(1, –2), C(4, –1) and D(2, 0)
are the vertices of a parallelogram. Show it in the graph.
BEST OF LUCK BEST OF LUCK
 UNIT TEST – 5 [Trigonometry] UNIT TEST – 6 [Vector]
FM: 20 FM: 20
Time: 40 mins. PM: .... Time: 40 mins. PM: ...

Attempt all the questions. Attempt all the questions.

Group ‘A’ [1 × (1 + 1) = 2] Group ‘A’ [1 × (1 + 1) = 2]
o o 1. (a) What is the position vector as the column vector of the
1. (a) What are the values of cos 0 and sin 0 ?
(b) Write the Pythagorean relations of trigonometric point A(– 4, 3)?
1 –2
ratios. (b) If A =   and B =  , what is the value of A + B?
 2  3
Group ‘B’ [1 × (2 + 2 + 2) = 6]
g
Group ‘B’ [2 × (2 + 2) = 8]
2. (a) Find the sum of angles 30 and 40o in the radian
measure. –16  20 
2. (a) Show that the vector AB =  and CD = 
(b) If 4tanA = 3, find the value of sinA.  12   –15  are
parallel.
(c) Prove that: (sec2 θ – 1)×(1 – sin2 θ) = sin2 θ. (b) The coordinates of A and B are (–2, b) and (a, 0)
Group ‘C’ [3 × 4 = 12] 2
c respectively. If AB =   then find the values of a and b.
3. One angle of a triangle is 2� and the ratio of the  4
3 2 –2 5
remaining angles is 5:7, find its angles in degrees. 3. (a) If a =  , b =  and c =  , find a + b – c .
cos A + 1
 –3   0  6
12 –1
4. Prove that: 1 – cos A= cosec A + cot A. (b) If PQ =  , and RS =  , find 1PQ + 3 RS .
 8  2 2
5. A tree on the bank of spring is of 10 m high and the angle Group ‘C’ [2 × 5 = 10]
of elevation of the top of the tree from the opposite bank
is 30o. Find the breadth of the spring. 4. Find the magnitude and direction of the vector joining the
points A(4, -2) and B(3, -1) by showing in the graph.
BEST OF LUCK 2 –2 2
5. If p =  , q =   and r =  , find the unit vector
 3  2  –1 
along p – q + r . Also, represent in the graph.

BEST OF LUCK
 UNIT TEST – 7 [Transformation] UNIT TEST – 8 [Statistics]
FM: 20 FM: 20
Time: 40 mins. PM: ... Time: 40 mins. PM:...

Attempt all the questions. Attempt all the questions.

Group ‘A’ [1 × (1 + 1) = 2] Group ‘A’ [1 × (2 + 2) = 4]
1. (a) What is reflection? 1. (a) Find the median from the data given below:
(b) What is the coordinates of the image of a point (a, b) 32, 40, 45, 50, 57, 62, 71, 80.
under reflection in the x-axis?
(b) Compute the range of the given frequency distribution:
Group ‘B’ [2 × 4 = 8] Obtained marks 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
2. P(2, 5), Q(–1, 2), R(2, 4) and S(5, 2) are the vertices of the No. of students 4 3 4 7 5 4 1 2
arrow head PQRS. Reflect the arrow head PQRS in x-axis.
Write the coordinates of the vertices of the image. Group ‘B’ [4 × 4 = 16]
3. If (a – 1, 3b – 4) is the image of a point (1, 1) under the 2. Find the median of the given data:
enlargement E[(0, 0); 2], find the values of a and b.
x 15–25 25–35 35–45 45–65 65–70
Group ‘C’ 2 × 5 = 10
f 2 3 4 7 4
4. Draw the vertices A(1, 2), B(5, 0), C(4, 4) and D(0,4) of the
quadrilateral ABCD on the graph and translate its vertices by 3. Find the third quartile from the given frequency distribution:

the vector 
2 Age (in years) 13 14 15 16 17 18
 –2  on the same graph. Write down the coordinates No. of student 4 10 8 5 3 2
of the vertices of the image of the quadrilateral ABCD.
4. Compute the quartile deviation of the given data:
5. Find the coordinates of the vertices of the image of the
Wages (in Rs.) 200–225 225–250 250–275 275–300
parallelogram ABCD having the vertices A(2, 2), B(2, 2), C(2,
5) and D(–1, 4) under the rotation of negative quarter turn about No. of Workers 3 4 6 5
the origin. Represent the above rotation on the same graph. 5. In a data, the range and its coefficient are 60 and 0.6 respectively.
Find its lowest and highest marks.
BEST OF LUCK
BEST OF LUCK
 APPENDIX - E
Student's CAS Record Form
Phase-I
Subject: Illustrated Optional Mathematics

Name of Students: ______________________________________________________ Sec: ___________ Roll No.: _______

Chapter/ Classroom Behavioural
SN Unit Exercise Homework Project Work Creativity Discipline Attendance
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Subject Teacher