SMART BS

Senior Secondary
BIOLOGY
Form 4
0881611542 SMART
By:, BS
Contact; 0881611542 WHATSAP ,CALL
0994927881

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Table of contents
Topic 1: Plant Responses…………………………….05
Topic 2: Human Respiratory System……………….63
Topic 3: Human Excretory System…………………152
Topic 4: Co-ordination………………………………226
Topic 5: Immunity…………………………………...343

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Topic 6: Genetics…………………………………….404
Topic 7: Evolution…………………………………...527
Topic 8: Biotechnology……………………………....567
Topic 9: Infectious and Non-infectious diseases…
TOPIC 1: PLANT RESPONSES

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5
Success criteria
 Describe plant responses to various stimuli.

 Carry out investigations on plant responses.

Plant responses
 Plants respond to stimuli in their environment. The responses are
observed through their growth movements in reaction to a particular
stimulus.
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 Plants respond to the stimulus of light, gravity, water, chemicals,
touch etc.

Types of plant responses

 There are two types of plant responses and these are:

1. Tropisms (tropic responses)

2. Nastic responses.

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Plant responses 1: Tropisms
 Tropism is defined as plant growth response to the unidirectional stimulus.

 Tropisms can either be positive or negative.

 Positive tropism is the plant growth response made towards the stimulus
whereas negative tropism is the plant growth response away from the
stimulus.

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Types of tropisms
1. Phototropism

2. Geotropism

3. Hydrotropism

4. Chemotropism

5. Thigmotropism

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Types of tropisms conti…

1. Phototropism
 Phototropism is a plant growth response to the unidirectional light
stimulus.
 Plant shoots are positively phototropic because they grow towards
unilateral light while plant roots are negatively phototropic because they
grow away from the unilateral light.

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Importance of phototropism to plants
1. It enables plant shoot to grow towards light thereby exposing the leaves to
sunlight which is necessary for the process of photosynthesis.

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Types of tropisms conti…

2. Geotropism (Gravitropism)
 Geotropism is the growth movement made by plants in response to the
direction of gravitational force.

 Plant roots are positively geotropic because they grow downwards towards
gravity whereas plant shoots are negatively geotropic because they grow
upwards away from gravitational force.

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Types of tropisms conti…

2. Geotropism conti…
Importance of geotropism
1. It enables plant roots to grow downwards into the soil for absorption of
water and mineral salts.
2. Enables plant roots to anchor well in the soil thereby ensuring physical
support for the plant.
3. Enables plant shoots to grow upwards and get exposed to sunlight for
photosynthesis.

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Types of tropisms conti…

3. Hydrotropism
 Hydrotropism is a growth response made by the plant to the stimulus of
water/moisture.
 Plant roots are positively hydrotropic because they grow towards water
while plant shoots are negatively hydrotropic because they grow away
from water.

Importance of hydrotropism to plants

1. It enables plant roots to obtain water which is essential for plant growth.

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Types of tropisms conti…

4. Thigmotropism
Thigmotropism is a growth response made by the plant to the stimulus of
touch. e.g when climbing plants come into contact with objects or other
plants, they coil around the plant/object.

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Importance of thigmotropism
1. Enables plants with weak stems to obtain support from strong
stems/objects.

Types of tropisms conti…

5. Chemotropism
Chemotropism is the growth response made by the plant in response to
the stimulus of chemicals.

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Importance of chemotropism
1. It helps the plant roots to grow towards useful minerals hence plants
absorb mineral salts easily.

Auxins and tropisms

 Auxins are a group of plant hormones that influence the growth of plant
tissues.

 Auxins can be natural or synthetic.

 Auxins are produced by tips of shoots and roots.

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 External stimuli; light, gravity and water affects the distribution of auxins in
the plant. Auxins accumulate in regions of the plant close to gravity and
water but accumulate away from light.

 Auxins stimulates cell elongation in the plant shoot but inhibit cell
elongation in plant roots.

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 conti…
Auxins and tropisms

Effects of auxins on plant growth

1. Stimulates development of adventitious roots.

2. Auxins suppress the growth of lateral buds (side branches) thereby

promoting apical dominance.

3. Stimulates cell division in the cambium hence initiating plant secondary

growth.
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 conti…
4. Auxins prevents abscission or failing of fruits before reaching maturity.

Auxins and tropisms

Practical uses of auxins

1. Fruit setting –auxins induces pathernocapy; the process whereby fruits
are formed without fertilization.
2. Induces root development in stem cuttings. Cut end of the stems are
dipped into auxins and planted.
3. Some auxins are used as weed killers.
4. Used as growth inhibitors.
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 conti…
5. Used to ripen fruits.
6. Breaking dormancy of some seeds.

Auxins and tropisms

(a). Auxins and phototropism

 When the plant shoot is receiving light from all sides, auxins are distributed
equally down the shoot hence cells from all sides of the plant elongate
uniformly. This leads to uniform growth of the plant shoot.

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 conti…
 When the plant shoot is receiving unidirectional light, auxins migrate to the
darker/shaded side of the plant shoot. As such, cells of the darker side of
the plant shoot elongate more than cells of the illuminated side. This results
in bending of the shoot towards the light, showing positive phototropism.

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Auxins and tropisms conti…

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(a). Auxins and phototropism conti…
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Auxins and tropisms

conti… (b). Auxins

and geotropism.
1. In shoots
When a fresh potted plant is placed horizontally, gravity
pulls much auxin to the lower side of the shoot. The higher
concentration of auxins in the lower side causes cells in this
side to elongate more than cells on upper side. As such, the
shoot grow bending upwards away from the gravity, showing
negative geotropism.

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Auxins and tropisms conti…
(b). Auxins and geotropism.
1. In shoots conti…

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Auxins and tropisms

conti… (b). Auxins and

geotropism.
2. In roots
When a seedling is placed horizontally, gravity pulls auxins
produced by a radicle tip hence auxins accumulate more on
lower side of the radicle. Since auxins inhibits cell elongation in
root cells, cells on upper side of the radicle elongate more than
cells on lower side. This makes the radicle to bend downwards
towards gravity, showing positive geotropism.

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Auxins and tropisms conti…

(b). Auxins and geotropism.

2. In roots conti…

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Auxins and tropisms conti…

(c). Auxins and hydrotropism

Unequal distribution of water/moisture in the soil causes
auxins produced by root tips to migrate and accumulate more
to the side of the root close to the moist side. The elongation of
cells in this side becomes slow than on the other side of the
root. As a result, the root grows bending towards the side with
more water/moisture in the soil. This is positive hydrotropism.

Auxins and tropisms conti…

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(c). Auxins and hydrotropism conti…

Auxins and tropisms conti…

(d). Auxins and thigmotropism
When the plant shoot is in contact with a supporting
object/plant, the side of contact influences auxins to move away
from it. As such, cells on this side undergo less elongation than
cells on non-contact side. This makes the side in contact with
the supporting object to start growing curvatures towards the
points of contact hence the plant grows twinning along the
supporting object.
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Auxins and tropisms conti…
(d). Auxins and thigmotropism conti…

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Investigations on tropisms

(a). Phototropism

Experiment 1: To find out whether plant shoots are

positively or negatively phototropic Materials
 2 potted seedlings with first foliage leaves.

 1 cardboard (carton box).

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Experiment 1: To find out whether plant shoots
are positively or negatively phototropic conti…
Procedure
1. Place pot B is a carton box with a small hole on one side at the level of the
shoot tip. Put the carton on open field making sure that light is entering the
carton from that hole alone.
2. Allow the seedlings in pot A to continue growing under normal light
conditions.
3. Let the seedlings from both pot A and pot B grow for at least a week and
then observe what happens.
Experiment 1: To find out whether plant shoots
4. Record the observations.

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Experiment 1: To find out whether plant shoots
are positively or negatively phototropic conti…
A
B

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Experiment 1: To find out whether plant shoots
are positively or negatively phototropic conti…
Expected results
Seedlings in pot B (in a carton box) grew bending towards the hole in the
carton, towards the light source while seedlings in pot A grew normally in an
upright manner.

Conclusion
The bending of shoots of seedlings in pot B towards unidirectional light
shows that plant shoots are positively phototropic.
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Experiment 2: To investigate how auxins
influence phototropism
Materials
 Germinating maize seedlings.

 A pot with damp soil.

 Aluminium foil.

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 A light cupboard or box with a small hole on one side.

Experiment 2: To investigate how auxins

influence phototropism conti…
Procedure
 Select three upright coleoptiles.
 Label them A, B and C.
 Decapitate seedling A.
 Cover the tip of seedling B with an aluminium foil.

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 Leave the seedlings in the box with one small hole on one side.
 Keep the box near the window where it can get light.
 Observe the set-up for two days.

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Experiment 2: To investigate how auxins
influence phototropism conti…
At the beginning of experiment At the end of experiment

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Experiment 2: To investigate how auxins
influence phototropism conti…
Expected results

Coleoptile A with cut-off tip remained unchanged, coleoptile B which was

covered with aluminium foil elongated straight upwards while coleoptile C
which was left intact elongated and bent towards the direction of light.

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 :
Experiment 2 To investigate how auxins influence
phototropism conti…
Conclusion
Shoots are positively phototropic. If the tip is cut as in A, the auxins
producing cells are eliminated hence no cell growth. The coleoptile C with
intact tip produced auxins which was then pushed to darker side of the shoot
due to impact of sunlight hence causing the bending. Tip of coleoptile B
covered with aluminium foil did not respond to directional light that’s why it
continued to grow upwards.

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(b). Auxin and shoot growth

Experiment 3: To investigate the influence of

auxins on plant growth
Materials
 Three maize/bean seedlings just after germination.

 Scalpel or razor blade.

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 :
Experiment 3 To investigate the influence of
auxins on plant growth conti…
Procedure
1. Cut the tip (decapitate) one of the seedlings about 1-2cm from the tip and
label it A.

2. Cut the tip of a second seedling and then replace it immediately label it B.

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3. Leave the third seedling intact without tampering it and label it C.

4. Allow the seedlings to grow under normal light conditions for 2 days.

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 :
Experiment 3: To investigate the influence of
auxins on plant growth conti…

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At the beginning of the experiment At the end of the experiment

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 :
Experiment 3 To investigate the influence of
auxins on plant growth conti…
Expected results
It was observed that, growth stopped in shoot A and growth continued
normally in shoot B and C.

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Conclusion
Shoot tips produce auxins which influences elongation the shoot. This has
been observed on shoot A which stopped growing once its shoot tip was cut.
Growth continued in shoot B and C because auxins were produced. In B,
auxins produced by the tip was diffusing down to the plant shoot.
(c). Geotropism

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 :
Experiment 4: To investigate geotropism in plant shoot

Materials
 Two potted seedlings.

 Two clinostats.

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 4 To investigate geotropism in plant
shoot conti…
Procedure
1. Clamp the first potted seedling on a stationery clinostat and label it A.

2. Clamp the second potted seedling on rotating clinostat and label it B.

3. Expose these shoots (A and B) to similar conditions e.g. Lighting.

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Experiment :
4. Make observations on their growth after 3 days.

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Experiment 4: To investigate geotropism in
plant shoot conti…
At the end of the experiment

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Experiment :
B A

4 To investigate geotropism in plant

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shoots conti…
Expected results
The plant shoot A (on a stationery clinostat) was growing bending
upwards. The shoot B (on a rotating clinostat) continued to grow
horizontally.

Conclusion
More auxins were pulled by gravity to the underside in shoot A since the
clinostat was stationery whereas in plant shoot B, auxins were distributed

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Experiment :
freely to all sides of the shoot with the impact of rotating clinostat. Since
the shoot grow away from gravitational pull, shoots show negative
geotropism.

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 :
Experiment 5 To investigate geotropism in
seedlings
Materials
 Maize/bean seedlings.

 Moist cotton wool.

 Petri dishes.

 Pins.
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Experiment :
 Clamps.

5 To investigate geotropism in
seedlings conti…
Procedure
1. Take two petri dishes and tightly pack them with moist cotton wool, label
them A and B.
2. Pin 2-3 germinating maize/bean seedlings parallel to each other on the
moist cotton wool making sure that there is space between them.

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 :
3. Make the seedlings of petri dish A stand horizontal and seedlings of petri
dish B stand vertical by supporting petri dish B with a wall.
4. Leave the set-up undisturbed for 2 days in darkness.
5. Observe their growth.

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Experiment :
Experiment 5 To investigate geotropism in
seedlings conti…
At the beginning of experiment At the end of experiment

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 :

5 To investigate geotropism in

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Experiment :
seedlings conti…
Expected results
In petri dish A, plumules grew bending upwards while radicles grew
bending downwards. In petri dish B, growth continued normally as it was.

Conclusion
The growth of radicles bending downwards towards gravity shows that
they are positively geotropic while the bending upwards of plumules away
from gravity shows that they are negatively geotropic.

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(d). Hydrotropism

Experiment 6: To investigate if plant roots are

positively or negatively hydrotropic
Materials
 Glass trough.

 Maize/bean seedlings.
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Experiment : To investigate if plant roots are
 A porous pot.

 Dry garden soil.

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positively or negatively hydrotropic conti…
Procedure
1. Fill one glass trough with moist soil and the other trough with dry soil,
label them A and B respectively.

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 : To investigate if plant roots are
2. Plant the seedlings in both troughs.
3. Put a porous pot 2-5cm from the seedlings in the glass trough B (trough
with dry soil).
4. Fill the porous pot with water.
5. Observe the growth of the roots after 3 days.

Experiment 6
Experiment : To investigate if plant roots are
positively or negatively hydrotropic conti…
At the end of experiment

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: To investigate if plant roots are

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Experiment : To investigate if plant roots are
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positively or negatively hydrotropic conti…
Expected results
Roots of seedlings in trough A (with moist soil) grew straight downwards
into the soil while roots of seedlings in trough B (with dry soil) grew bending
towards the porous water pot.

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 : To investigate if plant roots are
Conclusion
 The growth of roots the seedling bending towards the water shows that roots
are positively hydrotropic.
Plant responses 2: Nastic responses
 Nastic responses are plant movements made in reaction to the stimulus
without depending on the direction of such a particular stimulus.

Characteristics of nastic responses

 They do not depend on the direction of the stimulus.
 Nastic responses are reversible and can be repeated.
 They are rapid.

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Examples of nastic responses
1. Folding of Mimosa pudica leaves when touched.

2. Capturing of insects by Venous flytrap.

3. Sleeping movements in plants.

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Examples of nastic responses

1. Folding of Mimosa Pudica leaves when touched

 Under normal circumstances, leaves of Mimosa pudica plant are well spread.
However, when these leaves are touched, they fold rapidly. This is done as a
way to protect themselves from damage.

 This nastic response is called haptonasty or thigmonasty.

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Examples of nastic responses

1. Folding of Mimosa Pudica leaves when touched

conti…

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84
Examples of nastic responses

2. Capturing of insects by Venous Flytrap

 Venous flytrap is an example of insectivorous plant; a plant that eat insects.

 This plant traps insects using its leaves and later digests the insects.

 When an insect land on leaf blades of venous flytrap, hairs of this leaf blade
detect and make the leaves to fold rapidly thereby trapping the insect. The

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insect dies, and as it decomposes, the leaves secrete enzymes which digest the
remains of this insect.

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Examples of nastic responses

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2. Capturing of insects by Venous Flytrap conti..

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Examples of nastic responses

3. Sleeping movements in plants

 The response made by the plant to changes in light intensity.
 It is very common in leguminous plants such as bean plants and groundnuts.
 During daytime, the leaves open flat to make sure that sun rays are
horizontal to the leaf blades.
 In hot weather, the leaves drops to minimize water loss through
transpiration.

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 At night, leaves fold or close.

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Examples of nastic responses
3. Sleeping movements in plants conti…

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62
TOPIC 2:HUMAN
RESPIRATOR
Y SYSTEM

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.
Success criteria
 Describe the factors that influence the breathing mechanism in humans.

 Explain how tissue respiration occurs.

 Explain the importance of gaseous exchange.

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 Explain abnormal conditions associated with the respiratory system in

human beings.
Tissue respiration (cellular respiration)
 Tissue respiration is the process by which organic food substances are
broken down in body cells in order to release energy.

 It occurs in cell organelles called mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion).

 Mitochondria are rod-shaped organelles which have a double membrane

(outer and inner folded membrane).

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 Mitochondria are present in almost all body cells but they are numerous in
cells that needs a lot of energy like muscle cells, sperms, kidney cells, liver
cell, heart cells etc.

Structure of mitochondrion

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100
Adaptations of mitochondrion for respiration
1. The inner membrane of mitochondrion has folds known as cristae. Cristae
increases the surface area for respiration.

2. It contain enzymes and other special molecules required for respiration.

(Dehydrogenase, phosphofructokinase, Decarboxylase are examples of
enzymes present)

Types of tissue respiration

There are two types of tissue respiration and these are:
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1. Aerobic respiration.
2. Anaerobic respiration.

 The first step of both aerobic and anaerobic respiration is the same;
glycolysis.
 Glycolysis is the splitting of glucose molecule into two molecules of pyruvic
acid molecules. This process occurs in the cytoplasm and does not require
oxygen.

Aerobic respiration
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 Aerobic respiration is the type of respiration in which organic food
substances are broken down to release energy in the presence of oxygen.

 It begins with glycolysis; splitting of each glucose molecule to form two

pyruvic acid molecules in the cytoplasm. Pyruvic acid molecules enters into
the mitochondrion and undergoes further breakdown to produce energy.
The breakdown processes in the mitochondrion are called Krebs cycle.

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Aerobic respiration conti…
 Aerobic respiration produces energy as main product, water and carbon
dioxide as by-products.
 Glucose is completely utilized in the process.

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The equation below summarizes aerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration conti…

Usage of energy produced by aerobic respiration

 60% is heat energy, used to warm the body.

 Some energy is used in the cell for other processes.

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 Remaining energy is converted into Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) for
storage. ATP is made by combining Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP) with an
inorganic phosphate molecule.

Aerobic respiration conti…

Conditions necessary for aerobic respiration

1. Oxygen.

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2. Glucose.

3. Respiratory enzymes.

Anaerobic respiration
 Anaerobic respiration is the type of respiration in which organic food
substances are broken down to release energy without the use of oxygen.

 Anaerobic respiration occurs in cytoplasm.

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 It occurs in both plants and animals.

 Glucose is not completely utilized during anaerobic respiration.

Anaerobic respiration conti…

NB:

 Anaerobes –organisms that respire anaerobically.

 Obligate anaerobes –organisms that entirely depend on anaerobic

respiration.
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 Facultative anaerobes –organisms that respires both aerobically and
anaerobically depending on the condition which they are exposed.

Anaerobic respiration conti…

(a). Anaerobic respiration in plants.

 During anaerobic respiration in plants, glucose is broken down to produce
energy, alcohol (ethanol) and carbon dioxide.
 It is usually called alcoholic fermentation.
 It also occurs in some microorganisms such as yeasts and bacteria.
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 Anaerobic respiration occurs in cytoplasm and not mitochondrion.
 Glucose is not completely utilized, the ethanol formed stores some energy
that’s why ethanol can be used as fuel to release the locked energy in it.
Anaerobic respiration conti…

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(a). Anaerobic respiration in plants conti…
Equations for anaerobic respiration in plants

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Anaerobic respiration conti…

(b). Anaerobic respiration in animals.

 During anaerobic respiration in animals, glucose is broken down to produce
energy and lactic acid.

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 It is also called lactic acid fermentation.
Equation for anaerobic respiration in animals

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Anaerobic respiration conti…

(b). Anaerobic respiration in animals conti…

 Anaerobic respiration takes place in animal muscles during strenuous
physical activity because they run out of oxygen which can match their
energy demand. Lactic acid produced causes muscle fatigue which later leads
to muscle cramp. This lactic acid is broken down into carbon dioxide and
water when oxygen is available after the physical exercise.
 The amount of oxygen required by the body to eliminate lactic acid produced
by anaerobic respiration from the muscles is referred to as oxygen debt. This
is why athletes continue to breathe heavily after a strenuous physical
exercise.
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Applications of anaerobic respiration
1. Applied in baking industry to make bread and other baked products.

2. Production of biogas.
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3. Used in beer brewing.

4. Production of compost manure.

5. Production of vinegar.
Comparison between aerobic and anaerobic
respiration

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(a). Similarities
1. In both, energy is produced.

2. In both, glycolysis occurs.

3. Both of them do not require oxygen in the first stages of the process.
2. Takes place in mitochondria.
(b). Differences
3. By-products are simple
Aerobic respiration substances that cannot be broken
1. Oxygen is used. further.
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4. By-products are carbon dioxide 3. By-products are complex
and water. substances which can further be
5. Produces lots of energy per broken.
glucose molecule. 4. By-products depend on whether
Anaerobic respiration it occurs in plants or animals.

1. Oxygen is not used. 5. Only a small amount of energy is

produced per glucose molecule.
2. Takes place in cytoplasm alone.

Uses of energy produced by respiration

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1. Used for transmission of nerve impulses.

2. Used for cell division.

3. For active transport of substances in and out of body cells.

4. Used in muscle contraction.

5. For body growth.

Human breathing system

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 Breathing is a physical process of taking air in and out of the lungs.

 During breathing, oxygen is obtained from the atmospheric air to the

lungs while carbon dioxide is released out of the lungs to the atmosphere.

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Structure of the human breathing system 121
 conti…
Structure of the human breathing system
1. Nostrils (nasal cavity)
 They allow air from the atmosphere to enter into the breathing system.
 They have hairs that filters the air.
 Air is warmed by the rich supply of blood of the nasal cavity.

2. Pharynx
 Passage located behind the nasal cavity and above the larynx.

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Structure of the human breathing system conti…
 It serves both as passage for food (and water) and air.

Structure of the human breathing system conti…

3. Larynx
 Passage of air just above the trachea.
 It has vocal cords which vibrate with air to produce speech.

4. Trachea (windpipe)
 A tube which lies in front of oesophagus and extends to join bronchi.

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 It has rings of cartilage which prevents it from collapsing under negative
pressure (it maintains mechanical stability of the trachea).
5. Bronchi (singular: bronchus)
 Small cartilaginous tubes that branches from the trachea into the left and
right lungs.
 They convey air into the lungs.

6. Bronchioles
 Very finer tubes that bring air into the air sacs (alveoli).

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Structure of the human breathing system conti…
 They do not have cartilage.

Structure of the human breathing system conti…

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7. Alveoli (singular: alveolus)

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Structure of the human breathing system conti…
These are sites where gaseous exchange occurs in the lungs.

127
8. Diaphragm
 A dome-shaped sheet of muscles located at the bottom of the ribcage.
 Diaphragm helps in breathing movements during inhalation and
exhalation.

9. Intercostal muscles (external and internal intercostal muscles)

Muscles that moves ribs outwards and inwards to aid breathing
movements.

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Structure of the human breathing system
conti…
 Epithelium of the trachea
consists of ciliated cells and
mucus secreting cells
(goblet cells).

129
 The lining of trachea and nasal cavity produce large quantities of mucus
which traps dust particles plus other particles preventing them to reach
the delicate lungs. The cilia then move the mucus to the top of the trachea
where it is swallowed down the oesophagus or coughed up.

Mechanism of breathing in humans

 Breathing is the mechanism that pumps air into and out of the lungs of a
mammal.

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Structure of the human breathing system conti…
 The following structures help in breathing movements:

1. Ribs.

2. Diaphragm.

3. Intercostal muscles.

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Mechanism of breathing in humans conti…
Breathing occurs in two phases:

1. Inhalation (inspiration) – the taking in of air from the atmosphere into the
lungs.

2. Exhalation (expiration) –taking air out of the lungs to the atmosphere.

Mechanism of breathing in humans conti…

132
1. Inhalation
During inhalation, diaphragm muscles contracts hence flattens. The
external intercostal muscles contracts while the internal intercostal relax. As
a result, ribs move upwards and outwards. This increases the volume of the
thorax (chest cavity) leading to a reduction of air pressure inside the lungs
than the atmospheric air pressure. As such, air rushes into the lungs making
them to inflate.

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Mechanism of breathing in humans conti…

1. Inhalation conti…

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135
 Mechanism of breathing in humans conti…

2. Exhalation
During exhalation, diaphragm muscles relax and become dome-shaped.
The internal intercostal muscles contract while external intercostal muscles
relax hence ribs move inwards and downwards. As such, volume of the
thorax decreases leading to increase in air pressure inside the lung than the

136
atmospheric air pressure. As a result, air moves out of the lungs to the
atmosphere, the lungs deflate.

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Mechanism of breathing in humans conti…

2. Exhalation conti…

138
139
Breathing rate
 Breathing rate is the number of breaths taken in one minute.

 It describes how fast or slow an individual is breathing.

 An average breathing rate for an adult person is 18 breaths per minute

(range of 12-20 breaths per minute). However, breathing rate may increase
or decrease in an individual depending on some factors.

140
Factors that influence breathing rate
1. Carbon dioxide concentration in the blood.

2. Physical exercise.

3. Haemoglobin concentration.

4. Atmospheric pressure and oxygen concentration.

5. Emotional changes of the mind.

6. Health condition of the body.

141
Factors that influence breathing rate conti…
1. Carbon dioxide concentration in the blood
Increase in carbon dioxide in the blood leads to increased rate of breathing
so as to expel excess carbon dioxide from the blood. This also result to
increase in oxygen intake.

2. Haemoglobin concentration (red blood cell count)

142
When the concentration of haemoglobin in the blood is low, less oxygen is
delivered to the body cells. As such, breathing rate increases in order to
compensate the shortfall so as to meet oxygen demands of the body.

Factors that influence breathing rate conti…

3. Atmospheric pressure and oxygen concentration
As the height above the sea level increases, atmospheric pressure decreases,
hence the amount of oxygen per unit area decreases as well. As such,
breathing rate increases in order to obtain more oxygen necessary for
normal functioning of the body.

143
4. Health condition of the body
Healthy people breathe normally but sickness may increase or slow
breathing rate than normal depending on the type and condition of the
disease.

Factors that influence breathing rate conti…

5. Physical exercise
 During physical exercise, the body needs more oxygen in order to burn
glucose and produce additional energy needed for muscle contractions. This
leads to increase in breathing rate.

144
 Breathing rate also increases in order to remove increased levels of carbon
dioxide produced from cell respiration.

6. Emotional changes of the body

 Emotional changes such as anger, stress, fear and excitement increases
energy demands of the body hence respiration rate increases. This leads to
increase in breathing rate so as to take in more oxygen for respiration and
expel carbon dioxide from the respiration process.

Role of medulla oblongata in regulating breathing

 Breathing is controlled by the part of the brain called medulla oblongata.
145
 Medulla oblongata monitors the levels of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the
blood and it adjusts the breathing rate.

 Receptors of medulla oblongata and cardiovascular system detects the gas

balance deviations.

How is breathing controlled?

 When carbon dioxide concentration in the blood increases, receptors in
carotid artery and aorta detects and sends the nerve impulse to the medulla

146
oblongata. Medulla oblongata responds by sending the nerve impulses to the
diaphragm and the intercostal muscles. Diaphragm and intercostal muscles
increase the breathing movements thereby increasing the breathing rate.
More air is forced in and out of the lungs causing carbon dioxide to be
removed more quickly from the blood. The level of carbon dioxide in the
blood falls and then breathing rate becomes to normal.

147
 Practical activity: Investigating the effect of
physical exercise on the rate of breathing
Materials Procedure
 Stop watch 1. Count the number of breaths for 5
 Students minutes of a student while she/he
 Rope is standing (at rest).
2. Calculate the breathing rate of this
student by dividing number of
breaths by time taken( in minutes).
 Activity No. of breaths
per minute
3. Tell the student to jump the rope At rest
for 20 times and calculate his/her After the
breathing rate immediately after exercise
the jumping. 105
4. Record all results in the table.
5. Compare the breathing rates at
rest and after the physical exercise
(jumping the rope).
Practical activity: Investigating the effect of
physical exercise on the rate of breathing conti…
Expected results
The breathing rate after physical exercise (jumping the rope) will be
higher than at rest (while standing).
Conclusion
Physical exercise increases breathing rate, as more oxygen is needed for
respiration so as to produce energy to support the physical exercise.

Effects of physical exercise on breathing

1. It increases the rate of breathing so as to take in more oxygen and expel
carbon dioxide.

2. Increases the depth of breathing.

15
3. Increases the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood due to
increased respiration rate.

4. Increases oxygen intake into the body.

Lung capacities
1. Lung capacity –it is the total volume of air which the lungs can hold when
they are fully inflated.
 The average lung capacity of a normal adult person ranges from 4 to 6
litres.

 Various terms are used to describe lung volumes.

 Spirometer is an instrument that is used to measure lung capacity.

15
Lung capacities conti… Spirometer
15
Lung capacities conti…
2. Tidal volume (TV) –the volume of air that is taken in and out of the lungs
during normal breathing.
The tidal volume is 0.5 litre.

3. Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) –the additional air that that can be
forcibly inhaled after the inspiration of a normal tidal volume.
4. Expiratory reserve volume (EPV) –the additional air that can be forcibly
exhaled after the exhalation of a normal tidal volume.

15
Lung capacities conti…
5. Residual volume (RV) –the volume of air which remains in the lungs after
exhalation of expiratory reserve volume.

 It is about 1.5 litres.

 This volume of air can not be expelled no matter the depth of the
breathing.

 Residual air = Lung capacity – Vital capacity.

158
Lung capacities conti…
6. Vital capacity (VC) –total volume of air that is taken in and out of the
lungs during deep breathing.
 Approximately 80% of the total lung capacity.
 About 3 litres of air.
 Vital capacity (VC) = TV + IRV + ERV.

7. Inspiratory capacity (IC) –it is the maximum amount of air that can be
inhaled.
159
Lung capacities conti…
IC = TV + IRV.
8. Functional residual capacity (FRC) –the amount of air remaining in
the lungs after normal exhalation.

 FRC = RV + ERV

 NB: Total lung capacity (TLC) = TV + IRV + ERV + RV.

160
Lung capacities conti…

161
162
Practical activity: Measuring lung capacity (To
measure the vital tidal capacity of the lung)
Materials
 Meter rule.
 Two large balloons of equal size.

Procedure
1. Inhale normally and then exhale normally into the first balloon.

163
2. Hold the mouth of the balloon and measure its diameter using the meter
rule.
3. Repeat the above procedures 2 to 3 times and record the diameters in a
table.

Practical activity: Measuring lung capacity (To

measure the vital tidal capacity of the lung)
conti…

164
Procedure conti…
4. Take a deep breath and exhale with maximum force into the second
balloon.
5. Hold the mouth of the balloon and measure its diameter using a meter rule.
6. Repeat the procedure 4 and 5 for 2 to 3 times and record the results in a
table.
7. Work out the volumes of the balloons by using the diameters recorded.
8. Compare the results.

165
Practical activity:
Measuring lung
capacity (To
measure the vital tidal
capacity of the lung)
conti…
Procedure
conti…
166
Practical activity: Measuring lung capacity (To
measure the vital tidal capacity of the lung)
conti…
Expected results
The volume of the air in the second balloon will be bigger than the first
balloon.

167
Conclusion
 The big volume of air in the second balloon constitutes vital lung capacity
while the smaller volume of the first balloon represents the tidal volume.
Gaseous exchange in humans
 Gaseous exchange is the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide across a
membrane structure.
 Gaseous exchange takes place in lungs and tissues in humans.

168
Importance of gaseous exchange in humans
1. It maintains the supply of oxygen to the body cells. Oxygen is a
requirement for respiration.
2. It helps the body to get rid of carbon dioxide from the body cells to the
atmosphere.

Characteristics of gaseous exchange surfaces

1. They must be permeable to gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide).

2. They must be thin so that gases can diffuse quickly.

169
3. They must have a large surface area relative to the volume of the body so
that more gases must diffuse.

4. There must be a constant medium such as blood to take away and bring
gases to the membrane for gas exchange.

5. They must be moist so as to dissolve the gases.

(a). Gaseous exchange in the lungs

 Gaseous exchange in the lungs occurs in the alveoli. Oxygen is at higher
concentration in the inhaled air in the alveolar space than in the blood in the
170
 capillaries surrounding the alveolus. This creates a diffusion gradient hence
oxygen diffuses into the blood in the blood capillaries. Oxygen first dissolves
in thin film of moisture layer in alveolar lining, then across alveolar wall and
then capillary walls into the blood.
 On the other hand, there is high concentration of carbon dioxide in blood in
capillaries surrounding the alveolus than in the air in the alveolar space. As
such, carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood to the alveolar space and is
expelled during exhalation.

171
 172
(a). Gaseous exchange in the lungs conti…
(b). Gaseous exchange in the tissues
 Tissue fluid from the arterial end of the blood capillary has higher
concentration of oxygen than body cells, hence oxygen diffuses from the
tissue fluid to the body cells.
 On the other hand, body cells have higher concentration of carbon dioxide
than the tissue fluid hence carbon dioxide diffuse from the body cells to the
tissue fluid. Tissue fluid goes back to blood circulation at the venous end of
the blood capillary so that carbon dioxide is carried by the blood to the
lungs where it is exhaled.

173
(b). Gaseous exchange in the tissues conti…

174
175
Comparing gaseous exchange that occurs in the
lungs and the tissues

(a). Similarities
1. In both, oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse along their concentration
gradients.

2. In both, haemoglobin found in red blood cells is the transport agent.

176
(b). Differences between gaseous exchange in
3. Gases firstly dissolve in moist
lungs and the tissues lining of alveolar space.
In lungs 4. The process is so fast.
1. Gaseous exchange is between air In tissues
and the blood cells.
1. Gaseous exchange is between
2. Oxygen diffuses into blood cells tissue fluid and the tissue cells.
while carbon dioxide diffuse out
2. Carbon dioxide diffuses into blood
into the air.
(tissue fluid) while oxygen diffuse
out into tissue cells.
177
3. Gases are already in solution 4. Process takes much time.
form in plasma.

Adaptations of alveolus for gaseous exchange

1. Alveolus is surrounded by a network of blood capillaries that carry the
gases being exchanged.
2. Inner lining of alveolus has a thin film of moisture (water) hence gases are
dissolved easily.
3. Alveolar walls are one-cell thick, this provides gases a short distance
during diffusion.
178
4. Capillary wall lies next to the alveolus so the distance gases have to diffuse
between capillary and alveolus is very short.
5. Both alveolar wall and capillary walls are permeable gases.

Adaptations of lungs for gaseous exchange

1. Presence of numerous alveoli. This increases the surface area for gaseous
exchange.
2. Lungs are highly supplied with blood capillaries surrounding the alveoli
for easy exchange of gases between alveolus and the blood.

179
3. Lungs are connected to a tree-like system of tubes (trachea, bronchi and
bronchioles) which are passages of air between lungs and the atmosphere.
4. Lungs are surrounded by pleural membranes which are filled with pleural
fluid between them. This fluid reduces friction between the lungs and the
ribcage during breathing movements.

Adaptations of respiratory structures in humans

1. The nasal passage has hairs and mucus. These traps dust and other foreign
particles coming in with inhaled air.

180
2. The trachea have ciliated and goblet cells. Goblet cells produces mucus
which traps dust and germs whereas cilia sweeps the trapped particles to
the pharynx.
3. The nasal cavity has dense network of blood capillaries with warm blood
that warms the inhaled air before it goes to the lungs.
4. The trachea has rings of cartilage. This prevents the trachea from
collapsing under negative air pressure.
5. Larynx has cartilage called epiglottis. Epiglottis close the trachea during
swallowing of food and water to prevent them from entering the trachea.

181
Adaptations of respiratory structures in humans
conti…
6. Lungs have numerous alveoli which provides large surface area for
gaseous exchange.
7. Walls of alveoli are thin. This reduces distance for the diffusion of the
gases across their walls.
8. Alveolus is surrounded by a dense network of blood capillaries, for easy
transportation of gases being exchanged.
9. Lungs are located in the chest cavity (ribcage) for protection.
182
10. Presence of intercostal muscles and the diaphragm muscles which makes
breathing movements possible to ensure consistent inhalation and
exhalation.

Adaptations of respiratory structures in humans

conti…
11. The chest cavity is airtight. This enhances efficient change in pressure and
volume to allow exhalation and inhalation.

183
12. Epithelium of nasal passage has smell sensory cells called olfactory cells
which detects chemical substances in the incoming air. This make an
individual to identify different chemical substances to avoid inhalation and
exhalation.

Carbon monoxide poisoning

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a gas formed when fuels (organic materials) are
not fully burned or are burnt where there is insufficient supply of oxygen.
 Examples of such fuels include charcoal, coal etc.
 Engines also produce carbon monoxide.
184
 In the presence of carbon monoxide and oxygen, haemoglobin combines
with carbon monoxide more readily than it does with oxygen.

Carbon monoxide poisoning is the condition that occurs when an individual

inhales a lot of carbon monoxide.

Carbon monoxide poisoning conti…

How carbon monoxide poisoning occurs
In a room plenty of carbon monoxide than oxygen, more carbon monoxide
is inhaled. Carbon monoxide rapidly combines irreversibly with
185
 haemoglobin on the surface of red blood cells and form a compound called
carboxyhaemoglobin. Carboxyhaemoglobin does not dissociates easily like
oxyhaemoglobin so it lowers the capacity of red blood cells to take up
oxygen. As a result, there is reduced supply of oxygen to body tissues
especially to the brain tissue. This can cause coma or even death when no
immediate intervention is done.
Carbon monoxide poisoning conti…

Signs and symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning

 Severe headache  Loss of hearing
186
 Blurred vision  Weakness

 Dizziness  Cardiac arrest

 Nausea  Loss of consciousness

 Shortness of breath  Chest pains

Carbon monoxide poisoning conti…

187
First aid for carbon monoxide poisoning
1. Take the person out of the room and make him lie comfortably on open
space.

2. Increase circulation of air if it is not sufficient by fanning using a flat

object such as a book. If the person has difficulties in breathing, use mouth
to mouth resuscitations.

3. Take the person to the nearest healthy facility for treatment.

188
Effects of smoking on the human body
Smoking affects both active and passive smokers. Below as some effects of
smoking on the human body:

1. Causes respiratory infections.

2. Addiction.

3. Lung cancer.

189
4. Harmful to the foetus.

5. Affects blood circulation.

Effects of smoking on the human body conti…

1. Causes respiratory infections
 Tar from cigarette smoke irritates the respiratory tract hence increasing
mucus production.
 The smoke destroys cilia of the respiratory tract hence foreign particles are
not removed from the inhaled air.

190
2. Addiction
Nicotine in the cigarette smoke is addictive. A person may suffer withdraw
symptoms if they attempt to stop smoking.
3. Lung cancer
Tar contains carcinogens which encourage cancerous cells to develop in
the lungs.

Effects of smoking on the human body conti…

4. Harm to the foetus

191
Carbon monoxide from the cigarette smoke combines with fetal
haemoglobin leading to retarded growth or miscarriage. It hinders
mental growth in the foetus.

5. Blood circulation problems

 Nicotine constricts arteries leading to high blood pressure.
 Contributes to atherosclerosis.

192
Practical activity: To develop a future wheel on
the effects of smoking
Materials 1. Work in groups of four students.
 Flip chart 2. List the effects of smoking.
paper 3. Group the effects into long term and short
 Marker pens term.
 Note book 4. Draw the circle on paper and divide it into two
halves.
Procedure
193
5. Write the relevant spaces in the circle. This forms a
effects in the future wheel on effects of smoking.

194
 195
Practical activity: To develop a future wheel on
the effects of smoking conti…

196
Abnormal conditions associated with the human
respiratory system
1. Asthma

2. Bronchitis

3. Pulmonary tuberculosis

4. Lung cancer

197
5. Common cold and flue

6. Pleurisy

1. Asthma
Asthma is a condition resulting from inflammation of the respiratory tract.
Bronchi and bronchioles get restricted leading to narrowing of these
structures. This results in difficulties in breathing as less oxygen passes the
airways to the alveoli.

198
Causes of asthma
 Exposure to allergens such as dust, pollen, sprays, house-mites, perfumes etc.
 Heredity
 Viral infections
 Cold humid weather
 Car exhausts and industrial wastes

199
1. Asthma conti…
Symptoms of asthma
 Shortness of breath and difficult in breathing.

 Coughing especially during night or cold weather.

 A feeling of tightness in the chest.

 Pain in the chest especially when breathing.

200
 Wheezing sound when breathing.

1. Asthma conti…
Prevention, control and treatment
 Use of medicines (inhalers) that cause widening of the bronchus and
bronchioles.

 Use of medicines that prevents inflammation of the air tubes.

201
 Asthmatic patients must avoid allergens as much as possible.

2. Bronchitis
 This is the inflammation of the bronchial tubes. The cilia in the bronchioles
is damaged mostly due to cigarette smoke. As a result, mucus accumulates in
the lungs and has to be cleared through coughing. The collection of mucus in
the lungs provides an ideal breeding ground for microorganisms resulting to
bronchitis.

Causes of bronchitis

202
 Cigarette smoking.
 Viral infections of lungs cause acute bronchitis.
 High concentration of sulphur dioxide in the atmosphere.
 Air pollution.

2. Bronchitis conti…
Symptoms of bronchitis
 Production of yellow or green sputum.
 Dry hacking cough.
203
 Wheezing sound when breathing and shortness of breath.
 Fever, sore throat, chills, pain in the chest.
 General feeling of tiredness and being unwell.
 Uncomfortable feeling behind the sternum.

2. Bronchitis conti…
Prevention, control and treatments of bronchitis
 Avoid cigarette smoke.
 Get vaccinated.
204
 Wash hands to reduce risk of catching viral infection.
 Wear surgical mask when working in dusty environment.
 Use of expectorants for productive cough; to help clear the airways of
mucus.

205
3. Pulmonary tuberculosis (TB)
 Pulmonary tuberculosis is caused by a bacterium called Mycobacterium
tuberculosis. The bacteria destroys lung tissues making it difficult for the
infected person to breath normally.

 It is an air-droplet infection.

 It can also be transmitted through drinking contaminated milk.

206
3. Pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) conti… Signs and
symptoms of pulmonary tuberculosis
Cough with mucus. Fever.
Cough with blood. Persistent diarrhoea.
Excessive sweating at night. Weight loss.
Chest pains. Chest pains.
Breathing difficulties.
3. Pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) conti…
207
Prevention, control and treatment of pulmonary TB
 Avoid overcrowded and poorly ventilated places.

 Vaccinations against TB using BCG (Bacillus Calmette-Guerin) vaccine.

 Treatment using antibiotics.

 Isolation of the sick patient to prevent spread of TB.

 Boiling unpasteurized milk before use.

208
4. Lung cancer
 It occurs when cells in the lining of the alveoli start to divide two rapidly,
producing a tumor. These cells invade other parts of the lung reducing its
capacity to exchange gases efficiently.

 Tar from tobacco smoke is the common cause of lung cancer.

209
TOPIC 3: HUMAN EXCRETORY
SYSTEM
.

211
Success criteria
 Discuss parts and functions of the human excretory system.

 Describe the effects of salts and water intake on urine production.

 Explain the role of the antidiuretic hormone (ADH) on osmoregulation.

 Explain how dialysis machine works.

212
Understanding terms
Excretion -the removal of waste substances produced by cell metabolism
from the body.

Excretory system -the system (collection of organs) that are involved in

getting rid of metabolic wastes from the body.

Metabolism -refers to all processes and chemical reactions that take place
inside body cells.
213
Understanding terms conti…
Homeostasis -the maintenance of the constant internal environment of the
body.

Egestion -the removal of undigested food materials from the gut.

214
It is not considered as excretion because the materials that are removed
here aren’t metabolic wastes but undigested food particles.

Metabolic wastes produced by the body cells

1. Carbon dioxide –produced by respiration.

2. Nitrogenous wastes –produced by protein metabolism. They include urea,

uric acid, ammonia, creatinine etc.

215
3. Bile pigments –produced after break down of red blood cells.

4. Wastes of chemical substances from drugs and hormones after being used.

5. Excess water.

Importance of excretion

216
1. It removes metabolic waste substances from the body which may be toxic
to the body cells if they accumulate.

2. It helps to maintain constant internal environment.

217
Major excretory organs and their excretory
products
Organ Excretory products
1. Kidney  Excess salts
 Excess water
 Nitrogenous wastes (all these in form of
urine)

2. Skin  Excess water

 Excess salts (all these in form of sweat)
3. Liver  Bile pigments
 Urea
 Medicine by-products

4. Lungs  Carbon dioxide

 Water vapour 158

219
 220
Urinary system in humans
Parts of human urinary system and their
respective functions
1. Renal artery –carries blood from aorta to the kidneys; the blood with

high urea concentration and other metabolic wastes.

221
2. Renal vein –carries blood away from kidneys to venacava; blood with

lower urea concentration.

3. Ureter –carries urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder.

Parts of human urinary system and their
respective functions conti…

222
4. Urinary bladder –stores urine until it is expelled from the body.

5. Urethra –carries urine from the urinary bladder to outside of the body.

6. Sphincter muscle –controls the release of urine from the urinary

bladder.

The human kidney

223
 A kidney is a bean-shaped organ attached to the back of the abdominal
cavity. A human has two kidneys (left and right kidney).
 Each kidney is surrounded by a layer of fats which helps to cushion the
kidney against mechanical/physical damage.
 Each kidney is supplied with blood from the circulatory system via the renal
artery which branches off from the aorta. Blood goes back to general
circulation from the kidney through renal vein.
 At the top of each kidney there are structures called adrenal glands which
secrete hormones.

224
Parts of the kidney

225
226
Parts of the kidney conti…
A kidney has three major regions namely:
1. Cortex –outer part of the kidney, dark in colour.

2. Medulla –inner light-colored region. It has triangular projections called

pyramids.

3. Pelvis –widened end of the ureter where urine is collected.

227
Functions of kidneys
1. They excretes metabolic wastes in form of urine.

2. They regulate amount of water in the blood.

3. They control pH of the blood.

4. They control chemical composition of blood.

228
Nephron
Kidneys are made up of tiny structures called nephrons.

A nephron is a basic unit of structure and function of a kidney.

229
Structure of a nephron

230
231
Structure of a nephron conti…

232
233
Regions of a nephron
Each nephron is composed of six regions, each having own particular
structure and function. These are:
1. Renal arteriole –it brings blood full of metabolic wastes to the glomerulus.

2. Glomerulus –a network of blood capillaries where filtration of blood

occurs.

234
3. Bowman's capsule –a cup where glomerular filtrate collects after being
formed.

Regions of a nephron conti…

4. Proximal convoluted tubule –first coiled region of nephron. This is where
selective re-absorption of glucose, amino acids and some ions occurs.

5. Loop of Henle –U-shaped section of nephron where water is mainly

reabsorbed.

235
6. Distal convoluted tubule –second convoluted tubule of nephron. It controls
pH of blood.

Structure of a nephron explained

 The nephron is surrounded with extensive network of blood capillaries. In
the bowman's capsule, the capillaries form a knot called glomerulus (plural:
glomeruli) which branches from afferent arteriole that originates from the
renal artery.
 The glomeruli capillaries re-unite to form efferent arteriole which channels
blood away from the glomerulus. Efferent arteriole branches out into a
second network of capillaries that surrounds convoluted tubules (proximal
236
 and distal) and loop of Henle. These capillaries re-unite to form venules
which link up with other venules from other nephrons to form a renal vein
that takes blood out the kidney back to the heart through venacava. Loop of
Henle coils to form distal convoluted tubule which eventually joins the
collecting ducts where urine is collected.

Position of nephron in the kidney

The parts of a nephron are found in both regions of the kidney (cortex and
medulla).

237
1. The cortex contains
Bowman's capsule.
Proximal convoluted tubule.
Distal convoluted tubule.

2. The medulla contains

Loop of Henle.
 Collecting ducts.

238
 239
Position of nephron in the kidney conti…
How the kidney functions
 Excretion in the kidneys involves three major processes which are:

1. Ultra-filtration.

2. Selective re-absorption.

3. Tubular secretion.
240
How the kidney functions conti…
1. Ultra-filtration
Ultra-filtration takes place in the glomerulus. The afferent arteriole that takes
blood to the glomerulus is wider than the efferent arteriole that takes blood
away from it. Due to this difference, high blood pressure is created inside the
glomerulus. This pressure forces small substances such as water, amino acids,
glucose, urea, mineral salts and others to move out of the glomerulus. These
substances form a liquid which is collected in bowman's capsule and is called
glomerular filtrate. Glomerular filtrate flows through the walls of bowman's
capsule to the proximal convoluted tubules. The larger molecules in the blood
241
like blood proteins, blood cells and platelets can not pass through capillary
walls of glomerulus. They remain in blood and continue to flow to efferent
arteriole.

242
How the kidney functions conti…

243
1. Ultra-filtration conti…

244
How the kidney functions conti…
2. Selective re-absorption
As the glomerular filtrate is passing along the renal tubules, useful substances
to the body are selectively re-absorbed into the blood stream through the
capillary network surrounding the nephron.
 All amino acids and glucose are re-absorbed by active transport at the
proximal convoluted tubules.
 Some salts and water are also re-absorbed in the proximal convoluted
tubule.

245
 Most water is re-absorbed by osmosis in the Loop of Henle and collecting
ducts.

How the kidney functions conti…

3. Tubular secretion
 As the filtrate is passing through the distal convoluted tubule, some
substances such as potassium ions, ammonium, creatinine and some drug

246
 chemicals are removed from the blood and secreted into the filtrate. This is
done to maintain blood pH and control blood osmotic potential.

 The final substance which enters the collecting ducts is called urine.

Urine formation
 Blood carrying metabolic wastes enters the kidneys through renal arteries
which branches further to afferent arterioles of nephrons. As the blood
approaches and arrives in the glomerulus, pressure builds up. Due to this,

247
smaller substances such as water, glucose, amino acids, mineral salts, urea
and others are forced to move out of the glomerulus and accumulate in the
bowman's capsule. They form a liquid called glomerular filtrate, and the
process is called ultra-filtration. Glomerular filtrate flows through the
bowman's capsule to the proximal convoluted tubules.

Urine formation conti…

248
 Selective re-absorption of useful substances takes place. Glucose, amino
acids and mineral salts are mainly re-absorbed in the proximal convoluted
tubule. Water is mainly re-absorbed in the loop of Henle.

 After all useful substances are re-absorbed, the remaining filtrate is called
urine. It collects in the collecting ducts which drains into the renal pelvis
where it is carried by the ureter to the urinary bladder for temporal storage
before expulsion.

249
Relationship between length of Loop of Henle
and urine output
 Animals with long loop of Henle re-absorbs more water into the blood hence
they release less urine volumes (with less water) making them well adapted
to live in dry habitats.

 Animals with short loop of Henle re-absorbs less water back into the blood
hence they release high volumes of urine (with more water).

250
Summary of all processes involved urine
formation
Processes Part of nephron where it occurs
1. Ultra-filtration. Glomerulus.
2. Selective re-absorption of glucose, Proximal and distal convoluted
amino acids and water. tubules.

251
3. Selective re-absorption of sodium Distal convoluted tubules.
ions.

4. Tubular secretion to control blood Distal convoluted tubules.

pH.

5. Water re-absorption. Loop of Henle and collecting ducts.

182
Substances that are excreted in the urine
 Water
 Urea
 Uric acid
 Ammonia
 Sodium
 Chlorides
 Potassium

253
Comparison of composition of urine with that of
plasma and glomerular filtrate
Substances Plasma (%) Glomerular (%) Urine (%)
Water 90-93 90-93 95-96
Glucose 0.10 0.10 0
Amino acids 0.05 0.05 0
Blood proteins 7-9 0 0
Urea 0.03 0.03 2.0
Uric acid 0.005 0.005 0.05
Creatinine 0.001 0.001 0.1
Mineral salts 0.70 0.70 1.50
Ammonia 0.01 0.001 0.04
184
Adaptations of nephron to its function
1. Renal tubules (proximal and distal convoluted tubules) are long and
coiled, this increase the surface area for re-absorption of useful
substances.

255
2. The nephron is surrounded by network of blood capillaries to take away
re-absorbed substances.
3. The nephron walls are semi-permeable for easy diffusion of substances.
4. Epithelial cells lining the renal tubules are rich in mitochondria for energy
production used in active transport of substances during selective re-
absorption.
5. Some cells along the nephron have membranes which are highly folded to
form microvilli which further increase surface area for re-absorption of
substances.
Homeostatic functions of kidney

1. Osmoregulation

2. The control of blood pH

Homeostatic functions of kidney

257
 conti…
1. Osmoregulation
Osmoregulation is the control of water levels in the blood.

Two hormones are required for osmoregulation and these are:

i. Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) (vasopressin) –secreted by the pituitary
gland.
ii. Aldosterone –secreted by adrenal glands.

258
 conti…
Homeostatic functions of kidney
i. The role of Anti-diuretic hormone in osmoregulation
 When there is a decrease in levels of water in the blood (concentrated
blood), the osmoreceptors of hypothalamus detects the change as the blood
is passing through them. Hence they stimulates the pituitary gland to
secrete anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) into the blood. ADH is transported
by the blood to the kidneys. In the kidneys, ADH increases the

259
 conti…
permeability of collecting ducts and loop of Henle to increase so as to
reabsorb more water back into the blood until normal levels are achieved.

Homeostatic functions of kidney

 When water levels in the blood are higher than normal, osmoreceptors of
hypothalamus detects and sends nerve impulse to pituitary gland to
stimulate it to reduce or not to secrete ADH into the blood. As a result,
collecting ducts and loop of Henle become less permeable to water hence

260
 conti…
the nephrons do not re-absorbs more water into blood. This results in
production of large quantities of dilute urine.

Homeostatic functions of kidney

ii. The role of aldosterone in osmoregulation (salt-water level
balance)
 When the blood has low salt (sodium) concentration, blood pressure falls
below normal due to low blood volume, the adrenal glands releases

261
 conti…
aldosterone into blood. Aldosterone causes the distal convoluted tubule to
re-absorb sodium ions actively into the blood. As such, more re-absorption
of water occurs by osmosis. This increases blood volumes and
consequently blood pressure.

262
Homeostatic functions of kidney conti…
 When there is too much salt in the blood, adrenal glands releases little or no
aldosterone into the blood. This causes fewer sodium ions to be re-absorbed
on the distal convoluted tubule into the blood hence little water is also
reabsorbed by osmosis. This decreases blood volumes and consequently
blood pressure. More sodium ions are excreted in the urine.

Homeostatic functions of kidney conti…

263
2. The control of blood pH
 When blood is acidic, the distal convoluted tubules of nephrons re-absorbs
more hydrogen carbonate ions (HCO3-) into the blood and secrete more
hydrogen ions(H+) into the urine. This restores blood pH to normal levels.
 When blood pH in higher than set point levels, distal convoluted tubules of
nephrons excrete more hydrogen carbonate ions (HCO3-) into urine and
re-absorb more hydrogen ion (H+) from the urine. This is done until blood
pH is restored to normal levels.

Effects of salt and water intake on urine

production
264
1. Increase in intake of water results to increase in amount of urine
produced (more dilute urine) which is colourless.

2. Decrease in intake of water results to decrease in amount of urine to be

excreted (concentrated urine) which is brown in colour.

3. Increase in intake of salts results in decrease in quantity of urine

produced which is also more concentrated.

265
Investigating the effects of water intake on urine
output and urine colour
Procedure
 Drink a litre of water.
 Record the amount of urine using the measuring cylinder during the first
urination after drinking the water. Also note the colour of urine.
 Record the volume and colour of urine in other consecutive urinations after
the first one, without taking extra water.
 Observe the results.
266
Investigating the effects of water intake on urine
output and urine colour conti…
Expected results
Urine quantity is large in the first urination. In the next urinations, the
volumes of excreted urine keeps on decreasing. Also during the first
urination the urine is colourless but it was becoming brown in next
urinations.

267
Conclusion
Water intake affects quantity of urine to be produced and urine colour.

Effects of bad eating and drinking habits on the

kidney
1. Excessive consumption of salt results to disorders such as kidney stones.
2. Excessive alcohol intake affects the liver and the kidneys. Alcohol
disturbs the balance of ions and water in the blood hence affects
metabolism.

268
3. Excessive intake of carbonated drinks and foods makes some substances
to accumulate in the kidneys hence causing kidney damage.
4. Excessive intake of proteins in diet causes deposition of substances such
as uric acid in renal pelvis as kidney stones.
5. Not enough intake of water leads to kidney problems as high
concentrated urine is produced.

Good eating habits that enhance proper

functioning of the kidneys
1. Taking adequate intake of water everyday.
269
2. Minimizing salt intake in the food.

3. Minimizing taking of protein foods in the diet.

4. Including fruits in the diet. They provide vitamins which are essential for
proper functioning of the kidney.

5. Taking enough vegetables in the diet.

Common disorders and diseases of the kidney

270
1. Proteinuria 6. Glomerular nephritis

2. Uremia 7. Pyelonephritis

3. Gout 8. Hypovolemia

4. Kidney stones 9. Blockage of ureters (renal

colic)
5. Kidney cancer
10. Kidney failure

271
conti…
1. Proteinuria
 It is a condition in which plasma proteins are excreted in the urine.

 It occurs when capillaries of glomerulus lose their ability to be selectively

permeable thereby allowing large substances like proteins to pass through.

 It may result to oedema.

272
 Common disorders and diseases of the kidney
Common disorders and diseases of the kidney
conti…
2. Uremia
 A condition in which there is excess urea in the blood.

 It occurs when the kidneys are not working properly and urea accumulates
in the blood.

273
 It may results in vomiting, convulsions, difficult in breathing and diarrhoea
among others.

conti…
3. Gout
 A condition in which there is high concentration of uric acid in the blood as
such they form salt crystals in joints causing too much pain during
movement.
 It is caused by consumption of too much organ meat e.g kidney, red meats
etc.

274
 Common disorders and diseases of the kidney
Remedy
 Drink plenty of water.
 Minimize consumption of red meats in the diet.
 Medications that break uric acids into harmless compounds.

Common disorders and diseases of the kidney

conti…
4. Kidney stones
Stones consisting of various substances such as uric acid, calcium oxalate
and calcium phosphate often form in the renal pelvis.
275
Causes of kidney stones
 Frequently taking foods with high mineral content such as calcium.
 High intake of foods rich in vitamin D.
 Not taking enough water.

conti…
Symptoms of kidney stones
 Difficulties in passing urine out if the stones block the ureter.
 Blood stains in the urine.
 Severe sharp pain in the lower back part of the body.
276
 Common disorders and diseases of the kidney
Control, prevention and treatments
 Taking plenty of water.
 Kidney transplant in severe cases.
 Minimize foods with high mineral content, take balanced diet.

Common disorders and diseases of the kidney

conti…
5. Kidney cancer
Treatments Cancer that begin in
the kidneys. It may remain in the kidney or spread Radiotherapy and
277
chemotherapy to other organs of the body through Kidney transplant
blood.
Symptoms
 Blood in urine
 Back pains
 Weight loss
 Swelling of renal vein.

278
 Common disorders and diseases of the kidney
conti…
6. Glomerular nephritis
 Inflammation of the glomerulus making it unable to carry out filtration
properly.
 It is mostly caused by bacterial infections.

7. Pyelonephritis
 Condition in which the kidney becomes swollen and is filled with pus. The
infection may spread to urinary bladder and urethra.

279
 It is caused by bacteria that invades the kidney from other sites of infection
in the body.
 It can be treated with antibiotics.

Common disorders and diseases of the kidney

conti…
8. Hypovolemia Symptoms

It is a condition in which the liquid Headache portion

of the blood (plasma) is low.

280
 Common disorders and diseases of the kidney
Dizziness
Due to this, metabolic wastes become
concentrated in the blood. Nausea

Causes Treatments
 Bleeding. Blood transfusion
 Loss of body salts due to diarrhoea Fluid replacement(resuscitation) and
vomiting. through intravenous.

281
Common disorders and diseases of the kidney
conti…
9. Blockage of ureters (renal colic)
It is caused by deposition of mineral salts in the ureter which may later
block the ureters.

Symptoms
 Blood stains in the urine.
 Urination may stop completely.

282
 Signs of shock and a patient may collapse.
 Passing small amounts of urine as the ureter is partially blocked.
 Sudden extreme abdominal pain.

Common disorders and diseases of the kidney

conti…
Treatments and preventions of ureter blockage
 Administer pain killers.

 Surgery to remove the deposited minerals.

283
 Physical exercises.

 Control the diet to reduce intake of minerals.

 Increase water intake.

Common disorders and diseases of the kidney

conti…
10. Kidney failure
 It is a general term that describes a decline/failure in kidney performance as
a result of disease or injury.
284
 It can be chronic or acute.

 The kidney fails to remove metabolic wastes from the blood hence toxic
substances accumulates in the blood and poison the body cells, this may lead
to death.

Common disorders and diseases of the kidney

conti…
Causes of kidney failure
1. Exposure to toxic substances such as heavy metals, phosphates in pesticides
etc.
285
2. Overdose of common medicines.
3. Bacterial and viral infections of the kidneys.
4. Damage in an accident.
5. Kidney stones; they broke and cause ulcers in the kidneys.
6. Drop in blood pressure due to heart failure, hemorrhage or shock.
7. Birth defects.

Common disorders and diseases of the kidney

conti…
286
Prevention of kidney failure
 Treating infections related to the kidney.
 Avoid/reduce alcohol intake.
 Avoid excessive intake of proteins and mineral salts.
 Seek medical advice regularly.

Treatments
1. Using dialysis machine to remove metabolic wastes.
2. Kidney transplant to replace the damaged kidney.

287
Dialysis machine
 Dialysis is a process by which metabolic wastes, excess salts and excess water
are removed artificially from the blood.

 Dialysis treatment involves the use a dialysis machine to filter blood of a

patient.

 It is used when a kidney or both kidneys in a person fail to work properly

due to kidney injury or disease.
288
Dialysis machine conti…

289
290
Dialysis machine conti…

How dialysis machine works

 The patient is connected to the machine by inserting a catheter into an
artery. Anti-coagulant (heparin) is added to the blood to prevent blood
clotting. The catheter is connected to a flexible tube leading to the dialysis
machine.
 In the dialysis machine, blood enters the dialysis tubing which is a long-
coiled and semi-permeable tube. Dialysis tube is surrounded by a special
 fluid called dialysis fluid which is frequently replaced. The dialysis fluid has
same concentration of useful substances (glucose, amino acids, ions etc.) to
that of blood but has no concentration of metabolic wastes. As such,
metabolic wastes (urea, ammonia, excess salts etc.) diffuse out of the blood to
dialysis fluid hence removed from the blood. Excess water is also removed
from the blood through osmosis.
214
Dialysis machine conti…

292
How dialysis machine works conti…
After the blood passing thoroughly in the dialysis machine, it returns to the
vein in the arm into general circulation.

Properties of dialysis machine that make it to

work properly
1. The dialysis tube is long, narrow and coiled. This increases the surface
area for diffusion of wastes substances.
293
2. The dialysis tube is semi-permeable. This allows only small substances
such as urea to pass through but not large molecules like plasma proteins.

3. The dialysis fluid has no concentration of metabolic wastes. This maintains

concentration gradient between the blood and the dialysis fluid.

Properties of dialysis machine that make it to

work properly conti…

294
4. The dialysis fluid is warmed close to blood temperature to increase rate of
diffusion and to avoid patient discomfort.

5. Dialysis has a roller pump to increase blood pressure as it is passing

through the dialysis machine.

6. Presence of bubble trap that removes air bubbles from the blood to
prevent formation of blood clots in body's blood vessels.

Similarities between dialysis machine and kidneys

295
1. In both, blood is purified to remove metabolic wastes.

2. Both of them rely on diffusion and osmosis principles.

Differences between a dialysis machine and

kidneys Dialysis machine
1. Selective re-absorption does not
occur in the dialysis machine.

296
2. All blood passes through the dialysis Kidneys
tube.
3. Dialysis machine is used only for a 1. Selective re-absorption occurs in the
short period of time. kidneys.
4. It is not sensitive to hormones. 2. Only glomerular filtrate enters the
5. Blood pressure is controlled by roller nephron.
pump. 3. Kidneys works continuously
throughout one’s life.
4. Kidneys are sensitive to hormones.

297
5. Blood pressure is controlled by
heart.

298
 .

TOPIC 4: COORDINATION
Coordination
Success criteria
 Describe the structure of the neurones.
 Explain impulse transmission in a neurone.
 Discuss parts and functions of the brain and the spinal cord.
 Describe reflex actions.
 Describe conditioned reflexes.
 State the diseases of the of the nervous system.

300
 Discuss the endocrine system.

Meaning of coordination
Coordination is the linking together of various processes in the living body.

 In humans, nervous and endocrine systems bring about coordination.

Understanding terms
Irritability (sensitivity) –the ability of an organism to respond to the changes
in the environment.
301
Stimulus (plural: stimuli) –this is a local change in the external or internal
environment of an organism which causes the organism to react. For
example; changes in temperature, sound of a bell etc.

Receptors –these are body structures that contain sensory cells that detects
the stimuli and produce a signal.
 Examples of receptors are; skin, eye, ear, nose, tongue etc.

Understanding terms conti…

302
Effectors –these are body structures that responds either directly or
indirectly to the stimulus.
 The include muscles and glands.

Nerve impulses –these are electrical signals transmitted through the

neurones of the nervous system and cause a response.
 A nerve impulse is transmitted within a fraction of a second.
 Nerve impulses are transmitted from the receptors to the central nervous
system and then to the effectors.

303
Understanding terms conti…
Neurone (nerve cell) –it is a body cell specialized for the transmission of
nerve impulses.
 Size and shape of neurones differs in different parts of the nervous system
but they are basically similar.

Nerve –a nerve is a group of neurones especially nerve fibers in bundles.

 Nerves are like an electrical cable made up of smaller wires (nerve cell
fibers) bound together.

304
 Nerves can be classified according to the neurones they contain (motor
nerves, sensory nerves and mixed nerves) or the central nervous system they
are connected with (spinal nerves and cranial nerves)
Topic 1: Nervous system
Nervous system is the collection of all parts of the body that are concerned
with the reception of stimuli, transmission of nerve impulses, processing of
impulses and activation of muscles and glands.

305
It is also defined as a system which gathers information, transmit the
information and interpret the information to provide a required response.

Nervous system of a mammal

It is composed of:
1. The central nervous system (CNS)
 It consist of brain and the spinal cord.
 Central nervous system has the function of receiving information,
integrating and processing it.
306
2. The peripheral nervous system (PNS)
 It consists of nerves (cranial nerves and spinal nerves) and the sense organs.
 Peripheral nervous system links the central nervous system with body's
receptors and effectors.

The basic structure of human nervous system

307
308
Functions of the nervous system
1. Detecting stimuli from the environment.

2. Converting the stimuli into nerve impulse, a process called transduction.

3. Transmitting impulses over long distances.

4. Interpretation of nerve impulses.

309
5. Coordination of responses to the stimuli (provision of feedback).

The structure and functions of neurones

310
311
Basic parts of a neurone and their functions
Nerve fibers

1. Dendron –nerve fibers that conduct nerve impulses towards the cell body.

2. Axon –nerve fibers that conduct nerve impulses away from the cell body.

Cell body

312
 a part which contains the nucleus of the neurone.

 It produces an appropriate signal.

Basic parts of a neurone and their functions

conti…
Myelin sheath
 A fatty tissue that surrounds the nerve fibers of sensory and motor neurones.
 Myelin sheath insulate the nerve fibers since nerve impulses are transmitted
in electrical form.
313
 They also protects the nerve fibers.

Dendrites
 Carries nerve impulses from adjacent neurones to the cell body.

Basic parts of a neurone and their functions

conti…
Synaptic knobs
 They transmit nerve impulses to the adjacent neurones.

314
Node of Ranvier
 They speed up the transmission of nerve impulses.

Schwann cells
 Manufactures the myelin sheath.

Types of neurones
There are three types of neurones and these are:

315
1. Sensory neurones

2. Motor neurones

3. Relay neurones

1. Sensory neurone
Sensory neurones are also known as receptor neurones, because they are

316
connected to receptors.

317
Sensory neurone conti…
Functions of sensory neurone
They transmit nerve impulses from the receptors to the central nervous
system.

Structural characteristics of sensory neurone

 They are connected with receptors (sense organs).
 Their cell body is along the nerve fiber.
318
 They have myelin sheath.

2. Motor neurone
 They are also known as effector neurones, because they are connected to the
effectors.

 The cell body of motor neurones are located in the central nervous system
(brain or spinal cord).

319
 Its cell body gives rise to long axon and many short dendrons.

Motor neurone conti…

320
321
Motor neurone conti…
Functions of motor neurone
They transmit nerve impulse from the central nervous system to the
effectors (muscles and glands).

Structural characteristics of motor neurones

 They are connected with the effectors.
 Their cell body is found at the terminal end of an axon.
322
 They have myelin sheath.

3. Relay neurone
 They are also known as intermediate neurones or association neurones.

 They are found in the central nervous system (brain or spinal cord).

323
Relay neurone conti…
324
Functions of relay neurone
 Links nerve impulse transmission between sensory and motor neurones.
 It stores information.

Structural characteristics of a relay neurone

 They have short axons.
 They do not have myelin sheath.

Nerve impulse transmission by a neurone

325
 A nerve impulse involves propagation of electric charges along a neurone.

 Nerve impulse transmission occurs in two stages which are:

1. Resting potential

2. Action potential

Resting potential

326
 During resting potential, a neurone does not conduct a nerve impulse.

 The surface of the membrane of the neurone is usually positively charged

while the inside membrane is negatively charged. This is due to sodium ion
pump mechanism that pumps sodium ions out of the axoplasm. The neurone
at this stage is said to be polarized.

Resting potential conti…

327
Action potential
328
 During action potential, a neurone transmit nerve impulse.

 There is no sodium ion pump mechanism hence more sodium ions diffuse
inside the axoplasm. The neurone is said to be depolarized due to imbalance
of charges between inside and outside of the axoplasm. A change in charges
on one part disturbs the next part of the nerve fiber causing the
disturbance to move along the nerve fiber. This transmit the nerve impulse
along the neurone.

329
 After an impulse has been transmitted, the neurone returns to a resting
potential.

330
 331
ActionDe-potential
polarised
conti…
Synapse
 A synapse is a junction formed between two neurones meeting end to end or
where a neurone meet an effector.

 A synapse is composed of dendrites of cell body of one neurone and synaptic

knobs of an axon of another neurone.

 There is no physical contact between one neurone and the other at the
synapse.
332
Synapse conti…

333
334
Synapse conti…
 The cytoplasm of synaptic knobs contains numerous mitochondria for
production of energy.
 Impulses are carried across the synapse by means of chemicals called
neurotransmitters.
Examples of neurotransmitters are:
 Acetylcholine
 Noradrenaline
 Dopamine
335
 Serotonin

Impulse transmission across a synapse

 When a nerve impulse arrives at the end of the neurone, the synaptic vesicles
in the synaptic knobs releases neurotransmitter into the synapse. The
neurotransmitter diffuse across the synaptic cleft and binds to the dendrites
of another neurone and cause formation of the same impulse in another

336
neurone. Once the nerve impulse has crossed the synapse, neurotransmitter
is destroyed by enzymes.

Impulse transmission across a synapse conti…

337
338
Function of synapses
1. Ensures movement of nerve impulses in one direction only.

2. Amplification of nerve impulses.

3. Prevents over-stimulation of responses.

339
The central nervous system
The human central nervous system consists of:
1. Brain
2. Spinal cord

 The nervous tissue of the central nervous system falls into two distinct
regions which are; the grey matter and the white matter.

340
 The grey matter consists mainly of cell bodies of neurones while the white
matter mainly consists of nerve fibers.
The human brain
 The human brain is divided into two hemispheres ; the right hemisphere and
the left hemisphere.
 These two hemispheres of the human brain are interconnected by a group of
nerves called corpus callosum.
 Right hemisphere controls activities of the left side of the body while the left
hemisphere controls activities of the right side of the body.
341
 Outer nervous tissue of the brain is grey matter while inner nervous tissue is
the white matter.

Structure of the human brain

342
343
Protection of the human brain
1. The brain is surrounded by the bones of the skull/cranium.

2. Brain is surrounded by three membranes known as meninges.

344
The membranes of the human brain
i. Dura matter –tough outer membrane.

ii. Pia matter –inner-most membrane. It is composed of blood vessels and

lymph vessels.

iii. Arachnoid –a layer between pia and dura matter. It consists of connective
tissues, blood vessels and a fluid called cerebrospinal fluid.

345
Functions of the cerebrospinal fluid
1. It distributes oxygen and nutrients to the tissues of the brain and the spinal
cord.
2. It helps to protect the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)
against mechanical shock due to its cushioning effect.
3. It helps to remove metabolic wastes from the nervous tissue of brain and
spinal cord.
4. It protects the central nervous system against infections since it contains
lymphocytes.
346
Major parts of the human brain
The major parts of the brain includes:

1. Cerebrum

2. Cerebellum

3. Medulla oblongata

4. Hypothalamus

347
5. Thalamus

1. Cerebrum
 This is the largest part of the human brain. It is divided into right and left
cerebral hemispheres.

 Outer layer of cerebrum is called cerebral cortex.

348
 Cerebrum has many folds. The more the folds, the more the intellectual
capacity.

Cerebrum conti…
Functions of cerebrum
 It is the memory centre.

 It is involved in learning, imagination and creativity.

 It is the intelligence centre.

349
 Controls all five sense organs.

 Responsible for personality and emotions.

2. Cerebellum
 It is found below the cerebrum.
 It is smaller than the cerebrum and it is also highly folded.

350
Functions of cerebrum
 It controls muscle coordination.
 Controls body balance and posture.
 Ensure dexterity in fine movements.

3. Medulla oblongata
 It is located beneath the cerebrum.

 It links the brain with the spinal cord.

351
Functions of the medulla oblongata
It controls involuntary actions such as breathing, blood circulation,
heartbeat, digestion, swallowing etc.

4. Hypothalamus
Functions of hypothalamus
 It is involved in homeostatic processes.

 It controls hunger, thirsty, sleep and wakefulness.

352
5. Thalamus
Function of thalamus
Relays nerve impulses to other parts of the brain.

General functions of the brain

1. Brain sends off motor impulses to the muscles and glands instructing them
to function accordingly.

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2. Brain correlates different stimuli from different sense organs.

3. Brain stores information so that the behavior can be modified according to

past experience.

The spinal cord

 Spinal cord is a cylindrical mass of nervous tissue running posteriorly from
the base of medulla oblongata to the end of the vertebral column.

 It passes through the vertebral canal inside the vertebral column.

354
 Almost 31 pairs of spinal nerves emerge at intervals along the spinal cord.

 The outer nervous tissue of spinal cord is white matter while the inner
nervous tissue is the grey matter.

 There is a narrow canal at the centre of the spinal cord called central
canal/spinal canal. This canal is filled with cerebrospinal fluid.

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Cross-sectional structure of the spinal cord
357
 267
Cross-sectional structure of the spinal cord

358
conti…

359
Parts of the spinal cord
Dorsal root
 Contains only sensory neurones.
 The cell bodies of the sensory neurones concentrates and makes a bulge
called ganglion.

Ventral root
 Contains only motor neurones.
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 .
Grey matter
 It is H-shaped nervous tissue found in the inner surface of the spinal cord.
 It is concentrated with the cell bodies of motor and relay neurones.
 Brain also has grey matter but on the outer surface.

White matter
 Outer nervous tissue of the spinal cord.
 It is composed of nerve fibers of motor and sensory neurones.

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Central/spinal canal
 Canal which runs longitudinally at the centre of the spinal cord.
 It contains cerebrospinal fluid.

Protection of the spinal cord

1. It is surrounded by the bones of the vertebrae.

2. It is surrounded by the meninges.

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Functions of the spinal cord
1. It links nerves of the peripheral nervous system with the brain.

2. It coordinates some reflex actions(reflexes).

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Similarities between brain and the spinal cord
1. Both, brain and spinal cord tissues are supplied with cerebrospinal fluid.

2. They all have nerve cells.

3. Both are covered by membranes called meninges.

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Functional differences between brain and the
spinal cord
Brain Spinal cord
1. It controls all activities in the 1. It controls only some reflex body.
actions.

2. It keeps memory. 2. Does not keep memory and does

not preform mental activities.

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 Structural differences between brain and spinal cord
Brain 4. It is divided into sections.
1. Grey matter make the outer Spinal cord
surface of the brain while white 1. Grey matter make the inner
matter make the inner surface. surface of the spinal cord while
2. Presence of 4 ventricles which white matter make the outer
supplies the cerebrospinal fluid to surface.
the inside parts of the brain.
3. It is enclosed in a skull.

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 2. It has central canal which 3. It is enclosed in vertebral column.
supplies cerebrospinal fluid to 4. It is a long organ with no
the inner surfaces of spinal subdivisions.
cord.

Reflex actions (reflexes)

 A reflex action is a rapid automatic response to the stimulus without
conscious control.

Reflex actions can be classified into two based on their control centre.

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 1. Spinal reflexes
 Reflex actions which are controlled by the spinal cord.

Examples of spinal reflexes

1. Sudden withdrawal of hand from the hot or sharp object.
2. Knee jerk reflex.

Reflex actions continued…

2. Cranial reflexes
These are reflex actions that are controlled by the brain, but not the will.
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Examples of cranial reflexes
1. Sudden blinking of the eye.
2. Sneezing when particles suddenly goes into the eye.
3. Salivation at the sight of the food.
4. Constriction of pupil of the eye in response to light intensity.
5. Secretion of tears when onion is pealed near you.

Types of reflex actions

369
 There are two types of reflexes and these are:

1. Simple reflex action 2. Conditioned reflex action

 A reflex action in which a stimulus Rapid automatic response to the
produces a natural response. stimulus but due to past experience

or trainings.
 It does not depend on past experience.

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 Reflex arc
 Reflex arc is a nervous pathway taken by the nerve impulse during a reflex
action.

A reflex arc consists of the following:

1. Receptor

2. Sensory neurone

3. Reflex centre (brain or spinal cord)

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4. Motor neurone

5. An effector (muscles or gland)

Reflex arc conti…

A reflex arc can be described as simple or complex.

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A simple reflex arc involves two neurones only (sensory and motor),
whereas a complex reflex action involves all three types of neurones (sensory,
relay and motor neurone).

Practical examples of reflex actions

1. Sudden withdrawal of the hand from the sharp or hot object
 The sharp point/hot point of the object (stimulus) stimulates the receptors in
the skin of the hand.

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 Skin receptors produce a nerve impulse which travels along the sensory
neurone to the spinal cord.
 In the spinal cord, the nerve impulses are transmitted first across the synapse
to the relay neurone then another synapse to the motor neurone.
 Impulse leave the spinal cord through the motor neurone to the effectors
(biceps muscles).
 The biceps muscles contracts, this brings a sudden withdrawal of the hand
from the hot object.

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 375
Sudden withdrawal of the hand from the sharp or
hot object conti…

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2. Knee jerk reflex
 When a person sits on a table, one leg hangs freely and you tap the lower part
of the patella gently with a sharp object, the lower part of the leg
uncontrollably move forward.
 A tap below patella (knee cap) results in generation of a nerve impulse by
receptors inside the knee. This impulse is transmitted by the sensory neurone
to the spinal cord.
 In the spinal cord, the nerve impulse crosses the synapse directly to the
motor neurone which then transmit the nerve impulse to the upper thigh
muscles.
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 As a result, upper thigh muscles contracts and jerks the lower part of the leg
forward.
 This is a simple reflex action.

378
Knee jerk reflex conti…

379
380
 Conditioned reflex actions
 Conditioned reflex actions are rapid automatic responses to the stimulus due
to the past experience or training.

 They are controlled by the brain.

 Learning is the basis of conditioned reflex actions.

381
 Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist was the first person to carry out
experiments on conditioned reflex actions in dogs.

Conditioned reflex actions conti…

Examples of conditioned reflex actions
 Cycling

 Driving

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 Walking

 Swimming etc.

Pavlov’s experiments on dogs

 Pavlov conditioned a dog to salivate upon hearing the sound of the bell.

 At first, Pavlov was giving food to the dog. The dog was secreting saliva in
response to the food. After some days, he rang the bell at the same time food
was being given to the dog, the dog was salivating. Finally, he started ringing

383
 the bell alone in the absence of food, the dog could still produce saliva in
response to the sound of the bell.

Pavlov’s experiments on dogs conti…

 It can be observed that, the dog had been conditioned to salivate upon
hearing the sound of the bell by associating that sound with its food.

384
 Food has been considered as original stimulus whereas bell sound as a
substitute stimulus.

Steps involved in conditioning an organism based

on Pavlov's discovery
1. Present an original stimulus to the organism. The response is made.

385
2. Present an original stimulus together with the substitute stimulus. The

same response is made.

3. Present substitute stimulus alone. Same response is produced.

Importance of reflex actions

1. They are protective in nature. They help in preventions of body cuts and
burns.

386
2. They help in learning e.g sewing.

3. They help in the control of the internal environment.

4. Some animals use reflex actions to catch prey and obtain food.

Investigations on co-ordination

387
 Human brains are adapted to coordinate all activities humans carry out.
However, the working of the brain is also affected by external factors that
either improve brain activity or slow down it down.

 The following investigations will be covered:

1. Investigating the effect of time of a day on memorizing.

2. Investigating the effect of practice on hitting a target.

388
1. To investigate the effect of time of the day on
memorizing
Procedure
 Prepare a list of 10 words.
 Memorize the words on the prepared list early in the morning for 5 minutes.
 Write down the number of words you can remember at noon without reading
from the list again.
 In the evening after classes, prepare another list of 10 words and memorize
them in 5 minutes.
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 Write down the number of words recalled from the second list before going
to sleep.

1. To investigate the effect of time of the day on

memorizing conti…
Expected results
More words memorized in early morning were recalled than words
memorized in the evening.

390
Conclusion
Ability to recall words is influenced by the time of the day. In the morning,
brain is least engaged after a night of rest hence high recalling while in the
evening, the brain has coordinated a lot of activities during the day hence low
memory. This implies that time of the day affects memory.

391
2. To investigate the effect of practice on hitting a
target
Materials
 Dart board
 Arrows/balls
 Marker
Procedure
 Make a mark on the dart board.
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 Aim to hit the mark by using arrows or the balls.
 Take 10 attempts (1 round) and count the number of hits on target made.
 Continue for about 10 rounds while recording the number of hits to target
made in the table.

393
2. To investigate the effect of practice on hitting a
target conti…
Expected results
At the beginning of the experiment, there were few hits on target. As the
rounds increased, the hits on target also increased.

394
Conclusion
Practice increased the accuracy in hitting the target. Exposure to one
stimulus for repeated times makes the brain to coordinate the activities faster
and more accurately.

Problems associated with the nervous system

1. Leprosy

2. Meningitis

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3. Tetanus

4. Polio (poliomyelitis/Infantile Paralysis)

5. Stroke

Problems associated with the nervous system

conti…

396
1. Leprosy
 It is an infectious disease that attacks the sensory nerves and the skin. It
causes permanent damage to the skin, sensory nerves, limbs and the eyes.
 It is caused by a bacterium called Mycobacterium leprae.
Symptoms
 Loss of fingers or toes.
 Loss of sensation in limbs and face due to damage of sensory nerves.
Prevention
 Vaccination.

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 Isolation of the patient.

Problems associated with the nervous system

conti…
2. Meningitis
 A disease that causes inflammation of meninges surrounding the brain and
the spinal cord.
 It is caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi or parasites. It may also be caused by
an accident.

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Symptoms
Headache, Neck stiffness, Fever, Epilepsy, Coma, Intolerance to bright
light and loud sound, Vomiting and even death.

Problems associated with the nervous system

conti…

399
3. Tetanus
 An infectious disease that causes permanent contraction of the muscles by
interfering with nerve impulse transmission. This causes the jaws to lock
after muscle contraction.
 It is caused by a bacterium called Clostridium tetani which is present in the
soil and enter the body through cuts.
Prevention
 Vaccination.
 Avoid making body cuts with dirty objects.

400
 Cut the umbilical cord with clean sterilized knife.
Problems associated with the nervous system conti…
4. Polio (poliomyelitis/Infantile Paralysis)
 It is disease that causes damage to motor neurones that connects with
muscles of legs and arms hence there is no response to these organs.
 It is caused by a virus called poliovirus.
Symptoms
 Paralysis of muscles.
 Paralysis and deformation of skeleton.
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 Limbs wither. Prevention
 Vaccination.
 Following hygienic practices.
Problems associated with the nervous system conti…
5. Stroke
 It is a condition which occurs when there is an interruption of blood supply
to a part of the brain.
 It is caused by blockage of a blood vessel (artery) or bursting of a capillary in
the brain. Since the cells of the affected part of the brain cannot get glucose
402
 and oxygen for respiration, they starve to death. The part of the body which
is controlled by the affected part of the brain stops working.
Symptoms
 Paralysis on one side or both sides of the body.
 Difficulty in walking.
 May lose ability to speak or may experience difficulties in speaking.

Topic 2: Endocrine system

403
Understanding terms
 Endocrine system is a group of specialized body organs and tissues that
produce, store and secrete useful chemical substances. These chemical
substances are known as hormones.
 Hormones are chemical substances produced in very small quantities by
endocrine glands in one part of the body and transported by the blood to
other parts of the body (target organs) where they produce an effect.
Hormones are produced glands.

404
Gland- a gland is an organ that secrete a useful substance (hormones or
juices).

Types of glands
1. Endocrine glands 2. Exocrine glands
 Glands that secrete their hormones Glands that secrete there contents
directly into the blood stream through the duct. Contents are
without a duct. released to body surfaces not in the

405
 blood stream.
 Examples of endocrine glands are:
Pancreas, pituitary gland, thyroid Examples of exocrine glands are:
gland, thyroid stimulating sweat glands, salivary glands, tear hormone,
adrenal glands. Etc. glands. etc.

Why is pancreas considered as both endocrine

and exocrine gland?

406
 It is considered as endocrine gland because it secretes hormones; insulin and

glucagon directly into the blood stream but it also secretes pancreatic juice

(digestive juice) through a duct into small intestines thereby acting as

exocrine gland.

Characteristics of endocrine glands

407
 They are ductless; hormones are secreted directly into the blood stream
without a duct.

 They secrete hormones.

 The have a rich supply of blood capillaries.

Properties of hormones
 They are specific.

408
 They are transported by blood.

 They are small soluble organic molecules.

 They are effective in low concentration.

 They have an effect at a site different from where they are secreted.

The location of endocrine glands in the human

body

409
410
 1. Adrenal glands
 Adrenal glands are located at the top of each kidney.

 They produce a hormone called adrenaline. This hormone is produced by the

inner part of the adrenal gland known as adrenal medulla.

Cause of adrenaline secretion

 Conditions of anger, fear, stress and anxiety.

411
 Effects of adrenaline
It prepares the body to react to an emergency.

How does adrenaline prepares the body for an

action?
1. Increases heart rate and blood pressure so that blood flows faster around
the body to distribute glucose and oxygen to the muscle cells.
2. Constricts arterioles in the skin to facilitates formation of more tissue fluid
to the muscle cells to distribute glucose and oxygen for respiration.

412
3. Increases the rate of conversion of glycogen to glucose so that it can be used
for respiration.
4. Increases the rate of breathing so as to take in more oxygen to be used for
respiration.
5. Dilates pupils for the sight of the stimulus.

Effects of adrenaline under-secretion

 Slow response to danger.

413
 Fatigue.

 Body weakness.

Long-term effects of adrenaline

 Muscles become tense and painful.

 Headaches.

 Hypertension resulting to stroke and heart diseases.

414
 Stomach pain.

 Diarrhoea.

 Fatigue.

2. Thyroid gland
 Located around the larynx.

 The produce a hormone called thyroxine.

415
 Cause of secretion
 Stimulated by Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) produced by the
pituitary gland.

Effects of thyroxine
 Regulates metabolic rate of the body.

 Enhances the effect of growth hormone.

416
 Ensures normal growth and development.

Thyroxine stimulates formation of enzymes required for respiration that

releases energy required by chemical reactions in the body.

Effects of thyroxine hypo-secretion

 Swelling of thyroid gland (goitre).

 Rough skin.

417
 Tongue swells.

 Cretinism in children (stunted growth, mental retardation, deformed legs).

 Myxedema in adults (gains weight, hypothermia, respiratory depression).

Effects of thyroxine hyper-secretion

 Increase in breathing rate and heart rate.

 Individual become irritable.

418
 Individual often becomes very thin.

 Eyes protrude.

 Goitre.

3. Pancreas
 It produces insulin and glucagon hormones.

419
 Insulin and glucagon controls blood glucose levels in the body.

 These hormones are produced in the special cells of the pancreas known as
Islets of Langerhans.

1. Insulin
 Insulin is produced by beta cells of the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas.
 The target organ for the insulin hormone is the liver.

420
 Cause of insulin secretion
 An increase in blood glucose above the normal range.

Effects of insulin
It instructs liver cells to convert excess glucose to glycogen for storage in
the liver and the muscle cells.

Effects of insulin under-secretion

421
Diabetes mellitus – a condition whereby pancreas fails to produce insulin or
produces inadequate amounts. A person with diabetes mellitus has
abnormally high levels of glucose in the blood.

Symptoms of diabetes mellitus

 Presence of glucose in the urine
 Constantly feeling thirsty
 Loss of body weight
 Poor resistance to infections

422
Effects of insulin over-secretion
Hypoglycemia -blood glucose falls to abnormally low levels resulting to coma
and possibly death if not treated in time.

Symptoms of hypoglycemia
 Sweating

 Feeling tired

 Feeling hungry
423
 Pounding heartbeat

 Dizziness

2. Glucagon
Glucagon is produced by the alpha cells of Islets of Langerhans in the
pancreas. The target organ is the liver.

Cause of glucagon secretion (stimulus)

Decrease in blood glucose levels below normal range.
424
 Effects of glucagon
 It stimulates liver cells to convert glycogen into glucose until normal glucose
levels in the blood are achieved.

Regulation of blood glucose levels

 When blood glucose levels rises above set point, receptors of the Islets of
Langerhans in the pancreas detects the increase. As such, pancreatic cells
(Islets of Langerhans) starts to secret insulin hormone into the blood. Insulin
circulates in the blood to the liver. Insulin stimulates/instructs liver cells to
extract excess glucose from the blood which is then converted to glycogen,

425
 storage form of glucose. The glycogen is stored in the liver and the muscle
cells.

 As blood glucose levels falls to set point, pancreas slows down the production
of insulin.

Regulation of blood glucose levels conti…

 A fall in blood glucose levels below set point level is also detected by other
cells of the Islets of Langerhans. This results in secretion of another

426
 hormone, glucagon by the pancreatic cells (Islets of Langerhans) into the
blood.
Glucagon circulates in the blood to the liver. Glucagon stimulates liver cells
to break down glycogen to glucose which diffuses into the blood stream.

 As blood glucose levels returns to normal, secretion of glucagon hormone by

the pancreatic cells is reduced.

Blood vessels connected to the liver and their

glucose concentration after a carbohydrate meal.
427
428
 4. Pituitary gland
 A small red-grey gland, as big as pea, hanging from the base of the cerebrum.

 Pituitary gland is also called Master gland. This is because, despite that it
secretes hormones, it also controls the duties of other endocrine glands.

Location of pituitary gland in the brain

429
430
Pituitary gland produces the following hormones:

1. Anti-diuretic hormone (Vasopressin)

 Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) is produced in the hypothalamus but it is
stored and secreted by the pituitary gland.
 It is secreted by posterior pituitary gland.
 Kidney is the target organ for ADH.

431
 Effects of ADH
It regulates blood water levels in the body, hence plays a great role in
osmoregulation.
Cause of ADH secretion
 A decrease in water content in the blood below normal ranges.

Hormonal control of osmoregulation

 When there is an increase in blood osmotic pressure ( increase in salt
concentration in the blood/ decrease in water content of blood), receptors in
the hypothalamus detects and sends the nerve impulse to the pituitary gland.
432
 Pituitary gland secretes more ADH into the blood. ADH circulates in the
blood to the kidneys. In the kidneys, ADH stimulates the walls of collecting
ducts to become more permeable hence more water is reabsorbed from the
urine back into the blood system.
 Reabsorption of more water into the blood up to normal levels is also
detected by the hypothalamus receptors thereby sending nerve impulse to the
pituitary gland. Pituitary gland then slows down ADH secretion.

Factors that reduces water levels in the blood

 Drinking little amount of water.
433
 Increasing salt intake in meals.

 Excess sweating .

Effects of ADH under-secretion

Diabetes insipidus –a condition whereby kidney nephrons are unable to
reabsorb the required amount of water to the blood. This leads to production
of excessively large volumes of dilute urine. This is known as diuresis.

434
 This condition can be caused by insufficient secretion of ADH or due to
disease or injury.

 Urine becomes tasteless/insipidus.

 The condition leads to dehydration hence people with diabetes insipidus have
thirsty to drink a lot of water.

435
2. Growth hormone (Somatotropin)
Growth hormone (human growth hormone) is produced by the anterior
lobe of pituitary gland.

Effects of growth hormone

 It increases rate of protein synthesis in body cells thereby promoting body
growth and development.

 Maintains normal body structure.

436
 Stimulates lipid metabolism.

2. Growth hormone conti…

Effects of growth hormone under-secretion (deficiency)
 Dwarfism in children
 Decreased muscle tone
 Increased body fat especially around the belly

Effects of growth hormone over-secretion

 Gigantism in children
437
 Acromegaly in adults (enlargement of limbs)

3. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

FSH is released by the anterior pituitary gland.

Effects of FSH
 Stimulates ovaries to produce eggs (regulates development of graffian
follicles in the ovaries of females).
438
 Helps to manage menstrual cycle.

4. Luteinizing hormone (LH)

 Luteinizing hormone is secreted by the anterior pituitary gland.

Effects of luteinizing hormone

 Triggers ovulation in females.

439
5. Prolactin
 It is secreted by the anterior pituitary gland.

Effects of prolactin
 It regulates milk production in breastfeeding females.

440
6. Oxytocin
 It is secreted by the posterior pituitary gland.

Effects of oxytocin
 It triggers birth process/labour in females.

441
7. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
 It is secreted by the anterior pituitary gland.

Effects of TSH
 It stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine hormone.

442
 5. Ovaries
 They are found in the abdominal cavity of the females. Each female has two
ovaries.

 It produces oestrogen and progesterone hormones.

1. Progesterone
 It is produced by the corpus luteum in the ovary.
443
 It is also produced by the placenta during pregnancy.

Functions of progesterone
 It stimulates thickening of endometrium in readiness for implantation.

 Inhibit uterine contractions during pregnancy thereby maintaining the

pregnancy.

444
2. Oestrogen
 It is produced by the growing Graffian follicles in the ovary.
 It is also produced by the placenta during pregnancy.

Functions of oestrogen
 Development of secondary sexual characteristics in females.
 Growth of uterus during puberty.
 Responsible for initial growth of endometrium during menstrual cycle.

445
 Enlargement of breast and uterus during pregnancy.
 Enlargement of vagina.

6. Testes
 Found in males.
 It produces testosterone hormone.

Testosterone Functions of testosterone

 Development of male secondary sexual characteristics.
446
 Responsible for sperm production in males (spermatogenesis).
 Maintenance of libido in males.

Similarities between endocrine and nervous

systems

 Both of them are involved in the co-ordination of body activities.

447
 Both of them stimulate responses to specific stimuli. These responses are of

survival value to the organisms.

Difference between endocrine and nervous systems

Endocrine system 3. It is always involuntary.
1. Involves hormones which are 4. Responses can be short-lived or
chemical in nature. long-term.
2. Hormones are transported by 5. Hormones may affect more than
blood. one target organ.
448
6. Usually a slow response. 5. Nerve impulses are usually
Nervous system specific to certain body parts.
1. Involves nerve impulses which 6. There is a quick response.
are electrical in nature.
2. Nerve impulses are
transmitted by neurones.
3. It may be voluntary or
involuntary.
4. Responses are always
shortlived.

449
 .

TOPIC 5: IMMUNITY
Success criteria
 Describe the immune system.

 Outline the types of immunity.

 Explain how the first line defense works.

 Discuss the importance of vaccination.

 Explain how HIV weakens the immune system.

 Discuss organ transplant.

451
 Describe the ABO and rhesus factor systems.

 Describe factors to be considered before blood transfusion.

Understanding terms
Immunity is the ability of the body to resist infections or diseases.

Immune system is a collection of structures and processes in the body that

ensures body protection against disease attack.

452
An antigen is a protein that stimulates the production of an antibody.

A pathogen is a disease-causing organism.

Understanding terms conti….

An infection is the invasion and the growth of pathogens in the body.

453
A disease is any harmful deviation from the normal structural or functional

state of an organism generally associated with symptoms.

Types of immunity

1. Natural immunity

2. Artificial immunity
454
1. Natural immunity
Natural immunity is the immunity that comes from within the body itself.

It is divided into two:

i. Active natural immunity ii.

Passive natural immunity

455
1. Natural immunity conti…

a. Active natural immunity

Active natural immunity is the immunity that develops after recovering
from a disease.

 The organism makes its own antibodies plus memory cells as a result of
contact with the pathogens. Once the organism recovers from the disease, it

456
 can produce antibodies very quickly should the similar pathogen invade
again. In this way, the organism becomes immune to such specific pathogens.

 This immunity is long-lived.

1. Natural immunity conti…

b. Passive natural immunity

Passive natural immunity is the immunity that is obtained naturally by the
foetus or child from the mother.
457
It occurs in two ways:
1. Foetus gets antibodies from the mother through placenta during
pregnancy period.
2. Baby gets antibodies from the mother through breastfeeding milk.

This immunity is short-lived.

458
2. Artificial immunity
Artificial immunity is the immunity that is obtained by introducing antigens
or already made antibodies into the body in order to protect it from a
disease.

It is divided into two:

459
i. Active artificial immunity ii.

Passive artificial immunity

2. Artificial immunity conti…

a. Active artificial immunity

Active artificial immunity is the immunity that is induced by introducing
antigens into the body through the use of a vaccine.

460
 Vaccine stimulates the body to recognize certain disease antigens so that the
body can respond to them when they invade.

 This immunity usually last longer.

2. Artificial immunity conti…

b. Passive artificial immunity

461
Passive artificial immunity is the immunity that comes from using
antibodies produced in one organism to protect another organism against
specific pathogens.

 The antibodies are usually extracted from the serum of an animal that has
recovered from such a disease.

 This immunity does not last long.

462
Cells involved in immunity
The cells involved in immunity are:

i. Phagocytes ii. Lymphocytes

Efforts of these cells are part of second line defense.

463
1. Phagocytes
 These are white blood cells that kill pathogens by engulfing and digesting
them.

 They include neutrophils and monocytes.

 Phagocytes are released during non-specific immune response.

 When there is a body cut, body releases protein histamine which makes the
cut red, hot and inflammed. This results into an influx of phagocytes that

464
 kills any pathogen trying to enter the body through the cut, a process called
phagocytosis.

2. Lymphocytes
There are two types of lymphocytes and these are:
1. T-lymphocytes 2. B-lymphocytes
 They are produced under specific immune response.

465
 Lymphocytes responds in two ways when approached by pathogens. i. Cell
mediated response ii. Humoral response

2. Lymphocytes conti…

i. Cell mediated immune response

 It involves T-lymphocytes (cells) that attack foreign antigens directly.
 When T-lymphocytes bind to antigens, the differentiate into memory cells
and effector cells.
466
 There are three types of effector cells and these are:
1. T-helper cells
2. Killer T cells
3. Suppressor cells

2. Lymphocytes conti…

i. Cell mediated immune response conti…

467
Functions of t-helper cells
 Stimulates B-lymphocytes to start functioning.

 Activates phagocytes to engulf and digests pathogens.

 Activates killer t cells to start killing targeted cells.

2. Lymphocytes conti…

i. Cell mediated immune response conti…

468
Functions of killer T cells
 Kills body cells that have been infected with the pathogens.

 Attack cancer-causing cells.

 Attack transplanted organs and tissues.

2. Lymphocytes conti…

469
i. Cell mediated immune response conti…
Function of suppressor cells
Responsible for making killer t cells to stop killing targeted cells.

T-lymphocytes are produced by the thymus

2. Lymphocytes conti… ii.

Humoral immune response

470
 It involves B-lymphocytes.

 When B-lymphocytes come into contact with pathogens, they differentiate to

memory cells and effector cells.

Memory cells -store information about the whole immune response/attack.

2. Lymphocytes conti… ii. Humoral
immune response conti…
Effector cells -produce antibodies that attack pathogens in following ways:

471
1. Anti-toxins –antibodies that neutralize toxins produced by the pathogens.

2. Lysins –antibodies that kill pathogens by dissolving them.

3. Agglutinins –antibodies that clamp pathogens together.

4. Opsonins –they adhere to the outercoat of the pathogen so that phagocytes

can destroy the pathogen easily.

Effector cells live for few days whereas memory cells survive for long period
of time and enable a rapid response during re-infection.
472
Antibody levels for a certain infection in the body

473
474
Antibody levels for a certain infection in the body
conti….
 The primary immune response takes longer to develop compared to the
secondary immune response. It can be observed from the graph that primary
immune response starts at time zero and gradually increases over time,
reaching its peak concentration of antibodies at a later time while secondary
immune response starts at a higher concentration of antibodies and reaches
its peak earlier.

475
 During primary immune response, the immune system needs time to
recognize the pathogen, activate specific immune cells and produce
antibodies. In secondary immune response, memory B cells are already
present from the initial exposure hence allowing for a faster and more
efficient response.

Body defenses
 There are first line and second line body defenses.

476
 First line defense is the defense mechanism that prevents the entry of
pathogens into the body while second line defense deals with pathogens
which have breached the first line of defense.

 First line defense provides the entry barriers for pathogens.

First line defense includes:

1. Skin
2. Stomach hydrochloric acid

477
3. Earwax
4. Blood clotting
5. Mucus
6. Cilia
7. Tears
8. Symbiotic defense
First line defense conti…

1. Skin
478
 The outer layer of the skin (cornfield layer) consists of dead cells which
creates a strong barrier that prevents the entry of pathogens.

 Sweat and sebum contains enzymes that kill or inactivates pathogens.

 Sebum oil (body oil) traps dust and germs which are then removed by
bathing.

479
First line defense conti…

2. Blood clotting
Blood clotting seals the body cut by forming a meshwork of fibrin fibers.
This prevents the entry of pathogens into the body through body cuts.

3. Tears
480
Tears are a watery secretion produced by tear glands. Tears contain lytic
enzymes called lysozymes that kill pathogens that are trying to enter the
body through eyes.

First line defense conti…

4. Mucus

481
Mucus is a sticky watery liquid found in certain body openings like the
trachea. It is produced by goblet cells.

 It traps germs and dust particles trying to enter the lungs.

 Mucus contains lysozymes that destroys certain pathogens.

First line defense conti…

5. Cilia
482
Cilia are tiny hair-like structures that line inside some body parts e.g
trachea.

 Cilia move back and forth to trap and sweep pathogen upwards hence
preventing them from entering the lungs.

 With the help of mucus, such pathogens are expelled through the process of
coughing and sneezing.

483
First line defense conti…

6. Stomach hydrochloric acid

It is produced by the gastric glands of the stomach walls.

Hydrochloric acid kills pathogens that come into the stomach with food.

7. Earwax
484
Earwax traps dust and germs thereby preventing the entry of pathogens
through the ear. Earwax is sticky in nature.

First line defense conti…

8. Symbiotic defense
Symbiosis is a relationship whereby two organisms live together and benefit
from each other.

485
Escherichia coli (E. Coli) live in the small intestines of the baby and gets
nutrients in there but it also kills harmful bacteria which can be found in
these intestines.

Vaccinations
A vaccine is a substance used to stimulate immunity to a particular
infectious pathogen in the body, typically prepared from inactivated or
weakened form of pathogen or its constituents.

486
Also defined as a biological preparation of antigens that are artificially
introduced into the organism’s body in order to increase body's ability to
produce antibodies against particular pathogens.

Vaccinations conti…
These antigens are introduced into the human body by injection or orally by
mouth in a process called vaccination/immunization.

487
A vaccine does not cause disease but rather triggers an immune response to
build defense mechanism that continuously guard the body against the
disease.

Vaccinations conti…

How vaccination works

488
The vaccine makes the body to respond by producing specific antibodies
and memory cells as if it is under actual primary infection. These antibodies
make the organism immune to the targeted disease. Memory cells keep the
information and enable a rapid immune response during actual infection by
a particular pathogen.

489
Vaccinations conti…

Examples of diseases that are controlled by

490
vaccination
 Measles  Rubella Smallpox
 Rabies  Cholera
 Polio  Pneumonia
 Diphtheria  Smallpox
 Tetanus  Typhoid
 Tuberculosis  Whooping
cough

491
Vaccinations conti…

Importance of vaccination
 It helps the body to learn how to produce antibodies and combat an
infection.

 Vaccines helps to prevent the spread of some infectious diseases.

492
 It enables children and young people to grow strong and health since they
are immunized from harmful infections.

HIV and immunity

Effects of HIV on helper T-cells
HIV attacks the helper t-cells by binding itself to cluster determinate 4
(CD4), a protein found on the surface of helper t-cells. HIV replicates in
helper tcells to form new viruses which infects other helper t-cells leaving
493
 the former helper t-cells dead. The more the virus multiplies, the more the
helper t-cells get killed.

HIV and immunity conti…

How HIV weakens the immune system

 HIV destroys helper t-cells. It binds itself to CD-4 of helper t-cells before
invading them. As helper t-cells are being destroyed, more HIV is released
to attack other helper t-cells thereby reducing their population in the body.
494
 Depletion of helper t-cells means killer t-cells and b-lymphocytes cannot be
stimulated to fight an infection hence an immune response is not launched.
This weakens the body immunity leading to opportunistic infections and
onset of AIDS.

495
HIV and immunity conti…

The role of lymphatic system on HIV immune

response
The lymphatic system produces white blood cells which are used by the

body to attack virus directly or by producing antibodies.

496
 The ABO and Rhesus factor blood systems

i. ABO blood group system

 The red blood cells of human beings have special type of antigens which
determines the blood group of an individual. Such antigens are antigen A
and antigen B.

i. ABO blood group system conti…

497
 People with only antigen A on their red blood cells belong to blood group A.

 People with only antigen B on their red blood cells have blood group B.

 People with both antigens A and B on their red blood cells have blood group
AB.

 People with no antigens A and B on their red blood cells belong to blood
group O.

498
i. ABO blood group system conti…
Antigens and blood groups
Antigens on red blood cells Blood group

A A

B B

499
 A and B AB

No antigens A and B O

i. ABO blood group system conti…

Antigens ( A and B) versus antibodies ( b and a)

 People with antigen A on their red blood cells (blood group A) produces
antibody b in their blood plasma.
500
 People with antigen B on their red blood cells (blood group B) produces
antibody a in their blood plasma.
 People with both antigens A and B on their red blood cells (blood group AB)
have no antibody b and a in their blood plasma.
 People with no antigens A and B on their red blood cells (blood group O)
have both antibody b and a in their blood plasma.

501
i. ABO blood group system conti…

Antigens, antibodies and blood group

Blood group A B AB O

Antigens A B A and B None

Antibodies b a None a and b

385
i. ABO blood group system conti…

Antigens, antibodies and blood group conti…

 Antigens and antibodies that correspond to each other are never found
together in the same individual.

 If by accident, corresponding antigens and antibodies happen to be found in

a person’s blood possibly due to unchecked blood transfusion, agglutination
occurs.
Agglutination is the sticking together of a person’s red blood cells due to
formation of antibody-antigen complexes.
386
i. ABO blood group system conti…

Determining the blood group of an individual

Procedure
 Prepare Anti-A serum (serum with antibodies a) and Anti-B serum (serum
with antibodies b) into two separate Petri dishes.

 Collect the sample of blood from an individual.

 Place some drops of the collected blood to Anti-A and Anti-B serum and
observe the results.
387
i. ABO blood group system conti…

Determining the blood group of an individual conti…

Results
 If blood agglutinates only on Anti-A serum but not on Anti-B serum, blood
group is A.
 If blood agglutinates only on Anti-B serum but not on Anti-A serum, blood
group is B.
 If blood agglutinates in both Anti-B serum and Anti-A serum, blood group is
AB.
 If there is no agglutination in both Anti-A and Anti-B serum, blood group is
O.
i. ABO blood group system conti…

508
Compatibility table of blood groups
Blood donor Group O Group A Group B Group AB
Blood
recipient
Group O Yes No No No

Group A Yes Yes No No

Group B Yes No Yes No

 Group AB Yes Yes Yes Yes

389
i. ABO blood group system conti…

Compatibility of blood groups conti…

 A person with blood group AB is a universal recipient. This is because he has
no antibodies a and b in his blood plasma that would clamp donated blood
hence he can receive blood from all blood groups.

510
 A person with blood group O is a universal donor. This is because she has no
A or B antigens on her red blood cells that would trigger production of
antibodies a or b in the recipient body to cause agglutination. As such, she
can donate blood to all blood groups.
The ABO and Rhesus factor blood systems conti…

ii. The Rhesus factor blood system

Rhesus factor (Rhesus antigen or antigen D) is another antigen found on
the surface of red blood cells of some people.

512
Individuals with this antigen are said to be rhesus positive (rh+) while
those who do not have it are said to be rhesus negative (rh-).

ii. The Rhesus factor blood system conti…

 Rh- blood does not normally have antibodies against Rh+ in the plasma.
However, when the Rh+ blood is introduced in Rh- individual, the body
produces antibodies against Rh+ antigens and cause a minor agglutination.

513
 If Rh- individual is given Rh+ blood for the second time, antibodies against
Rh+ are already present in the blood which causes agglutination of the
coming blood. This could lead to the death of the victim.

Blood transfusion
Blood transfusion is the process of putting donated blood into the recipient

body.

514
Blood donor is a person who voluntarily gives blood to another person.

Blood recipient is a person who receives donated blood.

515
Factors to be considered before blood transfusion
1. ABO blood group compatibility.
2. HIV/AIDS.
3. Syphilis.
4. Hepatitis.
5. Malaria.
6. Anaemia.
7. Rhesus factor.
 8. Age of the donor.

394
Factors to be considered before blood transfusion
conti…

1. ABO blood group compatibility

A recipient must be given compatible blood to their type. This is done to
avoid agglutination which may result in blockage of blood vessels thereby
disturbing oxygen and nutrients supply. This may lead to death.
517
2. HIV/AIDS
Blood of the donor should be tested for HIV before transfusion to avoid
infecting the recipient.
Factors to be considered before blood transfusion
conti…

3. Syphilis
Blood from a person suffering from syphilis should not be used for
transfusion to prevent infecting the recipient.
518
4. Hepatitis
Blood from individuals suffering from hepatitis should not be used for
transfusion because hepatitis virus can be transmitted through blood.

519
Factors to be considered before blood transfusion
conti…

5. Malaria
People suffering from malaria are at high risk of low red blood count
hence they must not donate blood and also to prevent transmission of
plasmodium to the recipient blood.

520
6. Anaemia
People who are anaemic have low red blood cell count. To avoid death due
to low levels of oxygen transported, they must not donate blood.

521
Factors to be considered before blood transfusion
conti…

7. Rhesus factor
Rhesus factor positive individuals must not donate blood to rhesus factor
negative recipients to prevent agglutination.

522
8. Age of the donor
The blood donor should not be too old or too young for faster blood
replacement. The donor must within the age range of 16-65 years old.

Organ transplant
Organ transplant is the moving of an organ from one body to another to
replace a damaged or absent organ.

523
 The major difficulty in organ transplant is organ rejection by the recipient
body.

524
Examples of organs that can be transplanted
 Kidney
 Heart
 Skin
 Liver
 Heart
 Intestines
 Skin

525
 Pancreas etc.

400
Factors to be considered before organ transplant
1. Tissue matching
It is preferably that tissues must come from relatives to reduce the risk of
tissue rejection.
2. Health condition of the donor
Ensuring that the donor does not put themselves at health risk by
donating the organ.

527
Factors to be considered before organ transplant
conti…
3. Use of immuno-depressant drugs
The recipient is given drugs that suppress production of antibodies against
the transplanted organ hence preventing organ rejection.
4. Exposing of bone marrow and lymph tissue to radiation by x-rays.
This prevents production of white blood cells that produces antibodies
against transplanted tissues or organs. 402

Factors to be considered before organ transplant

conti…

529
5. STIs screening
Screening the blood of the organ donor for STIs to prevent transmission to
the recipient.

6. Blood group compatibility.

7. Age of the donor.

 .

531
TOPIC 6: GENETICS
Success criteria
 Describe principles underlying mendelian genetics.
 Work out ratios of genotypes and phenotypes of offsprings in monohybrid
crosses up to F2 generation.
 Explain how sex and sex linkages are determined in human beings.
 Describe the processes of cell divisions in humans.
 Describe the relationship amongst chromosomes, DNA and genes.
 State the causes of variations among organisms of the same species.
 Describe how mutations occur.
 Describe types of variations.
 Describe the variations among organisms using statistical terms.

533
Genetics I

Understanding genetic terms

Genetics- it is the scientific study of inheritance of characteristics from
parents to offsprings.

 The study of heredity and variation.

 The scientific study of a gene.

534
Understanding genetic terms conti…
Heredity- the passing/acquisition of traits/characters from parents to
offsprings.

 The characters may include:

Colour of eyes, height, sex, skin colour, blood group, ability to roll tongue etc.

 Traits that are acquired during the organisms life time cannot be passed to
offsprings. Such traits include:

535
Pierced ears, body tattoos, bleached hair, large muscles due to weight lifting etc.

Understanding genetic terms conti…

Variation- these are differences among organisms of the same species as well
as those of different species.

Chromosomes- theses are linear strands of DNA on which genes are located
in the nucleus.

Gene- it is a segment of DNA responsible for controlling certain specific

trait.
536
 It is a basic unit heredity.

Locus- the position of a gene in a DNA/chromosome.

Understanding genetic terms conti…

Allele- an alternative form of the same gene.
 There are two copies of each gene for a particular trait at a given locus, one
copy from the mother and another copy from the father. These copies are
called alleles.

537
oDominant allele- an allele which influences the phenotype for a particular
trait even in the presence of an alternative allele. It is represented by a
capital letter.

oRecessive allele- an allele that cannot influence a trait to develop in an

individual in the presence of a dominant allele.
 It is represented by a lowercase letter.

538
Genotype- it is the genetic make-up of an organism for a particular trait.

 The genotype can be homozygous or heterozygous. (homo=same,

hetero=different).

 The genotype is expressed with alphabet letters.

Understanding genetic terms conti…

539
Understanding genetic terms conti…
Homozygous (pure breed)- it is a condition in which an organism has two
identical alleles for a particular trait (at a given locus).

 There is homozygous dominant (all alleles at a given locus being dominant,

BB) or homozygous recessive (all alleles at a given locus being recessive, bb).

Heterozygous (hybrid)- a condition in which an organism has two different

alleles for a particular trait (Bb).

540
Phenotype- this is the physical characteristic/appearance of an organism
due to the influence of the genotype and the environment.

 It is expressed in words such as tall, short, red flower, red eyes etc.

Understanding genetic terms conti…

Example: An allele for black colour is represented by B while an allele for
white colour is represented by b in flowers. Complete the table below.
Condition Genotype Phenotype

541
Understanding genetic terms conti…
Homozygous dominant

Homozygous recessive

Heterozygous

F1 generation (first filial generation)- offsprings produced from a cross

between two homozygotes.

542
F2 generation (second filial generation)- offsprings produced from a cross
between heterozygous parents.

Mendelian genetics
Gregor Mendel

 He was an Austrian monk who carried out investigations on the inheritance

of characteristics.

543
Understanding genetic terms conti…
 He conducted a series of breeding experiments using pea plants. After these
series of experiments, Mendel formulated genetic principles which are
known as Principles of Mendelian genetics.

544
Principles of Mendelian genetics
1. Alleles of the same gene pass into separate cells during gamete formation.
(However, during fertilization each offspring receives one allele so the pair
of alleles which controls a particular trait is restored; Law of segregation).

2. Alleles of the same gene do not blend.

When two different alleles (dominant and recessive) are present at the
locus, only the dominant allele will express its effect in the phenotype while
the recessive is hidden. This is called Law of dominance.

545
Principles of Mendelian genetics conti…
3. Alleles of the same gene are inherited independently.
Inheritance of trait such as height does not influence inheritance of
another trait such as skin colour. This is because alleles of different genes
separate independently of one another during gamete formation; law of
independent assortment.

4. Characters are controlled by a pair of alleles (gene).

546
Monohybrid crosses
Monohybrid cross is a genetic cross that shows inheritance of alleles that
controls a single trait.

There are two ways of illustrating monohybrid crosses and these are:

1. Cross diagram.

2. Punnet square.

547
Monohybrid crosses conti…

1. Cross diagram

548
549
Monohybrid crosses conti…

2. Punnet square

550
551
Monohybrid crosses conti…

Examples of monohybrid crosses

1. Dwarfism is a human characteristic in which a person is abnormally short.
An allele T for tallness is dominant over an allele t for shortness.

a. Draw a well labelled cross diagram between a pure tall man and a pure
dwarf woman.

552
b. If a man and a woman are both heterozygous for this trait and they
marry, show their possible offsprings and write down the genotypic and
phenotypic ratios.

553
Monohybrid crosses conti…
Examples of monohybrid crosses conti…
2. Pure breeding cattle with horns were crossed with pure breeding cattle
without horns. All the F1 cattle were hornless. Use H for the dominant allele
and h for the recessive.

i. Give the possible genotypes of the two parents and the F1 cattle. (3marks)
ii. If F1 offsprings were mated against themselves, write down results of such
cross diagram showing the genotypes and phenotypes of the offsprings.
(5marks) iii. If the F2 had 288 offsprings, how many of them were hornless.
(3marks)422

Monohybrid crosses conti…

555
Examples of monohybrid crosses conti…
3. Albinism is an inherited condition that affects the skin. It is caused by a
recessive allele. Use N to represent an allele for normal skin and n to represent
an allele for albinism.

i. Given two possible genotypes of a person with a normal skin. (2marks)

ii. Draw a cross-diagram to show a cross between two heterozygous parents

of the above condition, show the genotype and phenotype ratios. (5marks)
556
Monohybrid crosses conti…
Examples of monohybrid crosses conti…
4. In mice, a gene for coat colour has two alleles. There is dominant allele, G, for
grey colour and a recessive allele, g, for white colour.
a. Write down the genotype of the mice with the following phenotypes.
Phenotype Genotype
Grey (homozygous)

Grey (heterozygous)

557
 White (homozygous)
b. i. Using a cross diagram, show the results of cross between a grey heterozygous
mouse and a white mouse. Show the genotypic and phenotypic ratios.
ii. If the mice produced 192 offsprings, how many mice would be white?

Sex determination in humans

 Human beings have 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 individual chromosomes).

558
 22 pairs of chromosomes determine body characteristics exception of sexual
traits. They are called autosomal chromosomes (autosomes).

 23rd pair of chromosomes are called sex chromosomes. This is because they
carry genes that determines the sex of an individual.

Sex determination in humans conti…

 There are two types of sex chromosomes
559
1. X-chromosome
2. Y-chromosome

An allele responsible for maleness is located on Y-chromosome and is

dominant, while an allele for femaleness is located on X-chromosome and it is
recessive. This implies that:
1. XX results to female (homogametic)
2. XY results to male (heterogametic)

560
Sex determination in humans conti… 561
The cross between a male and a female parent

562
Sex determination in humans conti…
 The cross shows that there is 50% chance of having a boy or a girl child since
the ratio of maleness to femaleness is 1:1. Chances of getting either a boy or
girl child for every conception are the same.
Chromosomes Examples of Phenotype
(genotype) sexual traits that
develop

563
 XX Ovaries Female
Uterus
Vagina
XY Testes Male
Penis
Sex linkage
Sex linked genes- these are genes that are found on the sex chromosomes and
they are inherited together with genes that determine the sex of an organism.

564
Sex linked traits- these are traits of an individual that are influenced by
genes found on the sex chromosomes.
 Traits that develop in an individual due to sex-linked genes.
 These traits are influenced by the genes (alleles) found mostly on
nonhomologous part of X-chromosome.
 Sex-linked traits are mostly caused by recessive genes found on the
Xchromosome.

Sex linkage conti…

565
 Since males have one X-chromosome (XY), they require only one recessive
allele to develop the sex-linked trait than females who require two alleles
because they have two X-chromosomes (XX). As such, sex-linked traits
develop more in males than females.
 Alleles of sex-linked traits (X-linked traits) are shown in the genotype by a
superscript letter on the X-chromosome. (XhY, XHY, XHXH, XHXh, XhXh)
Examples of sex-linked traits are:
oColour blindness
oHaemophilia

566
oHairy nose
oBaldness

Sex-linked traits

1. Haemophilia
 Haemophilia is an inherited disorder in which blood fails to clot or takes time
to clot after an injury.
 It is a sex-linked trait in which the recessive allele on the X-chromosome
prevents the formation of factor VIII responsible for blood clotting. A
567
 dominant allele codes for normal production of factor VIII while the
recessive allele does not.
 The dominant allele is represented with capital letter H while the recessive
allele is represented by small letter h. (XH, Xh ).

Sex-linked traits
1. Haemophilia conti…
Possible genotypes and phenotypes related to haemophilia
Genotype Clotting factor Phenotype
XHXH Normal Normal female
568
XHXh Normal (carrier) Carrier
XhXh Defective Haemophiliac female
XHY Normal Normal male
XhY Defective Haemophiliac male
Heterozygous female is called a carrier because the recessive allele for
haemophilia does not show phenotypically due to the presence of a
dominant allele, but it can be passed on to the next generation.
Sex-linked traits
1. Haemophilia conti…
s

569
A cross between a normal male and a female carrier
Female (carrier) Male (normal)

XH Y
XH Xh

XH Xh XH Y

XH XH XH Y XH Xh Xh Y

570
Sex-linked traits

2. Colour blindness (Red-green colour blindness)

 Colour vision is determined by a pair of alleles that are sex-linked, found on
the X-chromosome and absent on Y-chromosome.

 The allele for abnormal colour vision (colour blindness) is recessive (Xc). This
brings a condition called red-green colour blindness; the inability of an

571
individual to distinguish red from green colours. The dominant allele codes
for normal colour vision (XC).

572
Sex-linked traits

2. Colour blindness conti…

Genotype Phenotype

XCXC Normal female

XCXc Carrier

XcXc Colour blind female

574
XCY Normal male

X cY Colour blind male

Possible genotypes and phenotypes related to colour blindness

575
 435
Cell division
Understanding related terms
Cell division- it the process by which a cell (parent cell) divides into two or
more cells (daughter cells).
 Cells are formed from an already existing cell.

Diploid cell- a cell with full set of chromosomes.

576
 In humans, a diploid cell has 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).

Haploid cell- a cell with half the full set of chromosomes.

 In humans, a haploid cell has 23 chromosomes.

Importance of cell division

1. For growth of an organism

2. Repairing of tissues of an organism

577
3. Formation of gametes

4. Formation of new organism (asexual reproduction)

5. It causes genetic variation in organisms due to crossing over that occurs

during prophase I.

Types of cell division

1. Mitosis

578
2. Meiosis

579
a. Mitosis
Mitosis- it is the type of cell division in which a diploid parent cell produces
two genetically identical diploid cells as their parent cell.

 Mitosis occurs in somatic cells (general body cells) such as muscles, blood
etc.

 Mitosis is also called copying cell division because daughter cells produced
are identical to the parent cell.
580
 Mitosis occurs in five stages which are; interphase, prophase, metaphase,
anaphase and telophase (IPMAT)

Stages of mitosis
1. Interphase (resting stage)
 Chromosomes are not visible at this stage because they are thin and twisted
into structure called chromatin.

581
 DNA replicates as such chromosomes also replicates (doubles itself) into two

sister chromatids. (They form identical copies) Other cell organelles also

replicate.

 A lot of energy is required at this stage.

Stages of mitosis conti…

582
1. Interphase conti…
A cell at interphase

583
Stages of mitosis conti…
2. Prophase
 Chromosomes condense and become visible under microscope.

 Nuclear membrane (envelop) vanishes.

 Spindle fibres forms.

584
 Centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell.

Stages of mitosis conti…

585
2. Prophase conti…
A cell at prophase

586
587
Stages of mitosis conti… 3.
Metaphase
 Chromosomes line up at the equator.

588
 Spindle fibres attach to the centromere and starts to contract. A cell at
metaphase

589
Stages of mitosis conti…
4. Anaphase
 Centromeres split and spindle fibres shorten to cause separation of the two
chromatids.

590
 Chromatids move to opposite poles of the cell.
A cell at anaphase

591
Stages of mitosis conti…
5. Telophase
 Chromatids reach the poles and become chromosomes.

 Spindle fibres dissolves.

 Nuclear membrane forms.

592
 Cytokinesis begins.

 Cell divides.

593
 5. Telophase conti…
A cell at telophase

594
Stages of mitosis conti…
Summary of mitosis

Importance of mitosis
595
1. It enables the growth of an organism, when new cells are formed an
organism increases in size.

2. It helps in body tissue repairing as new cells are produced to cover where
damaged cells were.

3. The process of asexual reproduction needs mitosis.

b. Meiosis
596
Meiosis- this is the type of cell division in which a diploid parent cell divides
into four haploid daughter cells which are genetically different among
themselves as well as from their parent cell.
 The daughter cells have half the number of chromosomes as their parent
cell.
 Meiosis occurs in reproductive organs (gonads); testes and ovaries.
 Meiosis is also called reduction division because it halves the number of
chromosomes in cells.
 Meiosis occurs in two phases (meiosis I and meiosis II) where two nuclear
divisions occur.
597
Stages of meiosis I

Prophase I
 Chromosomes contract, shorten and become more visible.
 Nuclear membrane vanishes/breaks.
 Homologous chromosomes (bivalents) pair up to form tetrads. A process
called synapsis.
 Chromatids of homologous chromosomes wrap around each other and
become joined at certain points called chiasmata.
598
 Homologous chromosomes exchange portions of chromatids at the
chiasmata, process called crossing over.

Stages of meiosis I conti… Prophase I conti…

A cell at prophase I

599
600
Stages of meiosis I conti… Prophase I conti…
Process of crossing over

601
602
Stages of meiosis I conti… Metaphase I
 Bivalents line up at the equator.

603
 Spindle fibres fully developed and attach to chromosomes. A cell at
metaphase I

604
Stages of meiosis I conti…

605
Anaphase I
Bivalents are separated by spindle fibres and move towards the opposite
poles.

606
A cell at anaphase I

607
Stages of meiosis I conti…
A cell at telophase I

608
Telophase I

609
 Spindle fibres disappear.

 Nuclear membrane may form around the two sets of chromosomes or not
depending on the time taken to meiosis II.

 Cleavage starts to form and two daughter cells are formed.

610
Stages of meiosis II

Prophase II A cell at prophase II

611
 Chromosomes condense and
become visible and microscope.

 New spindle fibres form.

 Nuclear membrane vanishes.

Stages of meiosis II
conti…
A cell at metaphase II

612
Metaphase II

613
 Centrioles replicate and move to opposite poles.

 Chromosomes line up at the equator and are attached by spindle fibres at

centromeres.

Stages of meiosis II conti…

A cell at anaphase II

614
Anaphase II

615
Centromeres break and chromatids of each chromosome move towards
opposite poles to become chromosomes.

A cell telophase II
Stages of meiosis II conti…

616
Telophase II

617
 Nuclear membrane forms around new chromosomes.

 The cell divides and cytoplasm divides into two daughter cells.

 Four haploid cells are now formed.

618
 619
Summary of meiosis
Importance of meiosis
1. Formation of gametes.

2. It causes genetic variation in organisms due to crossing over that occurs

during prophase I.

Differences between mitosis and meiosis

620
Mitosis Meiosis
1. Occurs in somatic cells. 1. Occurs in gonads only.
2. Two daughter cells are 2. Four daughter cells are
formed. formed.
3. Diploid daughter cells are 3. Haploid daughter cells are
produced. produced.
4. Daughter cells are genetically 4. Daughter cells are genetically
identical. different.
5. Crossing over does not occur. 5. Crossing over occurs.

621
 Genes, DNA and chromosomes

1. Chromosomes
Chromosomes- these are linear strands of DNA on which genes are located
in the nucleus of the cell.
 They are found in both plant and animal cells.
 Chromosomes are composed of:
1. DNA

622
2. Proteins called histones.
Number of chromosomes in the nucleus varies according to the species. In
humans, it is 46.

Chromosomes conti…
 Somatic cells have a full set of chromosomes while gametes have half of the
full set of the chromosomes.

623
 Chromosomes exist in pairs called homologous pairs. Each chromosome on
the pair is inherited from a different parent (mother and father). Together,
there are 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes.

 Homologous chromosomes have same length, same shape but may have
different corresponding genetic composition.

Chromosomes conti…
Homologous chromosomes

624
625
Chromosomes conti…
Diploid cell Haploid cell

626
Chromosomes conti…

627
Types of chromosomes
There are two types of chromosomes and these are:

1. Autosomal chromosomes (autosomes)- chromosomes that carry genes that

determines body traits apart from sex of an individual (22 pairs).

2. Sex chromosomes- chromosomes that carry genes that determines sex of

an individual (1 pair).

628
Chromosomes conti…

629
During cell division, chromosomes replicate to form similar strands which
are called chromatids. Chromatids are joined at a point called centromere.

630
Functions of chromosomes
1. They carry genes which are basic units of heredity.

2. They permit DNA to replicate to ensure that all cells contain the necessary
genetic information.

631
2. DNA
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)- this is a complex molecule found in
chromosomes. It stores genetic information.

 DNA belongs to a group of chemical compounds called nucleic acids.

632
 DNA is a polymer made up of monomers called nucleotides.

DNA conti…
Components of DNA
1. Pentose sugar (deoxyribose sugar)
2. Phosphate group
3. Nitrogen containing bases

There are four bases in DNA nucleotides

1. Adenine (A)
633
2. Guanine (G)
3. Cytosine (C)
4. Thymine (T)

DNA conti…
 Adenine pairs with thymine (AT) while guanine pairs with cytosine (GC).

 A chromosome is composed of one very long DNA molecule made up of two

strands arranged parallel to each other. They are twisted and appear like
coiled ladder, a shape called double helix.
634
DNA conti…
DNA structure

635
DNA conti…

Functions of DNA
1. DNA stores an organism’s genetic information in a nucleus.

2. It controls traits of an organism since it has genes that controls production

of proteins.

636
3. Pass on genetic information from one generation to another.

Relationship between DNA, chromosomes and

genes
DNA is passed on from parents to offsprings in form of chromosomes.

Genes are segments of the DNA. In brief, genes are sections of DNA while

DNA is carried by the chromosome.

637
 GENETICS II

Variations among organisms

Variations- these are differences in traits among organisms in a given
species.

 Variations in organisms of the same species are called intra-species

variations.

638
 Variations in organisms of different species are called inter-species
variation.

Causes of variations among organisms of same

species
1. Age

2. Heredity

639
3. Environment

4. Mutations

5. Meiosis
Causes of variations among organisms of same
species conti…
1. Age

640
Characteristics develop with age. As such, differences in age results to
differences in traits such as body weight, height, voice and others in
offsprings produced from the same parent.

2. Heredity
Different offsprings inherit different genes from parents which leads to
development of different traits in them.

Causes of variations among organisms of same

species conti…
641
3. Environment
Environmental factors such as diet, climate, diseases, accidents and others
cause variations in organisms even if they are identical twins. For example,
differences in diet may lead to differences in height as well as body mass.

4. Mutations
Sudden changes in the structure and amount of the genetic material bring
changes in offsprings. Mutations which occur in gametes may be passed
from one generation to another hence causing variations.

642
Causes of variations among organisms of same
species conti…
5. Meiosis

 Due to crossing over which occurs during prophase I, paternal and maternal
chromosomes exchange portions of chromatids hence all gametes formed
are different. This leads to variations.

643
Types of variations
 There are two types of variations and these are:

1. Continuous variations.

2. Discontinuous variations.

644
1. Continuous variations
Continuous variations- these are variations in which organisms of the same
species do not show clear cut differences for a particular trait.
 Both heredity and environment influences continuous variations.

Examples of continuous variations include:

 Skin colour Height
 Intelligence

645
 Body mass etc.

1. Continuous variations conti…

Characteristics of continuous variations

 They are affected by the environment.

 They are controlled by multiple genes.

 They can be measured and given a numerical value.

646
 They have many intermediate forms in between.

 Every organism show the trait to some extent.

2. Discontinuous variations
Discontinuous variations- these are variations in which organisms of the
same species shows a clear cut difference for a particular trait.
 These variations are influenced by genes alone.

Examples of discontinuous variations include:

647
 Blood group (A, AB, B, O)
 Sex (male or female)
 Tongue rolling (tongue roller or non-roller)

2. Discontinuous variations conti…

Characteristics of discontinuous variations
 They have no intermediate forms.

 They are controlled by one or few genes.

648
 They can not be measured.

 They are not affected by the environment.

 An organism can either have the trait or not.

Differences between continuous and

discontinuous Continuous variations
1. Involves a range of phenotypes
variations from one extreme to another.
2. Controlled by many genes.
649
3. They are modified by the 2. Controlled by one or few genes.
environment. 3. They can not be modified by the
4. Genes show additive effects. environment.
5. Not easily distinguishable traits. 4. Genes do not show additive
effects.
Discontinuous variations
1. There are clear-cut differences 5. Easily distinguishable traits.
between phenotypes.

650
Investigating variations in a classroom

1. Investigating variations in height of students

Procedure
 Ask each member of the class to stand straight against vertical wall.

 Measure the height of each student from the heel to the top of the head
using meter rule/height board and record the results in a notebook.
651
 Make a frequency table for these results.

 Draw a histogram to make the data meaningful.

Investigating variations in a classroom conti…

1. Investigating variations in height of students conti…

Expected results
The results may show different ranges in the height of the students.

652
Conclusion
Presence of numerous ranges for the height of students show that height
is part of continuous variations.

653
Investigating variations in a classroom conti…

2. Investigating variations in tongue rolling ability

among students
Procedure
 Let the students of your classroom try to roll their tongue to form a Ushape.

654
 Count the number of students who are able to roll their tongue as well as
non-rollers and record the results in the table.

 Plot a histogram to show the results.

655
Investigating variations in a classroom conti…

2. Investigating variations in tongue rolling ability

among students conti…
Expected results
It may be observed that two distinct groups have been found, tongue
rollers and tongue non-rollers with no intermediate traits.

656
Conclusion
Tongue rolling is part of discontinuous variations since students can either
be rollers or non-rollers showing clear cut differences.

Using statistical skills to describe variations

Calculating frequencies, mean, mode, median and range of data
1. Mean (average); sum of scores divided by number of scores.

657
2. Mode; the value that has the highest frequency/the one which appears
most.

3. Median; middle value of data when data is arranged according to size.

4. Range; difference between the smallest value and the biggest value.

Using statistical skills to describe variations

conti…
Examples

658
1. Table below shows the height of form 4 students at Liwonde Expo
Secondary School. Use it to answer questions that follow.
Students H I J K L M N O P Q

Height 110 100 140 135 120 142 140 116 115 125
(cm)

Find the:
i. Mean height ii.Modal
height iii. Median height iv.
Range of height

659
Using statistical skills to describe variations
conti…
2. Data below are the birth masses of 12 babies (in Kgs). Use it to answer
questions that follow.

3.1, 3.0, 2.5, 3.5, 3.0, 2.0, 3.5, 3.5, 2.6, 3.4, 3.4, 2.5.

a. Find the:

660
i. Mean
ii. Median iii. Mode iv. Range

Using statistical skills to describe variations

conti…
b. i. Using the above information, complete the table below. (conti…)
Birth mass (kg) 2.0-2.4 2.5-2.9 3.0-3.4 3.5-3.9

661
 Number of
babies
ii. Using table in b(i), draw a histogram to compare mass and number of
babies of each range.
c. What is the modal range of the birth masses?

662
 Mutations
Mutation- this is the sudden change in the structure or amount of genetic
material (DNA) in individual cells.

 An organism that has undergone mutations is called a mutant.

663
 Causative agents of mutations are called mutagens.

How mutations occur

 Mutations usually occurs during cell replication. Normally each daughter
cell is supposed to receive an exact copy of DNA from the parent cell
however errors may occur resulting in changes in chromosome/gene
material. These changes affects the production of proteins coded by the
original genes resulting to change in an individual trait.

664
 Mutations that occur in somatic cells are not passed on to next generation
while those that occur in sex cells (eggs and sperms) are passed on to next
generations.

Causes of mutations
1. Chemicals

2. Exposure to ultra-violet light

3. Exposure to radiations

665
4. Rise in temperature

5. Viral infections

Causes of mutations conti…

1. Chemicals- certain chemicals reacts with nucleotides of DNA hence
changing the DNA in the way it controls traits.

2. Exposure to ultra-violet light from the sun- they cause damage to the DNA
hence change the way DNA controls traits.

666
3. Exposure to radiations- high energy radiations split and change the DNA
in the cells.

Causes of mutations conti…

4. Rise in temperature- increase in temperature results in increase in rate of
mutations.

5. Certain viruses/viral infections- integration of genetic material of virus

and that of individual cells may lead to mutations.

667
Types of mutations
1. Gene mutations

2. Chromosomal mutations

668
A. Gene mutations
Gene mutation (also called point mutations)
 It occurs as a result of alteration of the chemical/molecular structure of a
gene.
 There is a change in the sequence of nucleotides in the segments of DNA
corresponding to one gene. These changes compromises coded protein
synthesis leading to changes in traits.

669
Examples of gene mutations

1. Substitution

2. Deletion

3. Insertion

4. Inversion

670
Examples of gene mutations conti…
1. Deletion

A part of a gene sequence breaks off and is lost. This distorts protein
formation e.g HAVE to HAV

671
Examples of gene mutations conti…
2. Inversion

672
A portion of gene sequence cuts and rotates through 180 degrees. This
results to change in base sequence at this point e.g THERMO to MOTHER.

673
Examples of gene mutations conti…
3. Insertion

It is where an extra unit is added in a gene sequence. This distorts whole
gene sequence e.g EATING to HEATING.

674
Examples of gene mutations conti…
4. Substitution

675
This is where a unit in a gene is replaced with another unit. The gene is
changed e.g EAR to EAL.

Genetic disorders associate with gene mutations

676
1. Albinism

2. Sickle cell anaemia

3. Haemophilia

4. Red-green colour blindness

677
Genetic disorders associate with gene mutations
conti…

678
1. Albinism

679
Albinism is a condition in which skin of an individual fails to
produce the skin pigment known as melanin hence the individ
lacks normal skin, hair and eye pigmentation.

Albinism is caused by defective gene (mutated) genes for

production of melanin.

680
Genetic disorders associate with gene mutations
conti…
1. Albinism conti…
How does albinism occurs
Albinism occurs when an individual inherits two recessive alleles
(mutated) for melanin production. These alleles causes failure of the human
body to produce an enzyme tyrosinase which is needed in melanin formation.
As a result, melanin is not produced to protect the skin, hair and eyes from

681
harmful sunlight rays leading to albinism. Albinism can result to: i.
Premature ageing
ii. Skin infections such as skin cancer iii.
Vision problems.

682
Genetic disorders associate with gene mutations
conti…
1. Albinism conti…
Possible genotypes and phenotypes in relation to albinism
Let A be an allele for normal skin pigmentation and a be an allele for
skin pigmentation
Genotype Phenotype
AA Normal skin
Aa Normal skin (carrier)
aa Albinism

683
Genetic disorders associate with gene mutations
conti…

1. Albinism conti…
Activity
Albinism is an inherited condition that affects the skin. It is caused by a
recessive alleles.
Use A to represent an allele for normal skin and a to represent allele for
albinism.

684
 Genetic disorders associate with gene mutations
conti…
i. Give two possible genotypes for a person with normal skin.
ii. A man and his wife have normal skin but their first born child is albino.
Use this information, draw a genetic cross to show how this happened.

685
2. Sickle cell anaemia
Sickle cell anaemia is a condition in
which red blood cells have abnormal
shapes; crescent or sickle shapes
other than normal biconcave shape.
As a result, these sickle-shaped red
blood cells are not able to transport
oxygen efficiently.

Sickle cell anaemia arises when a

gene for production of normal red blood cells has mutated.
686
Genetic disorders associate with gene mutations
conti…
2. Sickle cell anaemia conti…
 Sickle cell anaemic individuals are homozygous recessive (hbhb).
 A person who is homozygous dominant (HbHb) produces normal red blood
cells.
 A heterozygous individual (Hbhb) produces both normal and sickle-shaped
red blood cells. He/she is said to have a sickle cell trait.
 A person with sickle cell anaemia trait is resistant to malaria as there is little
space for plasmodia to multiply. They are said to have heterozygous
advantage.

687
2. Sickle cell anaemia conti…
Effects of sickle cell anaemia
1. Results to anaemia.
2. Interferes with blood circulation.
3. The affected individual is resistant to malaria.

Activity
Conduct a cross diagram to show possible genotypes and phenotypes of
offsprings born from sickle cell trait parents.

688
Genetic disorders associate with gene mutations
conti…
B. Chromosomal mutations
Chromosomal mutations occurs as a result of change in structure or
number of chromosomes in a particular individual.

During meiosis, homologous chromosomes intertwine at several points

called chiasmata. This creates an opportunity for various changes on the
chromatids which may lead to chromosomal mutations.
689
Examples of chromosomal mutations
1. Deletion

2. Inversion

3. Duplication

4. Translocation

5. Non-disjunction

690
Examples of chromosomal mutations conti…
1. Deletion

A part of the chromosome breaks away and fails to reconnect to any of the
chromatids. This results to loss of some genes.

691
Examples of chromosomal mutations conti…

692
2. Inversion
Middle part of a chromosome breaks off and rotates 180 degrees causing
change in gene sequence.

693
Examples of chromosomal mutations conti…
3. Duplication
This is where a portion of the chromosome replicates itself adding extra
length. This may result to over-emphasizing of a trait in an organism.

694
Examples of chromosomal mutations conti…

695
4. Translocation
Occurs when a portion of a chromosome has been attached to another
chromosome that is not similar.

696
Examples of chromosomal mutations conti…
5. Non-disjunction
This is where some homologous chromosomes fail to separate during
Anaphase I of meiosis. As such, some daughter cells carry more number of
chromosomes while others carry fewer.

697
Disorders associated with chromosomal mutations

1. Down syndrome (Trisomy 21)

 This is a condition where an individual
has an extra copy of chromosomes,
chromosome pair 21. This makes an
individual to have 47 chromosomes
other than 46.

 The person with trisomy 21 suffers from mental and physical retardation.
698
Disorders associated with chromosomal mutations
conti…

2. Turner’s syndrome (Monosomy)

 A disorder caused by completely or partially missing of X-chromosome in
girls and women (XO).
 It leads to fertility problems in females.
 It occurs due to non-disjunction.

699
3. Klinefelter’s syndrome
 It is a condition in which a male is born with extra copy of X chromosome
(XXY).
 It leads fertility problems in males.
 It is caused by non-disjunction.

Effects of mutations
1. Some mutations are lethal- an organism may die before reaching maturity
e.g sickle cell anaemia. (gene mutations)

700
2. Failure of development of some body parts- deletion of some parts of
chromosomes may lead to underdevelopment of some body parts.
(chromosomal mutations)

3. Over-emphasis of particular traits- doubled/replicated portions of

chromosomes may lead to increased influence in the development of a
given characteristic. (chromosomal mutations)

4. Some mutations causes cancer.

Effects of mutations conti…
701
5. Polyploidy- occurrence of additional chromosomes in some organisms due
to non-disjunction increases productivity. Polyploidy plants are usually
large in size and produce high yields. (chromosomal mutations)

6. Some mutations make an organism to be better adapted in the

environment e.g people with sickle cell trait are resistant to malaria so
they can live in malaria prone areas without problems. (gene mutations)

7. Some mutations may lead to changes in the phenotype of an organism e.g

albinism. (gene mutations)

702
 .

TOPIC 7: EVOLUTION
Success criteria

 Outline the evidence of evolution.

 Describe natural selection in action.

 Explain how natural selection occurs.

Evolution
704
Meaning of evolution
 Evolution is the gradual change of organisms from simple to complex
organisms over a period of time.
 It is also defined as the change in inheritable traits of biological populations
over successive generations.

 Evolution in biology is backed up by a theory which was proposed by a

scientist by the name Charles Darwin. So, he is the father of evolution.
Darwin's theory of evolution
705
It states that; all living things arise from common ancestors over a long period
of time.

 The theory suggests that life on earth began from simple forms that then
slowly evolved into present day organisms.

Evidence of evolution
 Evidence is the information that is used as proof that a given idea is true or
not.

706
So, evidence of evolution include:

1. Fossil records (paleontology)

2. Comparative embryology

3. Comparative anatomy

4. Geographical distribution

5. Cell biology (cell biochemistry)

Evidence of evolution conti…
707
1. Fossil records (paleontology)
 Paleontology is the study of life forms that existed before as represented by
their fossils.

 Fossils are remains of plants and animals which used to live some years ago.
Fossils are studied and fossil information of related organisms is arranged in
such a way that they form a series according to their age.

Evidence of evolution conti…

708
1. Fossil records (paleontology) conti…
Fossil records revealed the following:
i. They show progressive change within forms of organisms.

ii. They show extinction of organism due to presence of fossils of organisms

that do not exist today.

709
iii. They show transition forms between groups of organism thereby showing
that they have a shared history.

Evidence of evolution conti…

710
1. Fossil records (paleontology) conti…
Limitations of fossil evidence
i. Only few fossil records are available because some remains are lost
through fires, volcanic eruptions and through scavengers.

ii. Softer parts of organisms decay making the records incomplete.

iii. There is distortion due to flattening of parts of organisms during

sedimentation.

711
1. Fossil records (paleontology) conti…

712
713
Evidence of evolution conti…

2. Comparative embryology
The study of embryos of closely related species show similar patterns of

development at certain stages. These similarities support the idea that these

organisms share a common evolutionary origin (ancestor).

714
2. Comparative embryology conti…
Embryonic comparison in animals below; similarities
indicate a common evolutionary origin

715
Evidence of evolution conti…
716
3. Comparative anatomy
This involves the study of structural plan of certain parts of organisms.
For example; pentadactyl limb plan in limbs of four legged vertebrates show
that these animals evolved from common ancestors. The design shows
presence of five fingers (digits) in these four legged vertebrates animals.

717
3. Comparative anatomy conti…
Pentadactyl limb plan

719
720
 539

721
3. Comparative anatomy conti…

722
Pentadactyl limb plan conti…

723
Evidence of evolution conti…

3. Comparative anatomy conti…

The following categories of structures are studied:

a. Homologous structures

b. Analogous structures
724
c. Vestigial structures

725
Evidence of evolution conti… 3.

Comparative anatomy conti…

a. Homologous structures
 These are structures having a similar pattern but are used for different
functions in organisms. E.g forelimb of human being and that of a donkey.

726
 This shows divergent evolution. These organisms diverged from each other
during evolution.

727
Evidence of evolution conti…

3. Comparative anatomy conti…

a. Homologous structures conti…

728
729
Evidence of evolution conti… 3.

Comparative anatomy conti…

b. Analogous structures
 Body structures having different patterns but used for the same function in
organims. E.g wings of insects and birds.

730
 This shows convergent evolution which suggests that these organisms evolved
from different ancestors but developed adaptations.

731
Evidence of evolution conti…

3. Comparative anatomy conti…

b. Analogous structures conti…

732
733
Evidence of evolution conti… 3.

Comparative anatomy conti…

c. Vestigial structures

Structures present in some organisms but serve no function at all. e.g

appendix in humans and clitoris in females.

734
Evidence of evolution conti…

4. Geographical distribution
Plants and animals of same species were separated by geographical
barriers such as oceans and mountains due to continental drifting. These
organisms evolved into different species as they adapted to different climatic
and environmental conditions.

735
Evidence of evolution conti…

5. Cell biology (cell biochemistry)

 The study of blood pigments such as haemoglobin in closely related
organisms such as humans and chimpanzees showed that they are
biochemically similar. This suggests that these organisms evolved from
common ancestors.

736
Natural selection in action
 Natural selection is a process by which organisms with favourable variations
survive and produce more offsprings in the environment than organisms with
less favourable variations.

 Favourable variations are also called adaptations.

737
 It is one of the theories which explains how new species arise from
preexisting species.

Natural selection in action conti…

Natural selection is explained by the following points:
i. Struggle for existence –overproduction leads to competition for resources which
are limited. Resources such as food, water, shelter and mates. Only those
organisms that struggle to find resources survives to the next generation.

738
ii. Survival of the fittest –organisms with beneficial variations to live in the
environment survive while those without adaptations are eliminated.

iii. Advantageous characteristics are passed on to offsprings making them to

reproduce and increase in number but disadvantageous variations leads to
population decrease of particular organisms.

Natural selection in action conti…

739
Examples of natural selection in action

1. Sickle cell anaemia

2. Peppered moth

3. Drug resistance

740
Natural selection in action conti…

1. Sickle cell anaemia

 Individuals with sickle cell anaemia (homozygous for sickle cell) suffer from
severe anaemia and mostly they die before reaching maturity hence they are
eliminated from the environment.
 Individuals who are heterozygous for sickle cell anaemia (sickle cell trait)
survive better in malaria prone areas. As such, they reproduce and survive in
the environment to the next generation.

741
 Individuals with normal red blood cells are easily attacked by malaria in
malaria prone areas because there is enough room for plasmodia to multiply.
These individuals die easily with malaria and can be eliminated from such
environment.

Natural selection in action conti…

1. Sickle cell anaemia

Sick cell anaemia condition Condition Natural selection advantage

742
1. Sickle cell anaemia Can lead to death before Less favourable trait
reaching maturity but they
are immune to malaria.

2. Sickle cell trait Not anaemic and they are Favourable trait
resistant to malaria.

3. Normal red blood cells Not anaemic but susceptible Less favourable trait
to malaria.

743
Natural selection in action conti…

2. Peppered moth
Peppered moth; Biston betularia exhibits natural selection in action. They

are commonly found in England. They are of two types namely; light

coloured moth and dark coloured moth. The dark coloured moth arose due

to mutations.
744
Natural selection in action conti…

2. Peppered moth conti…

Light coloured moth Dark coloured moth
 555

746
Natural selection in action conti…
Natural selection in action conti…

2. Peppered moth conti…

 Before industrial revolution, tree trunks were covered by light coloured lichens
which grew on them. As such, light coloured moth were well camouflaged as they
rested on the light tree trunk while dark coloured moth were easily seen and eaten
by birds. Population of light coloured moth increased abundantly while that of
dark coloured moth decreased more.

747
 After industrial revolution, air pollution decreased the population of lichens on
tree trunks and the tree became dark because of soot. As such, dark coloured
moth became well camouflaged on dark tree trunks while light coloured moth
were easily seen and eaten by birds. This resulted to increase in population of dark
coloured moth than the white coloured moths.

2. Peppered moth conti…

a. Before industrial revolution
Light coloured body was a favourable trait to survival of moths while dark
coloured body was a non-favourable trait to their survival.

748
 Natural selection in action conti…
b. After industrial revolution
Dark coloured body was a favourable trait to survival of moths while
white coloured body was a non-favourable trait for their survival.

749
Natural selection in action conti…

2. Peppered moth conti…

a. Before industrial revolution b. After industrial revolution
Natural selection in action conti…

558
751
3. Drug resistance
New species of germs that are resistant to drugs arose. As of now, there are
species of tuberculosis (TB) bacteria that are resistant to drugs which were
used to treat TB. These species of bacteria that developed resistance to drugs
survive and reproduce and pass these adaptations to new bacteria while
bacteria that are not resistant are wiped by the drugs.

Natural selection in action conti…

752
 Natural selection in action conti…
3. Drug resistance conti…
How do germs develop drug resistance?
1. Through mutations

2. Through natural selection. The drugs/chemicals may act as selecting

agents; targeting one type of bacteria thereby leaving other types of
bacteria.

753
Importance of natural selection
1. Changes the genetic composition of the population.

2. Enables organisms to survive in the environment.

Speciation
 Speciation is a gradual process by which new species of organisms are
formed from already existing species.

754
 Natural selection in action conti…
 Species refers to a group of living organisms that can mate and produce
fertile offsprings.

How speciation occurs

1. Natural selection

2. Isolation

755
Speciation conti…

1. Natural selection and speciation

Favourable variations (adaptations) accumulate in a given group of
organisms with time while unfavourable variations slowly disappear. This
results to clear differences between particular species and its own ancestors.

756
 Speciation conti…
As such, there is development of new species because its features do not fit
with features of its ancestors.

2. Isolation and speciation

When organisms of the same species become separated by geographical
barriers and starts to live in different habitats, they adapt differently in
order to suit the environment they are in. Due to differences in climatic and
environmental conditions, organisms acquire different reproductive
behaviours. Overtime, these two groups of organisms may become different

757
 Speciation conti…
in such a way that they cannot interbreed successfully if they are brought
together. This is because, they have evolved into two distinct species.
1. Natural selection and speciation conti…
Other isolation mechanisms
1. Genetic isolation –a result of mutations may lead to formation of new
genotype of organisms. This result to formation of new species different
from the original species.

758
 Speciation conti…
2. Reproductive isolation –isolated populations develop structural
differences in reproductive organs hence mating becomes impossible.

1. Natural selection and speciation conti…

Other isolation mechanisms conti…
3. Ecological isolation –organisms of same species which have been isolated to
different habitats adapts to these new habitats where they accumulate
traits/features different from the original species.

759
 Speciation conti…
4. Behavioural isolation.

760
 .

TOPIC 8: BIOTECHNOLOGY
Success criteria
 Give examples of plant and animal breeding in Malawi.

 Describe the applications of biotechnology.

 Describe the process of genetic engineering.

 Explain how insulin is produced.

 Discuss other applications of genetic engineering.

762
 Discuss the ethical implications on the use of biotechnology.

Understanding biotechnology
Biotechnology is the use of living organisms and their body systems as well
as biological processes to develop new and useful products that are intended
to improve quality of human life.

 Biotechnology uses knowledge of biology to come up with products, processes

and methods that help to solve human problems.

763
 Both plant and animal breeding are among the concepts of biotechnology.

Plant and animal breeding in Malawi

 Plant and animal breeding are fields that involves application of genetic
principles to produce improved plants and animals that have useful qualities.

 The overall aim of plant and animal breeding is to improve agricultural

productivity.

Plant breeding in Malawi conti…

764
Examples of plant breeds in Malawi (Maize varieties) includes:
1. PAN 3434
Early maturing for dry lands and suits irrigation.
2. DK 9089
Variety with increased/doubled production known to produce two cobs per
stem.
3. ZM 309 (Msunga banja)
4. LM 523 (Mwayi)
Aims of plant breeding
765
1. To produce early maturing varieties for areas with short rainy seasons.

2. To produce late maturing varieties for areas with longer growing seasons.

3. To produce high yielding varieties.

4. To produce pest and disease resistant varieties.

5. To produce herbicide-resistant varieties.

Ways of improving crops

1. Introduction
766
Importation of crop varieties with desirable traits for
propagation/breeding.

2. Selection
The choosing of plants with desirable traits (size and quality) for planting.

3. Hybridization/cross-breeding
Two varieties are chosen and crossed to produce new variety that has good
qualities of both plants.
767
Animal breeding in Malawi
Examples of animal (poultry) breeds in Malawi includes:
1. Hyalines

2. Cob cross

3. Black australorp

Aims of animal breeding

768
1. To have breeds that grow faster.

2. To have breeds suitable to climate conditions of Malawi.

3. To have breeds that produce high quantity yields.

4. To produce breeds of high quality.

5. To produce disease resistant breeds.

Ways of animal improvement

1. Introduction
769
Importing animals with desirable traits for breeding.

2. Cross breeding
Crossing two breeds of animals to produce a new breed that possesses good
qualities from both parents.

3. Inbreeding
Mating closely related animals to preserve desirable characteristics (to
prevent genetic erosion)

770
Ways of animal improvement conti…
4. Progeny testing
Choosing male animals for breeding based on the performance of their
offsprings (daughters).

5. Sib selection
Choosing female animals based on performance of their offsprings (sons).

771
Examples of research centers in Malawi where
breeding is done
1. Chitedze Research Station.

2. Makoka Research Station, Thondwe.

3. Baka Agricultural Research Station, Karonga.

4. Maru Research Center, on the shore of Lake Malawi.

772
Applications of biotechnology
Some of the fields where biotechnology can be applied includes:

1. In medicine 2. In agriculture 3. In manufacturing 4. In forensic

science 5. Genetic counselling

773
Applications of biotechnology conti…

1. In Medicine
i. Artificial production of insulin used in treating diabetic patients using
bacterium called Escherichia coli.

ii. Gene therapy, a technique used to treat inheritance disorders by replacing

a defective gene with a normal gene.

774
iii. Production of vaccines used to prevent infectious diseases using
microorganisms.
Applications of biotechnology conti…

1. In Medicine conti…
iv. Production of blood clotting factors.

775
v. Production of Tissue Plasminogen Activator (TPA), a protein used in
treating arterial thrombosis by dissolving blood clots that are blocking
blood flow.

vi. In blood transfusion, correct blood typing is based on the genetic

knowledge of the blood groups.

776
Applications of biotechnology conti…

2. In agriculture
i. Improvement of shelf-life of agricultural produce such as tomato. The gene
that prevents early softening of tomato is inserted into tomato DNA to
make it soften slowly thereby increasing shelf-life of tomato on the market.

777
ii. Production of herbicide resistant crops. Transfer of gene that gives
resistance to bacteria to crops so that crop plants can be sprayed with
herbicide but not be affected by it.

Applications of biotechnology conti…

2. In agriculture conti…
iii. Production of pest resistance crops. A gene from bacteria (Bacillus
thuringiensis) is transferred into crops to make them resistant to some pests.
778
iv. Increasing milk production cows. Bacteria are used to produce a hormone
called Bovine somatotropin which is injected into cows to increase milk
production.

v. Production of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) to increase either

quality or quantity yields.

Applications of biotechnology conti…

779
3. In industry (manufacturing)
i. Used in production of beer. Some fungi (yeasts) are used in the process of
brewing beer to enhance fermentation. ii. Applied in baking of wheat
products. Yeasts are used to improve the doughing of wheat products such
as bread.
iii. Production of yoghurt. Lactic acid bacteria are used in the process of
making yoghurt.
iv. Used in manufacturing of detergents. Enzymes are required in the process.
v. Large scale meat tendering uses enzymes.

780
Applications of biotechnology conti…

4. In forensic science
Forensic science involves use of scientific methods and processes to matters
that involve public or crime.

i. Used in resolving paternity issues. Studying the DNA of the child and of
the parents in disputes of paternity issues. ABO blood groups and Rhesus
antigens are also used to settle parental disputes.

781
ii. Used to investigate crime issues.

Applications of biotechnology conti…

5. Genetic counselling
This is the service which is provided by specialists in human genetics as well
as counselling. The service is given to individuals of various categories based
on their needs.

782
For example genetic counselors are consulted by some individuals in the
process of choosing marriage partners in order to foresee if there will not be
some suggested genetic disorders in their offsprings if the two get married.

The process of genetic engineering.

783
Understanding terms used
Genetic engineering (Recombinant DNA Technology)- a process that uses
laboratory-based technologies to alter the DNA make-up of an organism.

The goal is to add one or more new traits that are not found in the
particular organism.

Genetically modified Organism (GMO)- it is an organism whose genetic

make-up (genome) has been artificially altered(changed).
784
The process of genetic engineering

Understanding terms used conti…

Transgenic organism- a genetically modified organism that has altered
genome containing DNA sequence or gene from an organism of different
species.

785
Genetic cloning -the process used to create an exact genetic replica of
another cell, tissue or organism.

How genetic engineering is done

A section of DNA extracted from an organism or synthesized artificially is
translocated into a bacteria. This foreign DNA is inserted in the plasmid of
the bacteria cell to stimulate the synthesis of the desired proteins. Gene

786
 cloning is then done to increase replicas of those transgenic bacteria so as to
increase production of the desired proteins.

Steps involved in the process of genetic

engineering
1. Remove the plasmid DNA from the bacteria.
2. Cut the plasmid DNA using restriction enzymes.
3. Cut the DNA from another organism using restriction enzymes.

787
4. Combine the prepared components of DNA together using DNA ligase and
bring the recombinant plasmid back into the host bacteria.
5. Reproduce the recombinant bacteria.
6. Separate and purify the products from the recombinant bacteria.

Applications of genetic engineering

788
1. Production of insulin
 A human gene that code for insulin production is extracted from the human
being who produces insulin. This gene is inserted into the plasmid DNA of
bacteria. This host bacteria is then multiplied. The recombinant bacteria
starts producing insulin. This insulin is collected, purified and packaged to
be used by diabetic patients.

Detailed explanation on insulin production

789
 Extract the messenger RNA which codes for insulin production from human
pancreatic cell.
 Produce the DNA copy with sticky ends from the extracted RNA messenger
using enzyme reverse transcriptase.
 Extract the plasmid from the bacteria and cut it at specific sequence using
restriction enzymes and creates sticky ends.
 Mix the prepared DNA sequences from the bacteria and the human using an
enzyme DNA ligase.

790
 Insert the recombinant plasmid back into the host bacteria. The host bacteria
must be replicated. This bacteria will start synthesizing insulin which is
collected, purified and packaged.

791
Insulin production conti…

792
793
Other applications of genetic engineering
2. Increasing milk production in cows
The gene for production of hormone (Bovine somatotropin) is extracted and
inserted in the plasmid of bacteria and the host bacteria is replicated. The
bacteria produces large quantities of bovine somatotropin. The hormone is
collected, purified and injected into cows to stimulate high milk production.

3. Making cows to produce milk with less lactose and cholesterol.

794
4. Making sheep that grow more wool.

Benefits of using genetic engineering

1. Production of proteins in plants and animals used to treat disorders in
plants and animals e.g insulin use to treat diabetes.

2. Increasing agricultural productivity e.g increasing milk production using

artificially produced hormones.

795
3. Provision of high quality hybrids of plants and animals with improved
nutritional value.

Benefits of using genetic engineering conti…

4. It has been used to produce drought, disease and pest resistance crops.

5. Improving the shelf-life of agricultural products.

796
Problems of genetic engineering
1. The techniques used are expensive and tedious.

2. Alterations of genetic codes of organisms may lead to undesirable

mutations that may cause disorders to the concerned organisms.

3. It may lead to production of harmful organisms which can be released into

the environment.

797
Problems of genetic engineering conti…
4. Some GMOs have been found to have negative effects on the human life e.g
some milk products were found to have traces of antibiotics capable of
causing cancer.

5. The host organism may reject the inserted DNA by destroying or

inactivating it.

Ethical implications on the use of biotechnology

798
1. Transgenic products may cause allergic reactions in some people.

2. There is possibility that some people may use biotechnology to make

biological weapons of mass destruction.

3. Genetic change in species increased hence accelerating evolution.

Ethical implications on the use of biotechnology

conti…
799
4. Loss of biodiversity as GMOs replace original genes in breeds.

5. An error in genetic engineering may result in production of harmful

organisms posing danger to humans.

6. There has not been enough research on the effects of inserting a gene from
one species to another.

800
 .

TOPIC 9: INFECTIOUS DISEASES

Success criteria

 Outline selected infectious diseases.

 Describe types of cancers.

Understanding related terms

Infectious diseases: these are diseases that can be transmitted from
one organism to another.
802
Infection: an infection is the invasion and multiplication of
pathogens in the body. Infections can be caused by viruses,
bacteria, fungi or protozoa.

Disease: it is a disordered state of the organ or body of an

organism.
Understanding related terms conti…

803
Incubation period of a disease: this is the period taken from the
day of infection and the onset of symptoms of a disease.

Pathogens: these are disease-causing organisms. e.g Plasmodium,

Vibrio cholerae.

Vector: an organism that carries pathogens from an object or

organism to another organism.

804
Mode of transmission of infectious diseases
Infectious diseases can be transmitted through the following
modes:
1. Air 2. Water 3. Food 4. Vectors 5. Direct contact
Mode of transmission of infectious diseases
conti…
1. Through air- some diseases are spread through contaminated
air. These diseases are called airborne diseases e.g TB.
805
2. Through water- some diseases are spread through drinking of
contaminated water. Such diseases are called waterborne
diseases e.g cholera.

3. Through food- some diseases are spread through consumption of

contaminated food. e.g Typhoid.
Mode of transmission of infectious diseases
conti…
806
4. Through vectors- some diseases are spread by vectors which
carries pathogens from one place/organism to another organism.

5. Through direct contact- some diseases are spread by direct

contact with an infected person or their clothing e.g HIV/AIDS.

807
Diseases caused by bacteria

1. Tuberculosis (TB)
TB of the lungs (pulmonary tuberculosis) is caused by a bacterium
called Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
TB of the bones is caused by a bacterium called Mycobacterium bovis.
Mode of TB transmission
Air droplet from breathing or sneezing.
Dry infected sputum in the particles of dust.
TB of the bones is transmitted through drinking contaminated
milk.608

809
1. Tuberculosis (TB) conti…
Signs and symptoms of tuberculosis
 General weight loss and fatigue.
 Fever.
 Chest pains.
 Sweating at night.
 Sputum may contain blood.
 Persistent diarrhoea.
810
1. Tuberculosis (TB) conti…
Prevention, treatment and control of tuberculosis
 Drink clean boiled milk.
 Always stay in well ventilated homes.
 Avoid overcrowding places.
 Immunization of children with Bacillus Calmate Guerin (BCG) vaccine.
 Isolate the patient.
 Dairy cows must be vaccinated.
811
 Use of drugs such as isoniazid and streptomycin.

2. Pneumonia
 This is an infection of the lungs in which there is accumulation of fluid in
the alveoli hence the lungs become solid resulting to difficulties in gaseous
exchange.

 It is caused by a bacterium called Pneumococcus.

812
Mode of transmission

Through air droplet.

 Headache.
2. Pneumonia
conti…  Coughing.
Signs and symptoms  Difficulties in breathing.

 Chest pains.  Fever.

813
 Prevention, control and  Avoid overcrowding areas.
treatment
 Use antibiotics such as erythromycin,
 Live in well ventilated homes. penicillin and tetracycline
 Vaccination.

3. Cholera
 Cholera is an acute infection of the intestinal tract caused by bacterium
called Vibrio cholerae.

814
 Vibrio cholerae has an incubation period of 1-6 days. They multiply rapidly
in the small intestines.

Effects of vibrio cholerae on the host

Vibrio cholerae produce highly toxic substances. These toxic substances
are responsible for the severe symptoms of cholera.

815
3. Cholera conti…
Adaptive characteristics of vibrio cholera
It can survive in areas of low oxygen concentration like in the
small intestines.

Mode of cholera transmission

 Food contamination
 Water contamination
816
 Object contamination

3. Cholera conti…
Signs and symptoms of cholera
 Severe diarrhoea Abdominal pains
 Severe vomiting
 Acute thirst and muscle cramps
 Dehydration
 Watery stools
817
3. Cholera conti…
Prevention of cholera
 Proper disposal of human and domestic wastes
 Personal hygiene
 Food hygiene
 Water treatment
 Education awareness campaigns
 Vector control
818
3. Cholera conti…
Treatment of cholera
 Use of antibiotics

 Administering Oral Rehydration Solution (ORS) to the patient

819
4. Typhoid
 Typhoid is caused by a bacterium called Salmonella typhi. It affects the
alimentary canal.

 It has an incubation period of two weeks.

 It attacks the walls of the intestines thereby causing ulcers. In extreme

conditions it breaks down/cut the intestines leading to death.

820
 Salmonella typhi can survive in areas of low oxygen concentration like that
of small intestines.

4. Typhoid conti…

Mode of typhoid transmission

 Food contamination

821
 Water contamination

 Object contamination

4. Typhoid conti…
Signs and symptoms of typhoid
 Mild fever
 Slight abdominal pain
 Ulceration and rupture of the intestines
822
 Diarrhoea
 Constipation
 Headaches

4. Typhoid conti…
Prevention of typhoid Treatment of typhoid
 Proper disposal of human and
domestic wastes Use of antibiotics

823
 Personal hygiene
 Food hygiene, treatment and preservation.
 Water treatment
 Education awareness campaigns
 Vector control
Diseases caused by virus

1. Common cold
 It is caused by a variety of viruses.
824
 It affects the respiratory system.

Mode of transmission
Through air-droplets; through coughing and sneezing from infected
person.

1. Common cold conti…

Signs and symptoms
 Running nose
825
 Sore throat
 Fever
 Sneezing
 Nasal and bronchial irritation resulting to coughing

1. Common cold conti…

Prevention of common cold
 Live in well ventilated rooms.
 Avoid overcrowded areas. Isolation of patients.

826
Treatments of common cold
 Taking prophylactic drugs.
 Taking a lot of fluids as recommended by physician.

2. Influenza (Flu)
 It is caused by the influenza virus.
 It affects the respiratory system.

827
Mode of transmission
 Droplet infection through air.
 Touching items contaminated with the virus and touching the mouth.

2. Influenza (Flu) conti…

Signs and symptoms
 Fever and chills
 Headaches
 General body weakness
828
 Body aches
 Dizziness
 Sneezing and sore throat
 Nausea and vomiting

2. Influenza (Flu) conti…

Prevention of Flu
 Live in well ventilated rooms
 Avoid overcrowded conditions

829
 Use of cloth when coughing and sneezing

Treatment
 Use of antiviral drugs in severe cases
 Use of cough syrups Use drugs that lower fever.
NB: there are no specific drugs for influenza

830
3. Measles
Measles is caused by a virus. There are two viruses that cause measles and
these are:
i. Rubella virus- causes the German measles. ii.
Rubeolla virus- causes ordinary/red measles.
They have an incubation period of 10-14 days.

831
Mode of transmission
 Through air droplet
 Through contaminated eating utensils and clothes.

3. Measles conti…
Signs and symptoms
 Sore throat Swollen glands
 Running nose Loss of appetite
 Skin rash Reddened eyes
832
 Swollen eyes Headaches
 Coughing Small white spots in the mouth called
 Fever koplik spots.

3. Measles conti…
Prevention
 Vaccination.
 Isolation of the patient.
 Do not share eating utensils and clothes with the infected person.

833
Treatment
There is no specific treatment for the disease.

NB: Survivors of measles get natural active immunity, the can never been
affected again by measles.

4. Chicken pox
 This is a skin disease caused by a virus called Varicella zosta.
 It has an incubation period of 14-15 days.

834
Mode of transmission
 Through air-droplets
 Contact with the infected person and their clothes.

4. Chicken pox conti…

Signs and symptoms
 Rashes on the skin
 A lot of itching on the skin rashes
 Mild fever
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4. Chicken pox conti…
Prevention
Through vaccinations.

Treatment
There is no specific treatment.

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NB: a person who recovers from chicken pox gets active natural immunity
hence can never get infected again with chicken pox.

Diseases caused by fungi

1. Ringworm
Signs and symptoms
 It is caused by a fungus called Tinea.
 Round grey patches on the head and
Mode of transmission face.
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 Direct contact with infected Itching on the grey patches. areas/heads.
 Hair loss on the patches. Using infected combs or shaving equipments.
 Sharing head brushes and hats.

1. Ringworm conti…
Prevention
 Avoid sharing combs, hats and brushes.
 Hygiene in the care of hair.

838
Treatment
 Using fungicides creams and tablets.

2. Thrush/Candidiasis
 It is caused by a fungus called Candida albicans.
 It can occur in the mouth, vagina and intestines.

Mode of transmission
 Through sexual intercourse.

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 Infants can be infected in the mouth during birth.

NB: Thrush is mainly transmitted through sexual intercourse though it may

also arise due to changes in acidity of the vagina in females during pregnancy
or diabetes.

2. Thrush/Candidiasis conti…
Signs and symptoms
 Fluffy white patches on infected area.
 Severe irritation of the formed patches.

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 Red inflamed skin on patches.

Prevention and treatment

 Protected sexual intercourse.
 Pregnant women must seek medical care to prevent thrush transmission to the
baby.
 Use drugs (lotion an creams) for vaginal infections.
 Use drugs such as clotrimazole.

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  Wearing closed shoes for a long
3. Athlete's foot time.
 This is a fungal disease that affects
feet in human beings.  Keeping the feet wet for prolonged
periods of time.
 It is caused by a fungi called
 Excessive sweating in the feet.
Dermatophytes.
 The infection is common in warm
wet areas. Mode of disease transmission
Contact with infected feet,
It mainly occurs due to: floors, socks, shoes and mats on
which people walk barefooted.
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3. Athlete's foot conti…
Signs and symptoms
 Itching of the feet.
 Pain in between the toes.
 Swollen, peeling and craved skin between the toes.

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3. Athlete's foot conti…
Prevention
 Proper drying of feet after bath.
 Use of sandals in public showers.
 Change socks frequently.
 Disinfecting communal bath floors and showers.

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Treatment
Using anti-fungal drugs such as grisefulvin in form of powders and creams.

Ways of preventing and controlling diseases at

household and community levels
1. Water treatment.
2. Proper disposal of human and domestic wastes.
3. Personal hygiene.
4. Food hygiene, treatments and preservations.
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5. Vector (pest) control.
6. Health services.

Ways of preventing and controlling diseases at

household and community levels conti…
1. Water treatment
 Removing undesirable properties of raw water to make it safe for human
consumption.

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 Water treatments like boiling and chlorination kills pathogens present in the
raw water.

2. Proper disposal of human and domestic wastes.

Use of pit latrines, toilets and sewage systems to dispose wastes.

Ways of preventing and controlling diseases at

household and community levels conti…

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3. Personal hygiene
Practice of observing cleanliness of external body parts to reduce the risk of
infections. It includes:
 Washing hands with soap and clean water before handling food.
 Washing hands after using the toilets, handling body secretions like mucus
and blood, garbage and when you get home from a journey.
 Washing hands daily to eliminate body odour and bacteria.
 Washing hands after changing diapers of a child.

848
Ways of preventing and controlling diseases at
household and community levels conti…
4. Food hygiene, treatments and preservations
Hygiene handling of food to prevent contamination

 Washing raw food with clean water before consumption.

849
Processing of food to prevent spoilage, food poisoning and spread of
diseases.

 Following all required food preservation methods.

Ways of preventing and controlling diseases at

household and community levels conti…
5. Vector/pest control
Management of vectors such as flies and cockroaches since they are
capable of transmitting pathogens e.g by using chemicals to kill them.
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6. Health services
 Providing treatment of diseases to prevent their spread.
 Provision of safe water and sanitary services.
 Public awareness campaigns.

Non-infectious diseases
These are diseases that can not be transmitted from one person to another.
These include:
1. Nutrition deficiency diseases.

851
2. Genetic diseases.
3. Mental diseases.
4. Ageing diseases.
5. Human induced diseases (due to alcohol, drug abuse etc.).

Cancer is one of the non-infectious diseases to be explained under this sub

topic.

852
 Cancer
Cancer is a disease characterized by excessive uncontrolled growth of
abnormal cells which invade and destroy body tissues.

 Cancer cells divide through mitosis.

 Cancer begins when some normal genes mutates and become abnormal;
oncogenes. Oncogenes triggers production/division of irregular mass of
relatively undifferentiated cells called tumors.
853
 Cancer conti…

 Cancer cells spread to other parts of the body either by blood or lymph, a

process called metastasis.

 Substances that are capable of causing cancer are called carcinogens.

 Substances that causes mutations are called mutagens.

854
 Cancer conti…
Examples of cancers NB: Breast cancer is common in
 Skin cancer. women while lung cancer is common
 Lung cancer.
in men.
 Colon cancer.
 Kaposi sarcoma. Cancer may also affects other
parts of the body such as liver,
 Cervical cancer. throat, prostate glands, colon,
 Leukemia. blood. Etc.
Breast cancer.
855
Types of cancer
There are two types of cancers and these are:

1. Malignant cancer(tumor) 2. Benign cancer (tumor)

Types of cancer conti…
1. Malignant cancer(tumor)
 This is cancer in which tumor cells spread and invade other body
cells/tissues.
856
 These tumors undergoes metastasis.

Examples of malignant tumors include:

oLiposarcoma oOsteosarcoma etc.

Types of cancer conti…

2. Benign cancer (tumor)
Cancer in which tumor cells do not spread and invade other body cells.
They grow on one part of the body.
857
Examples of benign tumors include:
oLipoma oWarts
oFibroids etc.

Causes of cancer
1. Heredity
Getting cancer because of inherited genetic defects.

858
2. Radiations
Some types of radiations penetrate body cells and interfere with
chromosomes thereby leading to formation of oncogenes.

3. Some virus infections

DNA and RNA of some viruses may have oncogenes that when injected
into body cells they may cause cancer.

Causes of cancer conti…

859
4. Chemical mutagens present in diets and other inhaled or
consumed products
Chemicals such as mercury, artificial food sweeteners and food
preservatives reacts with DNA bases making normal genes to become
oncogenes.

Examples of dietary carcinogens

860
 Food Active agent (carcinogen)
1. Alcohol -Acetaldehyde
2. Mushroom -Hydrazine
3. Mould growth in peanut, grains etc. -Aflatoxins
4. Food cooked in oven -Nitrosamines
5. Preserved sausages, meat etc. -Nitrosamines
6. Coffee, tea, chocolate -Caffeine

Characteristics of cancer cells

861
 They are capable to develop their own blood supply.

 They undergoes metastasis.

 They form tumors.

 They have abnormal nucleus.

 They lost restraint of normal growth.

 They are insensitive to growth-inhibitory signals.

862
Effects of cancerous cells in the body
1. They compete with body cells for nutrients.

2. They may cause death of cells, tissues and organism at large.

3. They cause malfunctioning of some body organs.

Factors that increase the risk of cancer

863
1. Smoking

2. Excessive consumption of alcohol 3. Some viral infections

4. Over-exposure to some chemicals

5. Over-exposure to radiations

Factors that increase the risk of cancer conti…

864
1. Smoking
Both smoke from direct or indirect smoking contain a substance called tar
which contains carcinogens that are known to initiate cancer in the lungs,
mouth and throat.

2. Excessive consumption of alcohol

 Alcohol damages the liver cells making them susceptible to develop cancer.
 Alcohol has potential carcinogens that initiate cancer in the liver and the
throat.

865
Factors that increases the risk of cancer conti…
3. Some viral infections
DNA and RNA from viruses may have oncogenes that increases risk of
cancer in the body.

4. Over-exposure to some chemicals

Some chemicals in foods and occupational exposures may have
carcinogens that initiate cancer in the body.

866
Factors that increase the risk of cancer conti…
5. Over-exposure to radiations

X-rays, beta and Ultraviolet rays increases risk of cancer. They react with
bases of DNA in body cells increasing chances of oncogene making.

Treatments of cancer
1. Surgery
867
2. Chemotherapy

3. Radiotherapy

4. Hormone therapy

5. Gene therapy

Treatments of cancer conti…

868
1. Surgery
A medical operation to remove the tumor or affected tissue or affected
organ.

2. Chemotherapy
The use of drugs (medicines) that stops cancer development in the body.

869
3. Radiotherapy
The use of ionizing radiation to kill cancer cells in targeted areas in the
body.

Treatments of cancer conti…

4. Hormone therapy
Inhibiting some body hormones or change the way they work because they
are promoting some cancers.

870
5. Gene therapy
Repairing diseased cells by replacing defective genes.

Ways of preventing and controlling cancer

1. Immunization
Get immunized for some viral infections such as Hepatitis B to limit liver
cancer and Human Papilloma Viruses that leads to cervical cancer.

871
Ways of preventing and controlling cancer
conti…
2. Avoid risky behaviours
Some risky behaviours increases the risk of developing cancers e.g.
Multiple sexual partners where unprotected sex is done. Both vaginal and
anal sex. This is because:
 HIV and AIDS increases the risk of anal, cervical and lung cancers among
others.
 Human Papilloma Viruses (HPV) is associated with cervical cancers.
872
 Hepatitis B and C increases risk of liver cancer.

Ways of preventing and controlling cancer

conti…
3. Living a healthy lifestyle
 Avoid smoking to reduce the chances of lung, mouth, larynx and oesophagial
cancer.

873
 Eating plenty of plant foods such as fruits and vegetables which are rich in
vitamin C, A, E and Selenium. These are antioxidants which neutralizes
chemicals before they cause mutations.
 Avoid excessive alcohol consumption to avoid lung and colon cancers.
Limit fat in the diet.

Ways of preventing and controlling cancer

conti…

874
4. Protect people who are at high risk of cancer due to occupational
exposure.
People working in environments of high radiations or chemicals must be
given necessary protective wear.

5. Cancer screening
Cancer screening for people who are at risk or those having suspected
cancer signs.

875
Ways of preventing and controlling cancer conti…

6. Early cancer treatment

 Treating cancer in early stages is easier than in late stages.

876
Management of cancer
It includes palliative care.

Palliative care is a specialized medical care for people with serious illnesses.

 The aim of palliative care is to relieve patient from pain, stress and
discomfort brought about by the illness.

 It is done by a team of medical personnel and other health specialists.

877
 It is used to provide support to cancer patients and other patients with
terminal illnesses.

Management of cancer conti…

Palliative care helps the patient to cope with issues like:
 Depression
 Side effects of drugs
 Difficulties in breathing
 Constipation
878
 Fatigue
 Pain
NB: A terminal illness is any illness that has reached a stage where it will
automatically lead to death. (It can not be reversed by any form of treatment)

879