CHAPTER-3

DIODE AND RECTIFIER

INTRODUCTION - IDEAL DIODE
During forward bias, an Ideal Diode acts like a perfect conductor, while when
.
reverse-biased, it acts like an ideal insulator. The ideal diode properties are
resistance, threshold voltage, breakdown voltage, and current magnitude.

As the name suggests, an ideal

diode is a diode that has all of its WHAT IS
properties perfectly without any AN IDEAL
flaws. Diodes may operate either DIODE?
forwardly or reversely biased. Thus,
these two modes of operation can
be analysed separately to determine
the characteristics of the ideal
diode.
MODES OF OPERATION OF IDEAL DIODE
The two modes of operation of the ideal diode are
• Forward Bias
• Reverse Bias
Ideal Diode Circuit Symbol

❑ The circuit symbol of an ideal diode is the

simple representation of a diode by a triangle
device.

❑ This symbol becomes a short or open circuit

when forward and reverse-biased, respectively
MODES OF OPERATION OF IDEAL DIODE
Ideal Diode Circuit Symbol
❑ In forward bias, the current flows from
p to n side, and in reverse bias, there is
supposed to be a small current from n
to p, but since we are dealing with an
ideal diode, the reverse current would
be zero.
❑ The ideal diode conducts forward
current when a forward voltage is
applied across the anode to the
cathode. In contrast, it does not
conducts reverse current when a
reverse voltage is applied across the
anode to the cathode
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

An increased temperature will result in a large

number of broken covalent bonds increasing the

large number of majority and minority carriers.

This amounts to a diode current larger than its

previous diode current. The above phenomenon

applies both to forward and reverse current.

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

A semiconductor diode is a p-n junction diode.

WHAT IS
It is a two-terminal device that conducts SEMICOND
UCTOR
current only in one direction. The figure below DIODE?

represents the symbol for the p-n junction

diode, which symbolises the direction of the

current. By applying an external voltage V we

can vary the potential barrier.

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE - SYMBOL
UNBIASED DIODE
UNBIASED DIODE

❑ When an electron diffuses from the n-side to the p-

side, an ionised donor is left behind on the n-side,
which is immobile. As the process goes on, a layer of
positive charge is developed on the n-side of the
junction.

❑ Similarly, when a hole goes from the p-side to the n-side, an ionized acceptor is left
behind on the p-side, resulting in the formation of a layer of negative charges in the p-
side of the junction. This region of positive charge and negative charge on either side of
the junction is termed as the depletion region.
UNBIASED DIODE
❑ Due to this positive space charge region on either side of the junction, an electric field
with the direction from a positive charge towards the negative charge is developed. Due to
this electric field, an electron on the p-side of the junction moves to the n-side of the
junction. This motion is termed the drift. Here, we see that the direction of the drift current
is opposite to that of the diffusion current.
• An unbiased condition of a diode is when there is no external energy source.
• An unbiased diode sets the electric field across the depletion layer between the
n-type and the p-type material.
• This is caused due to the imbalance in free electrons due to doping.
• This barrier potential is approximately 0.7V for a silicon diode at room
temperature.
• In unbiased conditions, the p-side is positive, and the n- side is negative.
BIASING CONDITIONS FOR THE P-N JUNCTION DIODE

❑ Zero bias: No external voltage is applied to the P-N junction diode.

❑ Forward bias: The positive terminal of the voltage potential is connected to the p-type
while the negative terminal is connected to the n-type.
❑ Reverse bias: The negative terminal of the voltage potential is connected to the p-type
and the positive is connected to the n-type.
P-N JUNCTION DIODE UNDER FORWARD BIAS
 P-N JUNCTION DIODE UNDER REVERSE BIAS

.
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
 SURGE CURRENT

WHAT IS SURGE CURRENT IN DIODE?

Surge current in diode is the maximum allowable value of the current that the diode
can conduct in the forward bias condition. The diode gets damaged when the diode’s
forward current is more than the surge current rating of the diode. Therefore, the
diode’s surge current rating is desired to be more than the diode’s inrush current. The
surge current rating is infinite for an ideal diode.
 SURGE CURRENT
The surge current in the diode is influenced by various factors as follows:

• The surge current capability of the diode is highly influenced by the metallization layer
and the bond foot arrangement. The surge current capability of the diode is more when
the metallization layer is thicker and it is less for the diode that has thinner metallization
layers.
• The location and size of the contact area of the bond wires influence the surge current
capability of the diode. Diode has better surge current capability when it has high bond
foot area.
• The typical range of surge current rating of the diode is 10 to 12 times of its rated current.
DIODE AS A SWITCH
 RECTIFIER

There are three primary methods of diode rectification,

1. Half Wave Rectifier

2. Full wave Rectifier

3. Bridge Rectifier
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
 CHARACTERISTICS OF HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

Ripple Factor
Ripple factor is the ratio of RMS value of the AC component of the output voltage to
the DC component of the output voltage.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

DC Output Voltage
DC Current
DC current is given as: The output DC voltage appears at the load
resistor RL which is obtained by multiplying
output DC voltage with the load resistor RL.
The output DC voltage is given as:
Where,
Imax is themaximum DC load current

Where,
VSmax is the maximum secondary voltage
 CHARACTERISTICS OF HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
Form Factor
Advantages of Half Wave Rectifier
The form factor is the ratio of RMS
value to the DC value. For a half- • Affordable
wave rectifier, the form factor is • Simple connections
1.57. • Easy to use as the connections are simple
• Number of components used are less
Rectifier Efficiency
Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier
Rectifier efficiency is the ratio of
output DC power to the input AC • Ripple production is more
power. For a half-wave rectifier, • Harmonics are generated
rectifier efficiency is 40.6%. • Utilization of the transformer is very low
• The efficiency of rectification is low
 CHARACTERISTICS OF HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

Applications of Half Wave Rectifier

Following are the uses of half-wave rectification:

• Power rectification: Half wave rectifier is used along with a transformer for power
rectification as powering equipment.
• Signal demodulation: Half wave rectifiers are used for demodulating the AM signals.
• Signal peak detector: Half wave rectifier is used for detecting the peak of the incoming
waveform.
 FULL WAVE RECTIFIER
What Is Full Wave Rectifier?
❖ Electric circuits that convert AC to DC are known as rectifiers. Rectifiers are
classified into two types as Half Wave Rectifiers and Full Wave Rectifiers. Significant
power is lost while using a half-wave rectifier and is not feasible for applications that
need a smooth and steady supply. For a more smooth and steady supply, we use the
full wave rectifiers. In this article, we will be looking into the working and
characteristics of a full wave rectifier.
❖ A full wave rectifier is defined as a rectifier that converts the complete cycle of
alternating current into pulsating DC.
❖ Unlike halfwave rectifiers that utilize only the halfwave of the input AC cycle, full
wave rectifiers utilize the full cycle. The lower efficiency of the half wave rectifier
can be overcome by the full wave rectifier.
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT
Working Principle

❖ During the positive half cycle, diode D1 is forward biased as it is connected

to the top of the secondary winding while diode D2 is reverse biased as it is
connected to the bottom of the secondary winding. Due to this, diode D1 will
conduct acting as a short circuit and D2 will not conduct acting as an open
circuit
❖ During the negative half cycle, the diode D1 is reverse biased and the diode
D2 is forward biased because the top half of the secondary circuit becomes
negative and the bottom half of the circuit becomes positive. Thus in a full
wave rectifiers, DC voltage is obtained for both positive and negative half
cycle.
 FULL WAVE RECTIFIER CHARACTERISTICS

❖ Peak Inverse Voltage

Peak inverse voltage is the maximum voltage a diode can withstand in
the reverse-biased direction before breakdown. The peak inverse voltage of the
full-wave rectifier is double that of a half-wave rectifier. The PIV across D1 and
D2 is 2Vmax.
❖ DC Output Voltage
The following formula gives the average value of the DC output voltage:
 FULL WAVE RECTIFIER CHARACTERISTICS

❖ DC Current
Currents from both the diodes D1 and D2 are in the same direction when they
flow towards load resistor RL. The current produced by both the diodes is the ratio of
Imax to π, therefore the DC current is given as:

Where, Imax is the maximum DC load current

 FULL WAVE RECTIFIER CHARACTERISTICS
❖ RMS Value of Current
The RMS value of the current can be calculated using the following formula:

❖ Ripple Factor
Ripple factor for a full-wave rectifier is given as:

•Form Factor
•The form factor is the ratio of RMS value of current to the output DC voltage. The form
factor of a full-wave rectifier is given as 1.11
•The form factor of the full wave rectifier is calculated using the formula:
 FULL WAVE RECTIFIER CHARACTERISTICS
❖ Form Factor
The form factor is the ratio of RMS value of current to the output DC voltage.
The form factor of a full-wave rectifier is given in equation
• The form factor of the full wave rectifier is calculated using the formula:

❖ Peak Factor
The following formula gives the peak factor of the full wave rectifier:
 FULL WAVE RECTIFIER CHARACTERISTICS
❖ Rectification Efficiency
The rectification efficiency of the full-wave rectifier can be obtained using the
following formula:

The efficiency of the full wave rectifiers is 81.2%.

 BRIDGE RECTIFIER
Many electronic circuits require a rectified DC power supply to power various

electronic basic components from the available AC mains supply. Rectifiers are used to

convert an AC power to a DC power. Among the rectifiers, the bridge rectifier is the

most efficient rectifier circuit. We can define bridge rectifiers as a type of full-wave

rectifier that uses four or more diodes in a bridge circuit configuration to efficiently

convert alternating (AC) current to a direct (DC) current. In the next few sections, let us

learn more about its construction, working, and more.

BRIDGE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT
 WORKING PRINCIPLE

When an AC signal is applied across the bridge rectifier, terminal A becomes positive
during the positive half cycle while terminal B becomes negative. This results in diodes D1
and D3 becoming forward biased while D2 and D4 becoming reverse biased

During the negative half-cycle, terminal B becomes positive while terminal A becomes
negative. This causes diodes D2 and D4 to become forward biased and diode D1 and D3 to
be reverse biased.
BRIDGE RECTIFIER OUTPUT WAVEFORM
 CHARACTERISTICS OF BRIDGE RECTIFIER
Ripple Factor

❖ The smoothness of the output DC signal is measured by a factor known as the ripple
factor. The output DC signal with fewer ripples is considered a smooth DC signal while
the output with high ripples is considered a high pulsating DC signal.
❖ Mathematically, the ripple factor is defined as the ratio of ripple voltage to pure DC
voltage.
❖ The ripple factor for a bridge rectifier is given by
 CHARACTERISTICS OF BRIDGE RECTIFIER
❖ Peak Inverse Voltage
The maximum voltage that a diode can withstand in the reverse bias condition is
known as a peak inverse voltage. During the positive half cycle, the diodes D1 and D3 are in
the conducting state while D2 and D4 are in the non-conducting state. Similarly, during the
negative half cycle, diodes D2 and D4 are in the conducting state, and diodes D1 and D3 are
in the non-conducting state.
❖ Efficiency
The rectifier efficiency determines how efficiently the rectifier converts
Alternating Current (AC) into Direct Current (DC). Rectifier efficiency is defined as the
ratio of the DC output power to the AC input power. The maximum efficiency of a bridge
rectifier is 81.2%.
 FILTER CIRCUIT
The ripple in the signal denotes the presence of some AC component. This ac
component has to be completely removed in order to get pure dc output. So, we need a
circuit that smoothens the rectified output into a pure dc signal.

The following figure shows the functionality of a filter circuit.

A filter circuit is constructed using two main components, inductor and capacitor.
We have already studied in Basic Electronics tutorial that
❖ An inductor allows dc and blocks ac.
❖ A capacitor allows ac and blocks dc.
 CHOKE FILTER

Definition: Choke filter consists of an inductor connected in series with rectifier output
circuit and a capacitor connected in parallel with the load resistor. It is also called L-section
filter because the inductor and capacitor are connected in the shape of inverted L. The output
pulsating DC voltage from a rectifier circuit passes through the inductor or choke coil.

The inductor has low DC resistance and extremely high AC reactance. Thus, ripples get
filtered through choke coil. Some of the residual ripples if present in filtered signal from
inductor coil will get bypassed through the capacitor. The reason behind this is that capacitor
allow AC and block DC.
WORKING OF CHOKE FILTER OR L-SECTION FILTER

When the pulsating DC signal from the output

of the rectifier circuit is feed into choke filter,
the AC ripples present in the output DC
voltage gets filtered by choke coil. The
inductor has the property to block AC and
pass DC. This is because DC resistance of an
inductor is low and AC impedance of inductor
coil is high. Thus, the AC ripples get blocked
by inductor coil.
WAVEFORM OF CHOKE FILTER OR L-SECTION FILTER
CAPACITOR INPUT FILTER OR SHUNT CAPACITOR FILTER
CAPACITOR INPUT FILTER OR SHUNT CAPACITOR FILTER
 CLIPPER CIRCUITS

A clipper is a device which limits,

1. Series positive clipper
remove or prevents some portion of the wave
2. Series negative clipper
form (input signal voltage) above or below a
certain level In other words the circuit which 3. Shunt or parallel positive clipper

limits positive or negative amplitude ,or both is 4. Shunt or parallel negative clipper
called chipping circuit. The clipper circuits are
5. Dual (combination)Diode clipper
of the following types.
 CLIPPER CIRCUITS

SERIES POSITIVE CLIPPER

 CLIPPER CIRCUITS

SERIES POSITIVE CLIPPER

During the positive half of the During the negative half cycle of the
input voltage, the terminal A is positive input voltage the terminal B is positive with
with respect to B. This reverse biases the respect to A. Therefore it forward biases the
diode and it acts as an open switch diode and it acts as a closed switch. Thus there
Therefore all the applied voltage drops is on voltage drop across diode during the
across the diode and none across the negative half cycle of the input voltage.
resistor As a result of this there is no
output voltage during the positive half
cycle of the input voltage.
 CLIPPER CIRCUITS

SERIES POSITIVE CLIPPER

• A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected
in series to the input signal and biased with
positive reference voltage V and that attenuates
the positive portions of the waveform, is termed
as Positive Series Clipper with positive V.
• The previous figure represents the circuit
diagram for positive series clipper when the
reference voltage applied is positive.
• During the positive cycle of the input the
diode gets reverse biased and the reference
voltage appears at the output. During its
negative cycle, the diode gets forward
biased and conducts like a closed switch.
Hence the output waveform appears as
shown in the previous figure.
Positive Series Clipper with negative V
• PPT 48, 2nd fig.
• A Clipper circuit in which the diode is
connected in series to the input signal and
biased with negative reference voltage V and
that attenuates the positive portions of the
waveform, is termed as Positive Series Clipper
with negative V.
• The 2nd figure represents the circuit diagram
for positive series clipper, when the reference
voltage applied is negative.
 Contd..
• During the positive cycle of the input the
diode gets reverse biased and the reference
voltage appears at the output. As the
reference voltage is negative, the same
voltage with constant amplitude is shown.
During its negative cycle, the diode gets
forward biased and conducts like a closed
switch. Hence the input signal that is greater
than the reference voltage, appears at the
output.
 CLIPPER CIRCUITS
SERIES NEGATIVE CLIPPER
 Contd..
• A Clipper circuit in which the diode is
connected in series to the input signal and
that attenuates the negative portions of the
waveform, is termed as Negative Series
Clipper. The previous figure represents the
circuit diagram for negative series clipper.
 Contd..
• Positive Cycle of the Input − When the input voltage is
applied, makes the diode forward biased and hence it acts like
a closed switch. Thus the input voltage completely appears
across the load resistor to produce the output V0
• Negative Cycle of the Input − The negative cycle of the input
makes the diode reverse biased and hence it acts like an open
switch. Thus the voltage across the load resistor will be zero
making V0 zero.
 CLIPPER CIRCUITS

SERIES-NEGATIVE CLIPPER WITH BIAS

 Negative Series Clipper with
positive V (PPt:56, fig. a)
• A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in
series to the input signal and biased with positive
reference voltage V and that attenuates the negative
portions of the waveform, is termed as Negative
Series Clipper with positive V.
• During the positive cycle of the input, the diode
starts conducting only when the anode voltage value
exceeds the cathode voltage value of the diode. As
the cathode voltage equals the reference voltage
applied, the output will be as shown in fig.(a)
 Negative Series Clipper with
negative V (PPT:56, fig.b)
• A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in series to
the input signal and biased with negative reference voltage V
and that attenuates the negative portions of the waveform, is
termed as Negative Series Clipper with negative V.
• During the positive cycle of the input the diode gets forward
biased and the input signal appears at the output. During its
negative cycle, the diode gets reverse biased and hence will
not conduct. But the negative reference voltage being
applied, appears at the output. Hence the negative cycle of
the output waveform gets clipped after this reference level.
• Refer fig. b
 CLIPPER CIRCUITS
SHUNT OR PARALLEL POSITIVE CLIPPER
 SHUNT OR PARALLEL POSITIVE CLIPPER contd..

• A Clipper circuit in which the diode is

connected in shunt to the input signal and
that attenuates the positive portions of the
waveform, is termed as Positive Shunt Clipper.
• During the positive half cycle, diode D is
forward bias and acts a closed switch. Output
voltage vo will be zero because it is in parallel
with diode D. During negative half cycle, diode
D is reversed bias and vi=vo.
 CLIPPER CIRCUITS

SHUNT OR PARALLEL POSITIVE CLIPPER WITH BIAS

Positive Shunt Clipper with positive
bias(Vr) (PPt 61, fig. a)
• A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in
shunt to the input signal and biased with positive
reference voltage V and that attenuates the positive
portions of the waveform, is termed as Positive
Shunt Clipper with positive V.
• During the positive cycle of the input the diode gets
forward biased and nothing but the reference
voltage appears at the output. During its negative
cycle, the diode gets reverse biased and behaves as
an open switch. The whole of the input appears at
the output.
Positive Shunt Clipper with
negative bias (Vr), Vr is –ve.
 Contd..
• A Clipper circuit in which the diode is
connected in shunt to the input signal and
biased with negative reference voltage Vr and
that attenuates the positive portions of the
waveform, is termed as Positive Shunt Clipper
with negative Vr.
 Contd..
• During the positive cycle of the input, the
diode gets forward biased and the reference
voltage appears at the output. As the
reference voltage is negative, the same
voltage with constant amplitude is shown.
During its negative cycle, the diode gets
reverse biased and behaves as an open switch.
Hence the input signal that is greater than the
reference voltage, appears at the output.
 CLIPPER CIRCUITS

SHUNT OR PARALLEL NEGATIVE CLIPPER

 CLIPPER CIRCUITS

SHUNT OR PARALLEL NEGATIVE CLIPPER WITH BIAS

DUAL (COMBINATION) DIODE CLIPPER
 CLAMPING CIRCUITS

A circuit that places either the positive or negative peak of a signal at a

desired D.C level is known as a clamping circuit. A clamping circuit introduces (or
restores) a D.C level to an A.C signal. Thus a clamping circuit is also known as D.C
restorer, or D.C reinserted or a baseline stabilizer.
Positive clamping occurs when negative peaks raised or clamped to ground
or on the zero level In other words, it pushes the signal upwards so that negative peaks
fall on the zero level.

Negative clamping occurs when positive peaks raised or clamped to ground

or on the zero level In other words, it pushes the signal downwards so that the positive
peaks fall on the zero level.
CLAMPING CIRCUITS
 DIODE CLAMPERS
POSITIVE CLAMPER
 Positive Clamper contd..
• A Clamping circuit restores the DC level. When
a negative peak of the signal is raised above to
the zero level, then the signal is said to be
positively clamped.
• A Positive Clamper circuit is one that consists
of a diode, a resistor and a capacitor and that
shifts the output signal to the positive portion
of the input signal..
 Contd..
• Initially when the input is given, the capacitor is not yet
charged and the diode is reverse biased. The output is not
considered at this point of time. During the negative half
cycle, at the peak value, the capacitor gets charged with
negative on one plate and positive on the other. The capacitor
is now charged to its peak value Vm
• The diode is forward biased and conducts heavily.
• During the next positive half cycle, the capacitor is charged to
positive Vm while the diode gets reverse biased and gets open
circuited.
 Contd..
• The output of the circuit at this moment will
be….
• V0=Vi+Vm.
• Hence the signal is positively clamped as
shown in the figure. The output signal changes
according to the changes in the input, but
shifts the level according to the charge on the
capacitor, as it adds the input voltage.
POSITIVE CLAMPER WITH BIAS
NEGATIVE CLAMPER (Fig. NC)
 Negative Clamper
• A Negative Clamper circuit is one that consists of a diode, a
resistor and a capacitor and that shifts the output signal to
the negative portion of the input signal.
• During the positive half cycle, the capacitor gets charged to its
peak value vm.
• The diode is forward biased and conducts. During the
negative half cycle, the diode gets reverse biased and gets
open circuited. The output of the circuit at this moment will
be
• V0=Vi+Vm
 contd
• Hence the signal is negatively clamped as
shown in the above figure. The output signal
changes according to the changes in the input,
but shifts the level according to the charge on
the capacitor, as it adds the input voltage.
• (Fig. NC)
NEGATIVE CLAMPER WITH BIAS
Negative clamper with positive Vr
 Contd..
• A Negative clamper circuit if biased with some positive
reference voltage, that voltage will be added to the output to
raise the clamped level. Using this, the circuit of the negative
clamper with positive reference voltage is constructed as
below.
• Though the output voltage is negatively clamped, a portion of
the output waveform is raised to the positive level, as the
applied reference voltage is positive. During the positive half-
cycle, the diode conducts, but the output equals the positive
reference voltage applied. During the negative half cycle, the
diode acts as open circuited and the voltage across the
capacitor forms the output.
Negative Clamper with Negative Vr
 Contd..
• A Negative clamper circuit if biased with some
negative reference voltage, that voltage will be
added to the output to raise the clamped level.
• The cathode of the diode is connected with a
negative reference voltage, which is less than that of
zero and the anode voltage. Hence the diode starts
conducting during positive half cycle, before the zero
voltage level. During the negative half cycle, the
voltage across the capacitor appears at the output.
Thus the waveform is clamped towards the negative
portion.
 APPLICATIONS OF CLIPPERS AND CLAMPERS

The applications of clippers are:

❖ They are frequently used for the separation of synchronizing signals from the
composite picture signals.
❖ The excessive noise spikes above a certain level can be limited or clipped in FM
transmitters by using the series clippers.
❖ For the generation of new waveforms or shaping the existing waveform, clippers
are used.
❖ The typical application of a diode clipper is for the protection of transistors from
transients, as a freewheeling diode connected in parallel across the inductive load.
❖ A frequently used half-wave rectifier in power supply kits is a typical example of a
clipper. It clips either positive or negative half-wave of the input.
❖ Clippers can be used as voltage limiters and amplitude selectors.
 APPLICATIONS OF CLIPPERS AND CLAMPERS

The applications of clampers are:

❖ The complex transmitter and receiver circuitry of the television clamper is used as a
baseline stabilizer to define sections of the luminance signals to preset levels.
❖ Clampers are also called direct current restorers as they clamp the waveforms to a
fixed DC potential.
❖ These are frequently used in test equipment, sonar, and radar systems.
❖ For the protection of the amplifiers from large errant signals, clampers are used.
❖ Clampers can be used for removing the distortions
❖ For improving the overdrive recovery time clampers are used.
❖ Clampers can be used as voltage doublers or voltage multipliers.
 VOLTAGE MULTIPLIERS

The voltage if doubled, such a circuit is

called as a Voltage Doubler. This can be
extended to make a Voltage Tripler or a
Voltage Quadrupler or so on to obtain high
DC voltages.
 WORKING PRINCIPLE

❖ During the first positive half cycle − When the input signal is applied, the capacitor C1
is charged and the diode D1is forward biased. While the diode D2 is reverse biased and
the capacitor C2 doesn’t get any charge. This makes the output V0 to be Vm. This can
be understood from the following figure16.

❖ During the negative half cycle − After that, when the negative half cycle arrives, the
diode D1 gets reverse biased and the diode D2gets forward biased. The diode D2 gets
the charge through the capacitor C2 which gets charged during this process. The
current then flows through the capacitor C1 which discharges
 WORKING PRINCIPLE

During the first positive half cycle During the first negative half cycle
WORKING PRINCIPLE
 APPLICATION

Voltage multipliers are mostly used where high DC voltages are required. For example,

cathode ray tubes and computer display.

BJT and its Working
 BJT Operation
❑In normal operation, the base-emitter is forward-biased and the base-collector
is reverse-biased.
❑For the npn type shown, the collector is more positive than the base, which is
more positive than the emitter.
❑For the pnp type, the voltages are reversed to maintain the forward-reverse bias.
 BJT Currents

❑The direction of conventional current is in the direction of the arrow on the

emitter terminal. The emitter current is the sum of the collector current and the
small base current. That is, IE = IC + IB.
+ –
+ –
IC IC
IC IC
n p
IB IB IB IB
+ p + – n –
n p
IE IE
IE IE
– +
– npn + pnp
DC Beta (βDC) and DC Alpha (αDC)
The dc current gain of a transistor is the ratio of the dc collector
current (I ) to the dc base current (I ) and is designated dc beta (β ).
C B DC

βDC= IC/IB

Typical values of β range from less than 20 to 200 or higher.

DC
The ratio of the dc collector current (I ) to the dc emitter current
C

(I ) is the dc alpha (α ).
E DC

αDC =IC/IE

Typically, values of α range from 0.95 to 0.99 or greater, but α is

DC DC

always less than 1.

The alpha is a less-used parameter than beta in transistor circuits.

Relation between αDC and βDC :

We know that αDC =IC/IE But IE = IC + IB

αDC =IC/IC + IB
Divide numerator and denominator by IB to get,
αDC =(IC/IB ) /(1+ (IC/IB))
But IC/IB = βDC
αDC =βDC/1 + βDC

Similarly we can obtain the expression for βDC :

βDC=αDC/1 - αDC
BJT Circuit Analysis
Three transistor dc currents and three dc voltages can be
identified :
IB: dc base current, IE: dc emitter current , IC: dc collector current
VBE: dc voltage at base with respect to emitter
VCB: dc voltage at collector with respect to base
VCE: dc voltage at collector with respect to emitter
The base-bias voltage source, VBB, forward-biases the base-emitter junction, and the collector-bias
voltage source, VCC, reverse-biases the base-collector junction
VBE = 0.7 V
Since the emitter is at ground (0 V), by Kirchhoff’s voltage law, the voltage across RB is
VRB = VBB – VBE

Also, by Ohm’s law, VRB = IBRB

Substituting for yields IBRB = VBB – VBE

Solving for IB, IB = (VBB – VBE)/RB

The voltage at the collector with respect to the grounded emitter is
VCE = VCC – VRC

drop across RC is VRC = ICRC

VCE = VCC – ICRC

The voltage across the reverse-biased collector-base junction is

VCB = VCE – VBE
EXAMPLE:
Determine I , I , I , V , V , and V in the circuit of Figure The
B C E BE CE CB

transistor has a β = 150. DC

I =(VBB - VBE) /R
B B

=5 V - 0.7 V/10 kΩ
= 430 µA

I = β I = (150)(430 µA)
C DC B

= 64.5 mA

I = I + I = 64.5 mA + 430 µA = 64.9 mA

E C B

V = V - I R = 10 V - (64.5 mA)(100 Ω) = 10 V - 6.45 V = 3.55 V

CE CC C C

V = V - V = 3.55 V - 0.7 V = 2.85 V

CB CE BE
 BJT Characteristics

❑The collector characteristic curves show the relationship

of the three transistor currents.
❑The curve shown is for a fixed based current. The first region is the
saturation region. I C

As VCE is increased, IC increases Breakdown

until B. Then it flattens in region region
C
between points B and C, which B

is the active region. Active region

After C, is the breakdown

Saturation
region. region

A
VCE
0 0.7 V VCE(max)
 BJT Characteristics
❑The collector characteristic curves illustrate the relationship of the
three transistor currents.
❑By setting up other values of base current, a family of collector
curves is developed. I C

DC is the ratio of collector I B6

current to base current.  DC = I C I B5

IB I B4

It can be read from the curves. I B3

The value of DC is nearly the
I B2
same wherever it is read.
I B1

Cutoff region IB = 0
VCE
0
BJT Characteristics

Example: What is the DC for the transistor shown?

Solution: Choose a base current near the
center of the range – in this I C (mA)

case IB3 which is 30 A. IB6 = 60 A

10.0
Read the corresponding IB5 = 50 A

collector current – in this case, 8.0

IB4 = 40 A
5.0 mA. Calculate the ratio: 6.0
I B3 = 30 A

I C 5.0 mA
 DC = = = 167 4.0 IB2 = 20 A

I B 30  A
IB1 = 10 A
2.0

IB = 0
0 VCE
Cutoff

❑In a BJT, cutoff is the condition in which there is no base

current, which results in only an extremely small leakage
current (ICEO) in the collector circuit. For practical work, this
current is assumed to be zero.
❑In cutoff, neither the base-emitter junction, nor the base-collector
junction are forward-biased.
RC

ICEO
RB + +
VCE ≅ VCC VCC
IB = 0 –
–
 Saturation
❑In a BJT, saturation is the condition in which there is maximum collector
current. The saturation current is determined by the external circuit (VCC and RC in
this case) because the collector-emitter voltage is minimum (≈ 0.2 V)
In saturation, an increase of base current has no effect on the collector
circuit and the relation IC = DCIB is no longer valid.
RC
– +

IC
RB + +
VCE = VCC – IC RC VCC
+ IB – –
VBB
–
 DC Load Line
The DC load line represents the circuit that is external to
the transistor. It is drawn by connecting the
IC
saturation and cutoff points.
The transistor characteristic curves are IC(sat)
Saturation

shown superimposed on the load line.

The region between the saturation and
cutoff points is called the active
region.

IB = 0 Cutoff
V CE
0 VCE(sat) VCC
DC Load Line
RC 3.3 kW

Example: What is the saturation current and RB +

VCC
βDC = 200
the cutoff voltage for the circuit? + 220 kW –
15 V
V BB
Assume VCE = 0.2 V in saturation. 3V –

Solution:

VCC − 0.2 V 15 V − 0.2 V

ISAT = = = 4.48 mA VCO = VCC = 15 V
RC 3.3 kW
Follow-up:
Is the transistor saturated? 3.0 V − 0.7 V
IB = = 10.45  A
220 kW

IC =  IB = 200 (10.45 A) = 2.09 mA Since IC < ISAT, it is not saturated.

Data Sheets
Data sheets give manufacturer’s specifications for maximum operating conditions, thermal,
and electrical characteristics. For example, an electrical characteristic is DC, which is given
as hFE. The 2N3904 shows a range of ’s on the data sheet from 100 to 300 for IC = 10 mA.
Characteristic Symbol Min Max Unit
ON Characteristics
DC current gain hFE –
( IC = 0.1 mA dc, VCE = 1.0 V dc) 2N3903 20 –
2N3904 40 –
( IC = 1.0 mA dc, VCE = 1.0 V dc) 2N3903 35 –
2N3904 70 –
( IC = 10 mA dc, VCE = 1.0 V dc) 2N3903 50 150
2N3904 100 300
( IC = 50 mA dc, VCE = 1.0 V dc) 2N3903 30 –
2N3904 60 –
( IC = 100 mA dc, VCE = 1.0 V dc) 2N3903 15 –
2N3904 30 –
DC and AC Quantities
❑The text uses capital letters for both AC and DC currents and voltages with
rms values assumed unless stated otherwise.
❑DC Quantities use upper case roman subscripts. Example: VCE. (The second
letter in the subscript indicates the reference point.)
❑AC Quantities and time varying signals use lower case italic subscripts.
Example: Vce.
❑Internal transistor resistances are indicated as lower case quantities with a
prime and an appropriate subscript. Example: re’.
❑External resistances are indicated as capital R with either a capital or lower
case subscript depending on if it is a DC or ac resistance. Examples: RC and Rc.
BJT Amplifiers
❑A BJT amplifies AC signals by converting some of the DC power from the
power supplies to AC signal power. An ac signal at the input is superimposed in
the dc bias by the capacitive coupling. The output ac signal is inverted and rides
on a dc level of VCE.
RC
Vin

VBB

0 RB +
Vc r e′ VCC
Vc –
+
Vin VBB Vb
VCE
–

0
BJT Switches
❑A BJT can be used as a switching device in logic circuits to turn on or off current to a load. As a
switch, the transistor is normally in either cutoff (load is OFF) or saturation (load is ON).

+VCC +VCC +VCC +VCC

RC IC = 0 RC RC IC(sat) RC IC(sat)

RB C RB C
+
0V +VBB
IB = 0 E E
IB –

In cutoff, the transistor In saturation, the transistor

looks like an open switch. looks like a closed switch.
A Sample of Common Transistor Packages
3 Collector 3 Collector
3 Collector
3
2 1 2
Base Base Base
1
1 1 Emitter 2 1 Emitter
2 Emitter
2 3 2
3 1
SOT-23
TO-92 TO-18
C
E
B
E
C (case) B C
C B
E

TO-225AA
TO-220AB
TO-3
BJT Basic Test
❑A basic test for a BJT is to use the Diode Test function of your DMM.
To test the base-emitter junction of a BJT, connect the positive lead to the
base and the negative lead to the emitter. You should see a voltage close
to 0.7 V for an npn transistor.
Reversing the leads will show OL
OL
for “overload”.
OFF VH
Hz

V H

mV H

W
EBC
A Range
Autorange 1s

Touch/Hold 1s
10 A
VW

40 m A
COM

Fused
 Quiz for students

1. The region on the characteristic curve in which the

current changes only slightly with an increase in VCE is
called the
a. saturation region
b. cutoff region
c. breakdown region
d. active region
2. DC is defined as the ratio of
a. collector current to base current
b. collector current to emitter current
c. emitter current to base current
d. emitter current to collector current
3. When a BJT is in saturation, the
a. collector current does not change with an
increase in base current
b. base current cannot increase
c. collector to emitter voltage is maximum
d. all of the above
4. When a BJT is cutoff, the
a. voltage from collector to emitter is near zero
b. collector current is near zero
c. base-emitter junction is forward-biased
d. none of the above
5. The lower end of the dc load line touches the x-axis at
a. saturation
b. cutoff
c. breakdown
d. 0.7 V
6. For the circuit shown, the base current is
a. 1.0 A
RC 3.9 kW
b. 1.16 A RB +
VCC
βDC = 200
c. 10 A
15 V
+ 430 kW –
V BB
5V –
d. 11.6 A
7. For the circuit shown, the saturation current is
a. 200 A
RC 3.9 kW

b. 2.0 mA RB +
VCC
βDC = 200
15 V
+ 430 kW –
c. 3.79 mA V BB
5V –
d. 14.8 mA
8. The transistor package that is a TO-3 case is

a. b.

c. d.
Answers:
1. d 6. c
2. a 7. c
3. a 8. c
4. d
5. b
 Current gain
• Depends on:

✓Transistor
✓Collector current
✓Temperature
 Base bias
• Setting up a fixed value of base current
• Base supply voltage (VBB) divided by base
resistor (RB)
VCE = VCC - ICRC 1 kW RC

VCE

RB 12 V

12 V
 Load line
• Connects saturation current (ICsat) to cutoff
voltage (VCEcutoff )
• A visual summary of all the possible
transistor operating points
 VCC - VCE A graph of this equation
IC = produces a load line.
RC

14 100 A
12 80 A
10 60 A
IC in mA 8
6 40 A
4 20 A
2
0 A
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
VCE in Volts
 12 V
IC =
1 kW
1 kW RC
Mental
short

RB 12 V VCC

12 V
 12 V This is the
IC = = 12 mA
1 kW Saturation (maximum) current.

14 100 A
12 80 A
10 60 A
IC in mA 8
6 40 A
4 20 A
2
0 A
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
VCE in Volts
 1 kW RC

Mental
open
RB 12 V VCC

12 V
 VCE(cutoff) = VCC

14 100 A
12 80 A
10 60 A
IC in mA 8
6 40 A
4 20 A
2
0 A
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
VCE in Volts
 Load line slope
• Changing the collector supply voltage
while keeping the same collector
resistance produces two load lines
• These load lines will have the same slope
but will have different saturation and
cutoff values
 Same slope with new ICsat and VCEcutoff

14 100 A
12 80 A
10 60 A
IC in mA 8
6 40 A
4 20 A
2
0 A
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
VCE in Volts
 Changing RC:

750 W
1 kW RC

VCE

RB 12 V VCC

VBB 12 V
A smaller RC produces a higher value ICsat and a steeper slope

14 100 A
12 80 A
10 60 A
IC in mA 8
6 40 A
4 20 A
2
0 A
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
VCE in Volts
 Operating point
• Determined by:

✓Finding saturation current and cutoff

voltage points
✓Connecting points to produce a load line
✓The operating (Q) point is established by
the value of base current
A circuit can operate at any point on the load line.
14 100 A
12 80 A
10 60 A
IC in mA 8
6 40 A
4 20 A
2
0 A
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
VCE in Volts
 VBB - VBE The operating point is determined by the base current.
IB =
RB
1 kW RC
12 V - 0.7 V
IB = = 40 A
283 kW

RB = 283 kW 12 V VCC

VBB 12 V
The operating point is called the Q or quiescent point.

14 100 A
12 80 A
10 60 A
IC in mA 8
Q 40 A
6
4 20 A
2
0 A
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
VCE in Volts
This Q point is in the linear region.
Saturation and cutoff are non-linear operating points.
14 100 A
12 80 A
10 60 A
IC in mA 8
6 40 A
4 20 A
2
0 A
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
VCE in Volts
These Q points are used in switching applications.
 Transistor circuits
• Amplifying and switching
• Amplifying – Q point is in the active region
• Switching – Q point switches between
saturation and cutoff
 Recognizing saturation
• Assume linear operation.
• Perform calculations for currents and
voltages.
• An impossible result means the
assumption is false.
• An impossible result indicates saturation.
• If the ratio of base to collector resistance is
10:1, the transistor is saturated.
 Base bias
• The base current is established by VBB and
RB.
• The collector current is  times larger in
linear circuits.
• The transistor current gain will have a
large effect on the operating point.
• Transistor current gain is unpredictable.
 Transistor switch
• Base bias is used
• The Q point switches between saturation
and cutoff
• Switching circuits, also called two-state
circuits, are used in digital applications
 Emitter bias
• The bias resistor is moved from the base
to emitter circuit
• Provides Q points that are immune to
current gain changes
• Used for linear amplifiers
 Emitter bias:
11 kW
kW RC
VBB - VBE IC  IE
IE = = 1.95 mA
RE

15 V VCC

VBB 5V 2.2 kW RE

VC = 15 V - (1.95 mA)(1 kW) = 13.1 V

VCE = 13.1 V - 4.3 V = 8.8 V
 Comparing the bias methods
• Base bias is subject to variations in
transistor current gain.
• Base bias is subject to temperature effects.
• Emitter bias almost eliminates these
effects.
• The transistor current gain is not required
when solving circuits with emitter bias.
Common collector configuration

Figure: Common Collector Transistor Circuit

• In this configuration the input is applied between the
base and the collector and the output is taken from the
collector and the emitter. Here the collector is common
to both the input and the output circuits as shown in fig.
1.
• In common collector configuration the input current
is the base current IB and the output current is the
emitter current IE. The ratio of change in emitter current
to the change in the base current is called current
amplification factor. I E
 =
I B
Input characteristic
• It is a curve which shows the relationship between
the base current, IB and the collector base voltage VCB
at constant VCE This method of determining the
characteristic is as follows.
• First, a suitable voltage is applied between the emitter
and the collector. Next the input voltage VCB is increased
in a number of steps and corresponding values of IE are
noted.
• Fig. 2 shows the family of the input characteristic at
different collector- emitter voltages.
Figure : Input characteristics of CC configuration
Output characteristic
• It is a curve which shows the relationship between the
emitter current l and collector-emitter voltage, the
method of determining the output characteristic is as
follows.
• First, by adjusting the input a suitable current IB is
maintained. Next VCB increased in a number of steps
from zero and corresponding values of IE are noted.
• The above whole procedure is repeated for different
values of IB.
• Figure shows the family of output characteristics at
different base current values.
Figure : Output characteristics of CC configuration
 Voltage divider bias
• Base circuit contains a voltage divider
• Most widely used
• Known as VDB
 +VCC

Voltage divider bias circuit

RC
R1

R1 and R2 form
a voltage divider

R2 RE
 +VCC
Divider analysis:

R1

R2
VBB = VCC +VBB
R1 + R2

ASSUMPTION: The base R2

current is normally much
smaller than the divider current.
Now the circuit can be viewed +VCC
this way:
To complete the analysis: RC
VBB - VBE
IE =
RE
IC  IE
VC = VCC - ICRC VBB RE
VCE = VC - VE
 The six-step process
1. Calculate the base voltage using the
voltage divider equation.
2. Subtract 0.7 V to get the emitter voltage.
3. Divide by emitter resistance to get the
emitter current.
4. Determine the drop across the collector
resistor.
 The six-step process
(Continued)
5. Calculate the collector voltage by subtracting
the voltage across the collector resistor from
VCC.
6. Calculate the collector-emitter voltage by
subtracting the emitter voltage from the
collector voltage.
 VDB analysis
• The base current must be much smaller than
current through the divider
• With the base voltage constant, the circuit
produces a stable Q point under varying
operational conditions
 +VCC
Is the divider a stiff source?
RC
R1

Find the Thevenin

resistance.

RTH = R1 R2 R2 RE
 +VCC
A Thevenin model of the bias circuit:
RC

RTH

VBB RE
The 100:1 rule applied to the +VCC
bias circuit:
RC
RTH < 0.01 RIN
RTH
RIN

When this rule is met,

VBB the divider is stiff. RE
 Firm voltage divider
• Used because divider resistors (e.g. R1 and
R2) in a stiff design would be too small
• The collector current will be about 10% lower
than the stiff value
 +VCC
Sometimes a firm divider is chosen.

R1 R2 < 0.1 dcRE RC

R1

A closer approximation:

VBB - VBE
IE = R2
R1 R2 RE
RE +
dc
 VDB load line and Q point
• VDB is derived from emitter bias
• The Q point is immune to changes in current
gain
• The Q point is moved by varying the emitter
resistor
Two-supply stiff 3.6 kW 10 V
emitter bias:
Assume 0 V
VEE - 0.7 V
IE =
RE 2.7 kW 1 kW

2 V - 0.7 V 2V
IE = = 1.3 mA
1 kW
 Find the voltages:
3.6 kW 10 V
VC = 10 V - (1.3 mA)(3.6 kW) = 5.32 V

VCE = 5.32 V - (-0.7 V) = 6.02 V

2.7 kW 1 kW

2V
 +VCC
Base bias:
RC
RB

•The least predictable

•Q point moves with replacement
•Q point moves with temperature
•Not practical
 +VCC
Emitter-feedback bias:
RC
RB

•Better than base bias

•Q point still moves
•Not popular RE
 +VCC
Collector-feedback bias:
RC
RB

•Better than emitter-feedback bias

•Q point still moves
•Some applications because of circuit
simplicity
 +VCC
Collector- and emitter
-feedback bias: RC
RB

•Better than emitter-feedback bias

•Not as good as voltage-divider bias RE
•Limited application
Two-supply emitter bias:

•Very stable
•Requires 2 supplies

Note: Also called TSEB

 +VCC
Voltage divider bias:
RC
R1

•Very stable
•Requires 1 supply
•The most popular R2 RE

Note: Also called VDB

 PNP transistor
• The base is n-type material
• The collector and emitter are p-type material
• The emitter arrow points in
• Can be used with a negative power supply
PNP transistor symbol
and current flow
IC IC
IB IB

IE IE

Electron flow Conventional flow

 -VCC
PNP Biasing with a
negative supply RC
R1

R2 RE
PNP Biasing with a +VEE

positive supply RE
R2

R1 RC
References

1. Basis of electrical and electronics by B.L. Theraja volume1

2. https://onlineaavedan.com/study_material/1546513067.pdf
3. https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/transformer/transformer-construction.html
4. https://www.google.com/search?q=ferromagnetic+materials&safe=strict&rlz=1C
1CHBF_enIN805IN805&tbm=isch&source=iu&ictx=1&fir=q4u2-
CswUzlkeM%253A%252CSqsFmJb0FM7MCM%252C_&vet=1&usg=AI4_-
kSvGCFJ8xkpJJzezrAqiQMSbFiTVQ&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwii2ruolvTpAhVeIbcA
HQDgDtYQ_h0wAHoECAgQBA&biw=1366&bih=576#imgrc=q4u2-
CswUzlkeM&imgdii=hsBmhZUNL_dbvM
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferromagnetism
6. https://www.electricaleasy.com/2014/04/equivalent-circuit-of-transformer.html