Metal Casting

Introduction

Virtually nothing moves, turns, rolls, or flies without the benefit of cast
metal products. The metal casting industry plays a key role in all the
major sectors of our economy. There are castings in locomotives, cars
trucks, aircraft, office buildings, factories, schools, and
homes. Figure some metal cast parts.

Metal Casting is one of the oldest materials shaping methods known.

Casting means pouring molten metal into a mold with a cavity of the
shape to be made, and allowing it to solidify. When solidified, the desired
metal object is taken out from the mold either by breaking the mold or
taking the mold apart. The solidified object is called the casting. By this
process, intricate parts can be given strength and rigidity frequently not
obtainable by any other manufacturing process. The mold, into which
the metal is poured, is made of some heat resisting material. Sand is
most often used as it resists the high temperature of the molten metal.
Permanent molds of metal can also be used to cast products.

Figure 0: Metal Cast parts

Advantages

The metal casting process is extensively used in manufacturing because

of its many advantages.

1. Molten material can flow into very small sections so that intricate
shapes can be made by this process. As a result, many other
operations, such as machining, forging, and welding, can be
minimized or eliminated.
2. It is possible to cast practically any material that is ferrous or non-
ferrous.
3. As the metal can be placed exactly where it is required, large
saving in weight can be achieved.
4. The necessary tools required for casting molds are very simple and
inexpensive. As a result, for production of a small lot, it is the
ideal process.
5. There are certain parts made from metals and alloys that can only
be processed this way.
6. Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for the casting
process.

Limitations

1. Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the castings made by

sand casting processes are a limitation to this technique. Many
new casting processes have been developed which can take into
consideration the aspects of dimensional accuracy and surface
finish. Some of these processes are die casting process,
investment casting process, vacuum-sealed molding process, and
shell molding process.
2. The metal casting process is a labor intensive process
Casting Terms

1. Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which

the mold is formed. Depending upon the position of the flask in
the molding structure, it is referred to by various names such as
drag – lower molding flask, cope – upper molding flask, cheek –
intermediate molding flask used in three piece molding.
2. Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mold
cavity is made with the help of pattern.
3. Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two molding
flasks that makes up the mold.
4. Molding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its
permeability to air or gases. It is a mixture of silica sand, clay, and
moisture in appropriate proportions.
 5. Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material
sprinkled on the inner surface of the mold cavity to give a better
surface finish to the castings.
6. Core: A separate part of the mold, made of sand and generally
baked, which is used to create openings and various shaped
cavities in the castings.
7. Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mold
into which the molten metal is poured.
8. Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the
pouring basin, reaches the mold cavity. In many cases it controls
the flow of metal into the mold.
9. Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried
from the sprue to the gate.
10. Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the
mold cavity.
11. Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the
mold cavity to take care of its own weight and overcome the
metallostatic force.
12. Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mold to feed
the castings as it shrinks and solidifies. Also known as “feed head”.
13. Vent: Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape of air and
gases.

Figure 1 : Mold Section showing some casting terms

Steps in Making Sand Castings

There are six basic steps in making sand castings:

1. Patternmaking
2. Core making
3. Molding
4. Melting and pouring
 5. Cleaning

Pattern making

The pattern is a physical model of the casting used to make the mold.
The mold is made by packing some readily formed aggregate material,
such as molding sand, around the pattern. When the pattern is
withdrawn, its imprint provides the mold cavity, which is ultimately filled
with metal to become the casting. If the casting is to be hollow, as in the
case of pipe fittings, additional patterns, referred to as cores, are used to
form these cavities.

Core making

Cores are forms, usually made of sand, which are placed into a mold
cavity to form the interior surfaces of castings. Thus the void space
between the core and mold-cavity surface is what eventually becomes
the casting.

Molding

Molding consists of all operations necessary to prepare a mold for

receiving molten metal. Molding usually involves placing a molding
aggregate around a pattern held with a supporting frame, withdrawing
the pattern to leave the mold cavity, setting the cores in the mold cavity
and finishing and closing the mold.

Melting and Pouring

The preparation of molten metal for casting is referred to simply as

melting. Melting is usually done in a specifically designated area of the
foundry, and the molten metal is transferred to the pouring area where
the molds are filled.

Cleaning

Cleaning refers to all operations necessary to the removal of sand,

scale, and excess metal from the casting. Burned-on sand and scale are
removed to improved the surface appearance of the casting. Excess
metal, in the form of fins, wires, parting line fins, and gates, is removed.
Inspection of the casting for defects and general quality is performed.

Pattern

The pattern is the principal tool during the casting process. It is the
replica of the object to be made by the casting process, with some
modifications. The main modifications are the addition of pattern
allowances, and the provision of core prints. If the casting is to be
hollow, additional patterns called cores are used to create these cavities
in the finished product. The quality of the casting produced depends
upon the material of the pattern, its design, and construction. The costs
of the pattern and the related equipment are reflected in the cost of the
casting. The use of an expensive pattern is justified when the quantity of
castings required is substantial.

Functions of the Pattern

1. A pattern prepares a mold cavity for the purpose of making a

casting.
2. A pattern may contain projections known as core prints if the
casting requires a core and need to be made hollow.
3. Runner, gates, and risers used for feeding molten metal in the
mold cavity may form a part of the pattern.
4. Patterns properly made and having finished and smooth surfaces
reduce casting defects.
5. A properly constructed pattern minimizes the overall cost of the
castings.

Pattern Material

Patterns may be constructed from the following materials. Each material

has its own advantages, limitations, and field of application. Some
materials used for making patterns are: wood, metals and alloys, plastic,
plaster of Paris, plastic and rubbers, wax, and resins. To be suitable for
use, the pattern material should be:

1. Easily worked, shaped and joined

2. Light in weight
3. Strong, hard and durable
4. Resistant to wear and abrasion
 5. Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions
6. Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in temperature
and humidity
7. Available at low cost

The usual pattern materials are wood, metal, and plastics. The most
commonly used pattern material is wood, since it is readily available and
of low weight. Also, it can be easily shaped and is relatively cheap. The
main disadvantage of wood is its absorption of moisture, which can
cause distortion and dimensional changes. Hence, proper seasoning
and upkeep of wood is almost a pre-requisite for large-scale use of wood
as a pattern material.

Pattern Allowances

Pattern allowance is a vital feature as it affects the dimensional

characteristics of the casting. Thus, when the pattern is produced,
certain allowances must be given on the sizes specified in the finished
component drawing so that a casting with the particular specification can
be made. The selection of correct allowances greatly helps to reduce
machining costs and avoid rejections. The allowances usually
considered on patterns and core boxes are as follows:

1. Shrinkage or contraction allowance

2. Draft or taper allowance
3. Machining or finish allowance
4. Distortion or camber allowance
5. Rapping allowance

Shrinkage or Contraction Allowance

All most all cast metals shrink or contract volumetrically on cooling. The
metal shrinkage is of two types:
 i. Liquid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume when the
metal changes from liquid state to solid state at the solidus
temperature. To account for this shrinkage; riser, which feed the
liquid metal to the casting, are provided in the mold.
ii. Solid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume caused when
metal loses temperature in solid state. To account for this,
shrinkage allowance is provided on the patterns.

The rate of contraction with temperature is dependent on the material.

For example steel contracts to a higher degree compared to aluminum.
To compensate the solid shrinkage, a shrink rule must be used in laying
out the measurements for the pattern. A shrink rule for cast iron is 1/8
inch longer per foot than a standard rule. If a gear blank of 4 inch in
diameter was planned to produce out of cast iron, the shrink rule in
measuring it 4 inch would actually measure 4 -1/24 inch, thus
compensating for the shrinkage. The various rate of contraction of
various materials are given in
Question

The casting shown is to be made in cast iron using a wooden pattern.

Assuming only shrinkage allowance, calculate the dimension of the
pattern. All Dimensions are in Inches

Draft or Taper Allowance

By draft is meant the taper provided by the pattern maker on all vertical
surfaces of the pattern so that it can be removed from the sand without
tearing away the sides of the sand mold and without excessive rapping
by the molder. Figure 3 (a) shows a pattern having no draft allowance
being removed from the pattern. In this case, till the pattern is
completely lifted out, its sides will remain in contact with the walls of the
mold, thus tending to break it. Figure 3 (b) is an illustration of a pattern
having proper draft allowance. Here, the moment the pattern lifting
commences, all of its surfaces are well away from the sand surface.
Thus the pattern can be removed without damaging the mold cavity.

Figure 3 (a) Pattern Having No Draft on Vertical Edges

Figure 3 (b) Pattern Having Draft on Vertical Edges

Draft allowance varies with the complexity of the sand job. But in general
inner details of the pattern require higher draft than outer surfaces. The
amount of draft depends upon the length of the vertical side of the
pattern to be extracted; the intricacy of the pattern; the method of
molding; and pattern material. Table 2 provides a general guide lines for
the draft allowance.

Table 2 : Draft Allowances of Various Metals

Pattern material Height of the Draft angle Draft angle

given surface
(inch) (External (Internal
surface) surface)
Wood 1 3.00 3.00

1 to 2 1.50 2.50

2 to 4 1.00 1.50
 4 to 8 0.75 1.00

8 to 32 0.50 1.00
1 1.50 3.00

1 to 2 1.00 2.00

Metal and plastic 2 to 4 0.75 1.00

4 to 8 0.50 1.00

8 to 32 0.50 0.75

Machining or Finish Allowance

The finish and accuracy achieved in sand casting are generally poor and
therefore when the casting is functionally required to be of good surface
finish or dimensionally accurate, it is generally achieved by subsequent
machining. Machining or finish allowances are therefore added in the
pattern dimension. The amount of machining allowance to be provided
for is affected by the method of molding and casting used viz. hand
molding or machine molding, sand casting or metal mold casting. The
amount of machining allowance is also affected by the size and shape of
the casting; the casting orientation; the metal; and the degree of
accuracy and finish required. The machining allowances recommended
for different metal is given in Table 3.

Table 3 : Machining Allowances of Various Metals

Metal Dimension (inch) Allowance (inch)

Up to 12 0.12

Cast iron 12 to 20 0.20

20 to 40 0.25
Cast steel Up to 6 0.12

6 to 20 0.25
 20 to 40 0.30
Up to 8 0.09

Non ferrous 8 to 12 0.12

12 to 40 0.16

Exercise 2

The casting shown is to be made in cast iron using a wooden pattern.

Assuming only machining allowance, calculate the dimension of the
pattern. All Dimensions are in Inches

Solution 2

The machining allowance for cast iron for size, up to 12 inch is o.12 inch
and from 12 inch to 20 inch is 0.20 inch ( (Table 3)

For dimension 18 inch, allowance = 0.20 inch

For dimension 14 inch, allowance = 0.20 inch

For dimension 8 inch, allowance = 0.12 inch

For dimension 6 inch, allowance = 0.12 inch

The pattern drawing with required dimension is shown in Figure below

Distortion or Camber Allowance

Sometimes castings get distorted, during solidification, due to their

typical shape. For example, if the casting has the form of the letter U, V,
T, or L etc. it will tend to contract at the closed end causing the vertical
legs to look slightly inclined. This can be prevented by making the legs
of the U, V, T, or L shaped pattern converge slightly (inward) so that the
casting after distortion will have its sides vertical ( (Figure 4).

The distortion in casting may occur due to internal stresses. These

internal stresses are caused on account of unequal cooling of different
section of the casting and hindered contraction. Measure taken to
prevent the distortion in casting include:

i. Modification of casting design

ii. Providing sufficient machining allowance to cover the distortion
affect
iii. Providing suitable allowance on the pattern, called camber or
distortion allowance (inverse reflection)
Figure 4: Distortions in Casting

Rapping Allowance

Before the withdrawal from the sand mold, the pattern is rapped all
around the vertical faces to enlarge the mold cavity slightly, which
facilitate its removal. Since it enlarges the final casting made, it is
desirable that the original pattern dimension should be reduced to
account for this increase. There is no sure way of quantifying this
allowance, since it is highly dependent on the foundry personnel practice
involved. It is a negative allowance and is to be applied only to those
dimensions that are parallel to the parting plane.

Core and Core Prints

Castings are often required to have holes, recesses, etc. of various

sizes and shapes. These impressions can be obtained by using cores.
So where coring is required, provision should be made to support the
core inside the mold cavity. Core prints are used to serve this purpose.
The core print is an added projection on the pattern and it forms a seat
in the mold on which the sand core rests during pouring of the mold. The
core print must be of adequate size and shape so that it can support the
weight of the core during the casting operation. Depending upon the
requirement a core can be placed horizontal, vertical and can be hanged
inside the mold cavity. A typical job, its pattern and the mold cavity with
core and core print is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5: A Typical Job, its Pattern and the Mold Cavity

Types of Pattern

Patterns are of various types, each satisfying certain casting

requirements.

1. Sin
gle
pie
ce
patt
ern
2. Spli
t or
two
pie
ce
patt
ern

3. Mat
ch
plat
e
patt
ern

Single Piece Pattern

The one piece or single pattern is the most inexpensive of all types of
patterns. This type of pattern is used only in cases where the job is very
simple and does not create any withdrawal problems. It is also used for
application in very small-scale production or in prototype development.
This type of pattern is expected to be entirely in the drag and one of the
surface is is expected to be flat which is used as the parting plane. A
gating system is made in the mold by cutting sand with the help of sand
tools. If no such flat surface exists, the molding becomes complicated. A
typical one-piece pattern is shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6: A Typical One Piece Pattern

Split or Two Piece Pattern

Split or two piece pattern is most widely used type of pattern for intricate
castings. It is split along the parting surface, the position of which is
determined by the shape of the casting. One half of the pattern is
molded in drag and the other half in cope. The two halves of the pattern
must be aligned properly by making use of the dowel pins, which are
fitted, to the cope half of the pattern. These dowel pins match with the
precisely made holes in the drag half of the pattern. A typical split pattern
of a cast iron wheel Figure 7 (a) is shown in Figure 7 (b).
Figure 7 (a): The Details of a Cast Iron Wheel
Figure 7 (b): The Split Piece or Two Piece Pattern of a Cast Iron
Wheel

Classification of casting Processes

Casting processes can be classified into following FOUR categories:

1. Conventional Molding Processes

a. Green Sand Molding
b. Dry Sand Molding
c. Flask less Molding

2. Chemical Sand Molding Processes

a. Shell Molding
b. Sodium Silicate Molding
c. No-Bake Molding

3. Permanent Mold Processes

a. Gravity Die casting

b. Low and High Pressure Die Casting

4. Special Casting Processes

a. Lost Wax
b. Ceramics Shell Molding
c. Evaporative Pattern Casting
d. Vacuum Sealed Molding
e. Centrifugal Casting

Green Sand Molding

Green sand is the most diversified molding method used in metal casting
operations. The process utilizes a mold made of compressed or
compacted moist sand. The term "green" denotes the presence of
moisture in the molding sand. The mold material consists of silica sand
mixed with a suitable bonding agent (usually clay) and moisture.

Advantages

1. Most metals can be cast by this method.

2. Pattern costs and material costs are relatively low.
3. No Limitation with respect to size of casting and type of metal or
alloy used

Disadvantages

Surface Finish of the castings obtained by this process is not good and
machining is often required to achieve the finished product.

Sand Mold Making Procedure

The procedure for making mold of a cast iron wheel is shown in (Figure
8(a),(b),(c)).

 The first step in making mold is to place the pattern on the molding
board.
 The drag is placed on the board ((Figure 8(a)).
 Dry facing sand is sprinkled over the board and pattern to provide
a non sticky layer.
 Molding sand is then riddled in to cover the pattern with the fingers;
then the drag is completely filled.
 The sand is then firmly packed in the drag by means of hand
rammers. The ramming must be proper i.e. it must neither be too
hard or soft.
 After the ramming is over, the excess sand is leveled off with a
straight bar known as a strike rod.
 With the help of vent rod, vent holes are made in the drag to the
full depth of the flask as well as to the pattern to facilitate the
removal of gases during pouring and solidification.
 The finished drag flask is now rolled over to the bottom board
exposing the pattern.
 Cope half of the pattern is then placed over the drag pattern with
the help of locating pins. The cope flask on the drag is located
aligning again with the help of pins ( (Figure 8 (b)).
 The dry parting sand is sprinkled all over the drag and on the
pattern.
 A sprue pin for making the sprue passage is located at a small
distance from the pattern. Also, riser pin, if required, is placed at an
appropriate place.
 The operation of filling, ramming and venting of the cope proceed
in the same manner as performed in the drag.
 The sprue and riser pins are removed first and a pouring basin is
scooped out at the top to pour the liquid metal.
 Then pattern from the cope and drag is removed and facing sand
in the form of paste is applied all over the mold cavity and runners
which would give the finished casting a good surface finish.
 The mold is now assembled. The mold now is ready for pouring
(see ((Figure 8 (c) )
Figure 8 (a)

Figure 8 (b)
Figure 8 (c)

Figure 8 (a, b, c): Sand Mold Making Procedure

Molding Material and Properties

A large variety of molding materials is used in foundries for

manufacturing molds and cores. They include molding sand, system
sand or backing sand, facing sand, parting sand, and core sand. The
choice of molding materials is based on their processing properties. The
properties that are generally required in molding materials are:

Refractoriness

It is the ability of the molding material to resist the temperature of the

liquid metal to be poured so that it does not get fused with the metal. The
refractoriness of the silica sand is highest.

Permeability

During pouring and subsequent solidification of a casting, a large

amount of gases and steam is generated. These gases are those that
have been absorbed by the metal during melting, air absorbed from the
atmosphere and the steam generated by the molding and core sand. If
these gases are not allowed to escape from the mold, they would be
entrapped inside the casting and cause casting defects. To overcome
this problem the molding material must be porous. Proper venting of the
mold also helps in escaping the gases that are generated inside the
mold cavity.

Green Strength

The molding sand that contains moisture is termed as green sand. The
green sand particles must have the ability to cling to each other to impart
sufficient strength to the mold. The green sand must have enough
strength so that the constructed mold retains its shape.

Dry Strength

When the molten metal is poured in the mold, the sand around the mold
cavity is quickly converted into dry sand as the moisture in the sand
evaporates due to the heat of the molten metal. At this stage the molding
sand must posses the sufficient strength to retain the exact shape of the
mold cavity and at the same time it must be able to withstand the
metallostatic pressure of the liquid material.

Hot Strength

As soon as the moisture is eliminated, the sand would reach at a high

temperature when the metal in the mold is still in liquid state. The
strength of the sand that is required to hold the shape of the cavity is
called hot strength.

Collapsibility

The molding sand should also have collapsibility so that during the
contraction of the solidified casting it does not provide any resistance,
which may result in cracks in the castings.Besides these specific
properties the molding material should be cheap, reusable and should
have good thermal conductivity.

Molding Sand Composition

The main ingredients of any molding sand are:

 Base sand,
 Binder, and
 Moisture

Base Sand

Silica sand is most commonly used base sand. Other base sands that
are also used for making mold are zircon sand, Chromite sand, and
olivine sand. Silica sand is cheapest among all types of base sand and it
is easily available.

Binder

Binders are of many types such as:

1. Clay binders,
2. Organic binders and
3. Inorganic binders

Clay binders are most commonly used binding agents mixed with the
molding sands to provide the strength. The most popular clay types are:

Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O3 2 SiO2 2 H2O) and Bentonite (Al2O3 4

SiO2 nH2O)

Of the two the Bentonite can absorb more water which increases its
bonding power.

Moisture

Clay acquires its bonding action only in the presence of the required
amount of moisture. When water is added to clay, it penetrates the
mixture and forms a microfilm, which coats the surface of each flake of
the clay. The amount of water used should be properly controlled. This is
because a part of the water, which coats the surface of the clay flakes,
helps in bonding, while the remainder helps in improving the plasticity. A
typical composition of molding sand is given in (Table 4).
Table 4 : A Typical Composition of Molding Sand

Molding Sand Constituent Weight Percent

Silica sand 92
Clay (Sodium Bentonite) 8
Water 4

Dry Sand Molding

When it is desired that the gas forming materials are lowered in the
molds, air-dried molds are sometimes preferred to green sand molds.
Two types of drying of molds are often required.

1. Skin drying and

2. Complete mold drying.

In skin drying a firm mold face is produced. Shakeout of the mold is

almost as good as that obtained with green sand molding. The most
common method of drying the refractory mold coating uses hot air, gas
or oil flame. Skin drying of the mold can be accomplished with the aid of
torches, directed at the mold surface.
Shell Molding Process

It is a process in which, the sand mixed with a thermosetting

resin is allowed to come in contact with a heated pattern plate
(200 oC), this causes a skin (Shell) of about 3.5 mm of
sand/plastic mixture to adhere to the pattern.. Then the shell is
removed from the pattern. The cope and drag shells are kept in a
flask with necessary backup material and the molten metal is
poured into the mold.

This process can produce complex parts with good surface finish
 1.25 µm to 3.75 µm, and dimensional tolerance of 0.5 %. A good
surface finish and good size tolerance reduce the need for
machining. The process overall is quite cost effective due to
reduced machining and cleanup costs. The materials that can be
used with this process are cast irons, and aluminum and copper
alloys

Molding Sand in Shell Molding Process

The molding sand is a mixture of fine grained quartz sand and powdered
bakelite. There are two methods of coating the sand grains with bakelite.
First method is Cold coating method and another one is the hot method
of coating.

In the method of cold coating, quartz sand is poured into the mixer and
then the solution of powdered bakelite in acetone and ethyl aldehyde are
added. The typical mixture is 92% quartz sand, 5% bakelite, 3% ethyl
aldehyde. During mixing of the ingredients, the resin envelops the sand
grains and the solvent evaporates, leaving a thin film that uniformly coats
the surface of sand grains, thereby imparting fluidity to the sand
mixtures.

In the method of hot coating, the mixture is heated to 150-180 o C prior

to loading the sand. In the course of sand mixing, the soluble phenol
formaldehyde resin is added. The mixer is allowed to cool up to 80 – 90
o C. This method gives better properties to the mixtures than cold
method.
Sodium Silicate Molding Process

In this process, the refractory material is coated with a sodium silicate-

based binder. For molds, the sand mixture can be compacted manually,
jolted or squeezed around the pattern in the flask. After compaction, CO
2 gas is passed through the core or mold. The CO 2 chemically reacts
with the sodium silicate to cure, or harden, the binder. This cured binder
then holds the refractory in place around the pattern. After curing, the
pattern is withdrawn from the mold.

The sodium silicate process is one of the most environmentally

acceptable of the chemical processes available. The major disadvantage
of the process is that the binder is very hygroscopic and readily absorbs
water, which causes a porosity in the castings.. Also, because the binder
creates such a hard, rigid mold wall, shakeout and collapsibility
characteristics can slow down production. Some of the advantages of
the process are:

 A hard, rigid core and mold are typical of the process, which gives
the casting good dimensional tolerances;
 good casting surface finishes are readily obtainable;

Permanent Mold Process

In al the above processes, a mold need to be prepared for each of the

casting produced. For large-scale production, making a mold, for every
casting to be produced, may be difficult and expensive. Therefore, a
permanent mold, called the die may be made from which a large number
of castings can be produced. , the molds are usually made of cast iron or
steel, although graphite, copper and aluminum have been used as mold
materials. The process in which we use a die to make the castings is
called permanent mold casting or gravity die casting, since the metal
enters the mold under gravity. Some time in die-casting we inject the
molten metal with a high pressure. When we apply pressure in injecting
the metal it is called pressure die casting process.

Advantages
  Permanent Molding produces a sound dense casting with superior
mechanical properties.
 The castings produced are quite uniform in shape have a higher
degree of dimensional accuracy than castings produced in sand
 The permanent mold process is also capable of producing a
consistent quality of finish on castings

Disadvantages

 The cost of tooling is usually higher than for sand castings

 The process is generally limited to the production of small castings
of simple exterior design, although complex castings such as
aluminum engine blocks and heads are now commonplace.

Centrifugal Casting

In this process, the mold is rotated rapidly about its central axis as the
metal is poured into it. Because of the centrifugal force, a continuous
pressure will be acting on the metal as it solidifies. The slag, oxides and
other inclusions being lighter, get separated from the metal and
segregate towards the center. This process is normally used for the
making of hollow pipes, tubes, hollow bushes, etc., which are
axisymmetric with a concentric hole. Since the metal is always pushed
outward because of the centrifugal force, no core needs to be used for
making the concentric hole. The mold can be rotated about a vertical,
horizontal or an inclined axis or about its horizontal and vertical axes
simultaneously. The length and outside diameter are fixed by the mold
cavity dimensions while the inside diameter is determined by the amount
of molten metal poured into the mold.Figure 9(Vertical Centrifugal
Casting), Figure 10 ( Horizontal Centrifugal Casting)
Figure 9: (Vertical Centrifugal Casting)

Figure 10: (Horizontal Centrifugal Casting)

Advantages
  Formation of hollow interiors in cylinders without cores
 Less material required for gate
 Fine grained structure at the outer surface of the casting free of
gas and shrinkage cavities and porosity

Disadvantages

 More segregation of alloy component during pouring under the

forces of rotation
 Contamination of internal surface of castings with non-metallic
inclusions
 Inaccurate internal diameter

Investment Casting Process

The root of the investment casting process, the cire perdue or “lost wax”
method dates back to at least the fourth millennium B.C. The artists and
sculptors of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia used the rudiments of the
investment casting process to create intricately detailed jewelry,
pectorals and idols. The investment casting process alos called lost wax
process begins with the production of wax replicas or patterns of the
desired shape of the castings. A pattern is needed for every casting to
be produced. The patterns are prepared by injecting wax or polystyrene
in a metal dies. A number of patterns are attached to a central wax sprue
to form a assembly. The mold is prepared by surrounding the pattern
with refractory slurry that can set at room temperature. The mold is then
heated so that pattern melts and flows out, leaving a clean cavity behind.
The mould is further hardened by heating and the molten metal is
poured while it is still hot. When the casting is solidified, the mold is
broken and the casting taken out.

The basic steps of the investment casting process are ( Figure 11 ) :

1. Production of heat-disposable wax, plastic, or polystyrene patterns

2. Assembly of these patterns onto a gating system
3. “Investing,” or covering the pattern assembly with refractory slurry
4. Melting the pattern assembly to remove the pattern material
5. Firing the mold to remove the last traces of the pattern material
6. Pouring
7. Knockout, cutoff and finishing.
Figure 11: The Basic Steps of the Investment Casting Process

Advantages

 Formation of hollow interiors in cylinders without cores

 Less material required for gate
 Fine grained structure at the outer surface of the casting free of
gas and shrinkage cavities and porosity

Disadvantages

 More segregation of alloy component during pouring under the

forces of rotation
 Contamination of internal surface of castings with non-metallic
inclusions
 Inaccurate internal diameter
Ceramic Shell Investment Casting Process

The basic difference in investment casting is that in the investment

casting the wax pattern is immersed in a refractory aggregate before
dewaxing whereas, in ceramic shell investment casting a ceramic shell is
built around a tree assembly by repeatedly dipping a pattern into a slurry
(refractory material such as zircon with binder). After each dipping and
stuccoing is completed, the assembly is allowed to thoroughly dry before
the next coating is applied. Thus, a shell is built up around the assembly.
The thickness of this shell is dependent on the size of the castings and
temperature of the metal to be poured.

After the ceramic shell is completed, the entire assembly is placed into
an autoclave or flash fire furnace at a high temperature. The shell is
heated to about 982 o C to burn out any residual wax and to develop a
high-temperature bond in the shell. The shell molds can then be stored
for future use or molten metal can be poured into them immediately. If
the shell molds are stored, they have to be preheated before molten
metal is poured into them.

Advantages

 excellent surface finish

 tight dimensional tolerances
 machining can be reduced or completely eliminated

Full Mold Process / Lost Foam Process / Evaporative Pattern

Casting Process

The use of foam patterns for metal casting was patented by H.F. Shroyer
on April 15, 1958. In Shroyer's patent, a pattern was machined from a
block of expanded polystyrene (EPS) and supported by bonded sand
during pouring. This process is known as the full mold process. With the
full mold process, the pattern is usually machined from an EPS block
and is used to make primarily large, one-of-a kind castings. The full mold
process was originally known as the lost foam process. However, current
patents have required that the generic term for the process be full mold.
In 1964, M.C. Flemmings used unbounded sand with the process. This
is known today as lost foam casting (LFC). With LFC, the foam pattern is
molded from polystyrene beads. LFC is differentiated from full mold by
the use of unbounded sand (LFC) as opposed to bonded sand (full mold
process).

Foam casting techniques have been referred to by a variety of generic

and proprietary names. Among these are lost foam, evaporative pattern
casting, cavity less casting, evaporative foam casting, and full mold
casting.

In this method, the pattern, complete with gates and risers, is prepared
from expanded polystyrene. This pattern is embedded in a no bake type
of sand. While the pattern is inside the mold, molten metal is poured
through the sprue. The heat of the metal is sufficient to gasify the pattern
and progressive displacement of pattern material by the molten metal
takes place.

The EPC process is an economical method for producing complex,

close-tolerance castings using an expandable polystyrene pattern and
unbonded sand. Expandable polystyrene is a thermoplastic material that
can be molded into a variety of complex, rigid shapes. The EPC process
involves attaching expandable polystyrene patterns to an expandable
polystyrene gating system and applying a refractory coating to the entire
assembly. After the coating has dried, the foam pattern assembly is
positioned on loose dry sand in a vented flask. Additional sand is then
added while the flask is vibrated until the pattern assembly is completely
embedded in sand. Molten metal is poured into the sprue, vaporizing the
foam polystyrene, perfectly reproducing the pattern.

In this process, a pattern refers to the expandable polystyrene or foamed

polystyrene part that is vaporized by the molten metal. A pattern is
required for each casting.

Process Description ((Figure 12)

1. The EPC procedure starts with the pre-expansion of beads, usually

polystyrene. After the pre-expanded beads are stabilized, they are
blown into a mold to form pattern sections. When the beads are in
 the mold, a steam cycle causes them to fully expand and fuse
together.
2. The pattern sections are assembled with glue, forming a cluster.
The gating system is also attached in a similar manner.
3. The foam cluster is covered with a ceramic coating. The coating
forms a barrier so that the molten metal does not penetrate or
cause sand erosion during pouring.
4. After the coating dries, the cluster is placed into a flask and backed
up with bonded sand.
5. Mold compaction is then achieved by using a vibration table to
ensure uniform and proper compaction. Once this procedure is
complete, the cluster is packed in the flask and the mold is ready to
be poured .
Figure 12: The Basic Steps of the Evaporative Pattern Casting
Process

Advantages

The most important advantage of EPC process is that no cores are

required. No binders or other additives are required for the sand, which
is reusable. Shakeout of the castings in unbonded sand is simplified.
There are no parting lines or core fins.

Vacuum Sealed Molding Process

It is a process of making molds utilizing dry sand, plastic film and a

physical means of binding using negative pressure or vacuum. V-
process was developed in Japan in 1971. Since then it has gained
considerable importance due to its capability to produce dimensionally
accurate and smooth castings. The basic difference between the V-
process and other sand molding processes is the manner in which sand
is bounded to form the mold cavity. In V-process vacuum, of the order of
250 – 450 mm Hg, is imposed to bind the dry free flowing sand
encapsulated in between two plastic films. The technique involves the
formation of a mold cavity by vacuum forming of a plastic film over the
pattern, backed by unbounded sand, which is compacted by vibration
and held rigidly in place by applying vacuum. When the metal is poured
into the molds, the plastic film first melts and then gets sucked just inside
the sand voids due to imposed vacuum where it condenses and forms a
shell-like layer. The vacuum must be maintained until the metal
solidifies, after which the vacuum is released allowing the sand to drop
away leaving a casting with a smooth surface. No shakeout equipment is
required and the same sand can be cooled and reused without further
treatment.

Sequence of Producing V-Process Molds

 The Pattern is set on the Pattern Plate of Pattern Box. The Pattern
as well as the Pattern Plate has Numerous Small Holes. These
Holes Help the Plastic Film to Adhere Closely on Pattern When
Vacuum is Applied.
 A Heater is used to Soften the Plastic Film
 The Softened Plastic Film Drapes over the Pattern. The Vacuum
Suction Acts through the Vents (Pattern and Pattern Plate) to
draw it so that it adheres closely to the Pattern.
 The Molding Box is Set on the Film Coated Pattern
 The Molding Box is filled with Dry Sand. Slight Vibration Compacts
the Sand
 Level the Mold. Cover the Top of Molding Box with Plastic Film.
Vacuum Suction Stiffens the Mold.
 Release the Vacuum on the Pattern Box and Mold Strips Easily.
 Cope and Drag are assembled and Metal is poured. During
Pouring the Mold is Kept under Vacuum
  After Cooling, the Vacuum is released. Free Flowing Sand Drops
Away, Leaving a Clean Casting

Advantages

 Exceptionally Good Dimensional Accuracy

 Good Surface Finish
 Longer Pattern Life
 Consistent Reproducibility
 Low Cleaning / Finishing Cost
Melting Practices

Melting is an equally important parameter for obtaining a quality

castings. A number of furnaces can be used for melting the metal, to be
used, to make a metal casting. The choice of furnace depends on the
type of metal to be melted. Some of the furnaces used in metal casting
are as following:.

 Crucible furnaces
 Cupola
 Induction furnace
 Reverberatory furnace

Crucible Furnace.

Crucible furnaces are small capacity typically used for small melting
applications. Crucible furnace is suitable for the batch type foundries
where the metal requirement is intermittent. The metal is placed in a
crucible which is made of clay and graphite. The energy is applied
indirectly to the metal by heating the crucible by coke, oil or gas.The
heating of crucible is done by coke, oil or gas. .

Coke-Fired Furnace(Figure 13) .

 Primarily used for non-ferrous metals

 Furnace is of a cylindrical shape
 Also known as pit furnace
 Preparation involves: first to make a deep bed of coke in the
furnace
 Burn the coke till it attains the state of maximum combustion
 Insert the crucible in the coke bed
 Remove the crucible when the melt reaches to desired
temperature
Figure 13: Coke Fired Crucible Furnace

Oil-Fired Furnace.

 Primarily used for non-ferrous metals

  Furnace is of a cylindrical shape
 Advantages include: no wastage of fuel
 Less contamination of the metal
 Absorption of water vapor is least as the metal melts inside the
closed metallic furnace

Cupola

Cupola furnaces are tall, cylindrical furnaces used to melt iron and
ferrous alloys in foundry operations. Alternating layers of metal and
ferrous alloys, coke, and limestone are fed into the furnace from the top.
A schematic diagram of a cupola is shown in Figure14 . This diagram of
a cupola illustrates the furnace's cylindrical shaft lined with refractory and
the alternating layers of coke and metal scrap. The molten metal flows
out of a spout at the bottom of the cupola. .

Description of Cupola

 The cupola consists of a vertical cylindrical steel sheet and lined

inside with acid refractory bricks. The lining is generally thicker
in the lower portion of the cupola as the temperature are higher
than in upper portion
 There is a charging door through which coke, pig iron, steel scrap
and flux is charged
 The blast is blown through the tuyeres
 These tuyeres are arranged in one or more row around the
periphery of cupola
 Hot gases which ascends from the bottom (combustion zone)
preheats the iron in the preheating zone
  Cupolas are provided with a drop bottom door through which
debris, consisting of coke, slag etc. can be discharged at the
end of the melt
 A slag hole is provided to remove the slag from the melt
 Through the tap hole molten metal is poured into the ladle
 At the top conical cap called the spark arrest is provided to prevent
the spark emerging to outside

Operation of Cupola

The cupola is charged with wood at the bottom. On the top of the wood a
bed of coke is built. Alternating layers of metal and ferrous alloys, coke,
and limestone are fed into the furnace from the top. The purpose of
adding flux is to eliminate the impurities and to protect the metal from
oxidation. Air blast is opened for the complete combustion of coke.
When sufficient metal has been melted that slag hole is first opened to
remove the slag. Tap hole is then opened to collect the metal in the
ladle.
Figure 14: Schematic of a Cupola

Reverberatory furnace

A furnace or kiln in which the material under treatment is heated

indirectly by means of a flame deflected downward from the roof.
Reverberatory furnaces are used in opper, tin, and nickel production, in
the production of certain concretes and cements, and in aluminum.
Reverberatory furnaces heat the metal to melting temperatures with
direct fired wall-mounted burners. The primary mode of heat transfer is
through radiation from the refractory brick walls to the metal, but
convective heat transfer also provides additional heating from the burner
to the metal. The advantages provided by reverberatory melters is the
high volume processing rate, and low operating and maintenance costs.
The disadvantages of the reverberatory melters are the high metal
oxidation rates, low efficiencies, and large floor space requirements. A
schematic of Reverberatory furnace is shown in Figure 15
Figure 15: Schematic of a Reverberatory Furnace

Induction furnace

Induction heating is a heating method. The heating by the induction

method occurs when an electrically conductive material is placed in a
varying magnetic field. Induction heating is a rapid form of heating in
which a current is induced directly into the part being heated. Induction
heating is a non-contact form of heating.

The heating system in an induction furnace includes:

1. Induction heating power supply,

2. Induction heating coil,
3. Water-cooling source, which cools the coil and several internal
components inside the power supply.

The induction heating power supply sends alternating current through

the induction coil, which generates a magnetic field. Induction furnaces
work on the principle of a transformer. An alternative electromagnetic
field induces eddy currents in the metal which converts the electric
energy to heat without any physical contact between the induction coil
and the work piece. A schematic diagram of induction furnace is shown
in Figure 16. The furnace contains a crucible surrounded by a water
cooled copper coil. The coil is called primary coil to which a high
frequency current is supplied. By induction secondary currents, called
eddy currents are produced in the crucible. High temperature can be
obtained by this method. Induction furnaces are of two types: cored
furnace and coreless furnace. Cored furnaces are used almost
exclusively as holding furnaces. In cored furnace the electromagnetic
field heats the metal between two coils. Coreless furnaces heat the
metal via an external primary coil.

Figure 16: Schematic of a Induction Furnace

Advantages of Induction Furnace

  Induction heating is a clean form of heating
 High rate of melting or high melting efficiency
 Alloyed steels can be melted without any loss of alloying elements
 Controllable and localized heating

Disadvantages of Induction Furnace

 High capital cost of the equipment

 High operating cost

Gating System

The assembly of channels which facilitates the molten metal to enter into
the mold cavity is called the gating system (Figure17). Alternatively, the
gating system refers to all passage ways through which molten metal
passes to enter into the mold cavity. The nomenclature of gating system
depends upon the function of different channels which they perform.

 Down gates or sprue

 Cross gates or runners
 Ingates or gates

The metal flows down from the pouring basin or pouring cup into the
down gate or sprue and passes through the cross gate or channels and
ingates or gates before entering into the mold cavity.
Figure 17: Schematic of Gating System

Goals of Gating System

The goals for the gating system are

 To minimize turbulence to avoid trapping gasses into the mold

 To get enough metal into the mold cavity before the metal starts to
solidify
 To avoid shrinkage
 Establish the best possible temperature gradient in the solidifying
casting so that the shrinkage if occurs must be in the gating system
not in the required cast part.
 Incorporates a system for trapping the non-metallic inclusions

Hydraulic Principles used in the Gating System

Reynold's Number

Nature of flow in the gating system can be established by calculating

Reynold's number

RN = Reynold's number

V = Mean Velocity of flow

D = diameter of tubular flow

 = Kinematics Viscosity = Dynamic viscosity / Density

 = Fluid density

When the Reynold's number is less than 2000 stream line flow results
and when the number is more than 2000 turbulent flow prevails. As far
as possible the turbulent flow must be avoided in the sand mold as
because of the turbulence sand particles gets dislodged from the mold or
the gating system and may enter into the mould cavity leading to the
production of defective casting. Excess turbulence causes

 Inclusion of dross or slag

 Air aspiration into the mold
 Erosion of the mold walls

Bernoulli's Equation

h = height of liquid

P = Static Pressure
 = metal velocity

g = Acceleration due to gravity

 = Fluid density

Turbulence can be avoided by incorporating small changes in the design

of gating system. The sharp changes in the flow should be avoided to
smooth changes. The gating system must be designed in such a way
that the system always runs full with the liquid metal. The most important
things to remember in designing runners and gates are to avoid sharp
corners. Any changes in direction or cross sectional area should make
use of rounded corners.

To avoid the aspiration the tapered sprues are designed in the gating
systems. A sprue tapered to a smaller size at its bottom will create a
choke which will help keep the sprue full of molten metal.

Types of Gating Systems (Figure18a, 18b)

The gating systems are of two types:

 Pressurized gating system

 Un-pressurized gating system

Pressurized Gating System

 The total cross sectional area decreases towards the mold cavity
 Back pressure is maintained by the restrictions in the metal flow
 Flow of liquid (volume) is almost equal from all gates
 Back pressure helps in reducing the aspiration as the sprue always
runs full
 Because of the restrictions the metal flows at high velocity leading
to more turbulence and chances of mold erosion

Un-Pressurized Gating System

 The total cross sectional area increases towards the mold cavity
 Restriction only at the bottom of sprue
 Flow of liquid (volume) is different from all gates
 aspiration in the gating system as the system never runs full
 Less turbulence

Fig 18a : Pressurized Gating System

 Fig 18b : Un-Pressurized Gating System

Riser

Riser is a source of extra metal which flows from riser to mold cavity to
compensate for shrinkage which takes place in the casting when it starts
solidifying. Without a riser heavier parts of the casting will have
shrinkage defects, either on the surface or internally.

Risers are known by different names as metal reservoir, feeders, or

headers.
Shrinkage in a mold, from the time of pouring to final casting, occurs in
three stages.

1. during the liquid state

2. during the transformation from liquid to solid
3. during the solid state

First type of shrinkage is being compensated by the feeders or the

gating system. For the second type of shrinkage risers are required.
Risers are normally placed at that portion of the casting which is last to
freeze. A riser must stay in liquid state at least as long as the casting
and must be able to feed the casting during this time.

Functions of Risers

 Provide extra metal to compensate for the volumetric shrinkage

 Allow mold gases to escape
 Provide extra metal pressure on the solidifying mold to reproduce
mold details more exact

Design Requirements of Risers

1. Riser size: For a sound casting riser must be last to freeze. The
ratio of (volume / surface area)2 of the riser must be greater than
that of the casting. However, when this condition does not meet
the metal in the riser can be kept in liquid state by heating it
externally or using exothermic materials in the risers.
2. Riser placement: the spacing of risers in the casting must be
considered by effectively calculating the feeding distance of the
risers.
3. Riser shape: cylindrical risers are recommended for most of the
castings as spherical risers, although considers as best, are
difficult to cast. To increase volume/surface area ratio the bottom
of the riser can be shaped as hemisphere.

Casting Defects (Figure19)

The following are the major defects, which are likely to occur in sand
castings

 Gas defects
 Shrinkage cavities
 Molding material defects
 Pouring metal defects
 Mold shift

Gas Defects

A condition existing in a casting caused by the trapping of gas in the

molten metal or by mold gases evolved during the pouring of the casting.
The defects in this category can be classified into blowholes and pinhole
porosity. Blowholes are spherical or elongated cavities present in the
casting on the surface or inside the casting. Pinhole porosity occurs due
to the dissolution of hydrogen gas, which gets entrapped during heating
of molten metal.

Causes

The lower gas-passing tendency of the mold, which may be due to lower
venting, lower permeability of the mold or improper design of the casting.
The lower permeability is caused by finer grain size of the sand, high
percentage of clay in mold mixture, and excessive moisture present in
the mold.

 Metal contains gas

 Mold is too hot
 Poor mold burnout

Shrinkage Cavities

These are caused by liquid shrinkage occurring during the solidification

of the casting. To compensate for this, proper feeding of liquid metal is
required. For this reason risers are placed at the appropriate places in
the mold. Sprues may be too thin, too long or not attached in the proper
location, causing shrinkage cavities. It is recommended to use thick
sprues to avoid shrinkage cavities.

Molding Material Defects

The defects in this category are cuts and washes, metal penetration,
fusion, and swell.

Cut and washes

These appear as rough spots and areas of excess metal, and are
caused by erosion of molding sand by the flowing metal. This is caused
by the molding sand not having enough strength and the molten metal
flowing at high velocity. The former can be taken care of by the proper
choice of molding sand and the latter can be overcome by the proper
design of the gating system.

Metal penetration

When molten metal enters into the gaps between sand grains, the result
is a rough casting surface. This occurs because the sand is coarse or no
mold wash was applied on the surface of the mold. The coarser the sand
grains more the metal penetration.

Fusion

This is caused by the fusion of the sand grains with the molten metal,
giving a brittle, glassy appearance on the casting surface. The main
reason for this is that the clay or the sand particles are of lower
refractoriness or that the pouring temperature is too high.

Swell

Under the influence of metallostatic forces, the mold wall may move
back causing a swell in the dimension of the casting. A proper ramming
of the mold will correct this defect.

Inclusions
Particles of slag, refractory materials, sand or deoxidation products are
trapped in the casting during pouring solidification. The provision of
choke in the gating system and the pouring basin at the top of the mold
can prevent this defect.

Pouring Metal Defects

The likely defects in this category are

 Mis-runs and
 Cold shuts.

A mis-run is caused when the metal is unable to fill the mold cavity
completely and thus leaves unfilled cavities. A mis-run results when the
metal is too cold to flow to the extremities of the mold cavity before
freezing. Long, thin sections are subject to this defect and should be
avoided in casting design.

A cold shut is caused when two streams while meeting in the mold
cavity, do not fuse together properly thus forming a discontinuity in the
casting. When the molten metal is poured into the mold cavity through
more-than-one gate, multiple liquid fronts will have to flow together and
become one solid. If the flowing metal fronts are too cool, they may not
flow together, but will leave a seam in the part. Such a seam is called a
cold shut, and can be prevented by assuring sufficient superheat in the
poured metal and thick enough walls in the casting design.

The mis-run and cold shut defects are caused either by a lower fluidity of
the mold or when the section thickness of the casting is very small.
Fluidity can be improved by changing the composition of the metal and
by increasing the pouring temperature of the metal.

Mold Shift

The mold shift defect occurs when cope and drag or molding boxes have
not been properly aligned.
Figure 19 : Casting Defects