Business Research Methods Ambo University April 2023

CHAPTER ONE
Research Methods: An Introduction
Overview of Research
Research is mostly used terminology in different academic and business institutions. Research as
consciously and creative human activity involves discovering and learning new things. Where
there is a problem there is always research. It is an essential tool for understanding the events
and structure of the social world. Research can mean different things to different people. People
have defined research differently according to their perception.

1.1. Meaning of Research

Research-Commonly refers to a search for knowledge. Some people consider research as a
movement from known to unknown. It is indeed a voyage of knowledge.
Hertz provided the most simplified definition of research. His definition referred research to the
original and creative activities.
Research is the application of human intelligence in a systematic manner to a problem whose
solution is not immediately available.

Woody on the other hand defined research, as an activity comprises defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating
data; making deduction and reaching at conclusion to determine whether they fit the formulated
hypothesis.

An author called Klopsteg gives the most comprehensive definition of research. According to him
“ Research is original and creative intellectual activity, carried out in the laboratory, the library
or in field which endeavors to discover new facts and to apprise and interpret them properly in
the light of previous knowledge. With constantly increasing understanding, it revises previously
accepted conclusion, theories and laws, and makes new application of its findings. Whether it
seeks to extend knowledge for its own sake or to achieve results with specific economic or social
value, its raison de’tre is its contribution to human welfare.

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1.2. Motivation of research

Research is not a trouble- free duty rather it is time consuming, tiresome and expensive
undertaking.
The possible motives for doing research can be either one or a combination of the following:
 Desire to get degree with its consequential benefit.
 Desire to get respect and promotion (to own respect in society)
 Desire to face a challenge in solving the unsolved problem
 Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work
 Directive of government
 Employment condition

1.3. Types of research

Like its definition research has been classified differently. Generally research can be classified
on the basis of the following traits:

I. On the basis of the out comes of research: whether the research tries to solve a particular
problem or makes a general contribution to the knowledge, research can be classified on the
following traits.

A. Fundamental Research:
Fundamental research is also called academic or basic or pure research. Such research is aimed
at investigating or search for new principles and laws. It is mainly concerned with generalization
and formulation of a theory. Fundamental research is organized only for the attainment of
knowledge and truth. With change of time and space, it is necessary to make in the fundamental
principles in every branch of science; thus, this type of research also verifies the old established
theories, principles and laws.

In general, fundamental research is concerned with the theoretical aspect of science.

Ex. The relationship between crime and economic status Darwin theory of Evolution

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B. Applied Research
A research aimed finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society, a group or
industry (business organization). The results of such research would be used by either
individuals or groups of decision-makers or even by policy makers.

 While pure research discovers principles and laws, applied research discovers their
application in solving some social, economical or any other problems.
Ex. The improvement of safety in the working place.
Types of Applied Research

 Social impact analysis: the major purpose of social assessment is to estimate the likely
consequences of a planned change. Such an assessment can be used for planning and
making choices among alternative policies.
 Evaluation Research: is widely used type of applied research that addresses the question,
“did it works?” Evaluation is a process of establishing value judgment based on
evidence.
Applied research being impact analysis or evaluation research uses two tools namely; need
assessment and cost benefit analysis.

Need Assessment: a research collects data, to determine major needs and their severity. It is
often a preliminary step before deciding on a strategy to help people.
Cost benefit analysis: this is commonly used in social impact analysis. Economics developed cost
benefit analysis, in which the researcher estimates the future costs and the expected benefits of
one or several proposed actions and gives them monetary values.

II. On the basis of the purpose (the reason why a research is conducted)

A. Exploratory Research (Pilot Survey)

It is also called preliminary research. As its name implied, such research is aimed at
discovering, identifying and formulating a research problem and hypothesis. When there are few
or no studies that can be referred such research is needed.

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B. Descriptive Research
The main purpose of such research is description of the state of nature or affairs, as it exists at
present. In social science and business research we often use the term ex-post facto research for
descriptive research. The main characteristic of such research is that the researcher has no
control over the variables; he can report what has happened or what is happening.

E.g. what is the absentee rate in a particular office?

Goals of Descriptive Research

 To provide an accurate profile of a group
 To describe a process, mechanism or relationship
 To provide a verbal or numerical picture about a phenomenon
 To find information to stimulate new explanations
 To present basic background information on a context
 To create a set of categories or classify types
 To document information that contradicts prior beliefs about a subject.
C. Analytical research
Analytical research on the other hand, goes beyond simple description of the state of nature.
When a researcher encounters an issue that is already known and have a description of it, you
may begin to ask “why” things are the way they are.
Analytical research uses facts or information already available, and analyses them to make a
critical evaluation of the material.
Goals of analytical research
 To determine the accuracy of a principle of a theory
 To find out which competing explanation is better
 To advance knowledge about an underling process
 To link different issues or topics under a common general statement
 To build and elaborate a theory so it becomes more complete
 To extend a theory or principle in to new areas or issues
 To provide evidence to support or refute an explanation or prediction

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Example: How can we reduce the number of complaints made by

customer?
How can we expand the range of our services?
The two common Examples of analytic research are the following:

I. Case study: is a type of analytical research in which researchers examine many

feature of very few elements in depth over duration of time. Case can be individual,
group, organization, movement, events or geographic units. The data in case study
are usually more detailed, varied and extensive

In case study a researcher may intensively investigate one or more cases or compare a
limited set of cases focusing on a several factors.
II. Tracer study is also known as follow up study. It is a type of explanatory research
that aims at investigating the subsequent development of individuals after a specified
treatment or condition.

Tracer study is used to make an investigation on the direction of movement as and

predicts what is likely to take place to the future.
Trace study is designed to establish patterns of change in the past in order to predict
future patterns or conditions by analyzing data collected about subjects and
environment.
Common examples of such study are that a researcher may conduct a tracer study of the
former graduates of the faculty of Business and Economics to know:
o Whether all of the graduates are employed or absorbed by the labor market
o Whether there is a mismatch between the training graduates received and the
type of jobs they are handling
o Whether there is a new environmental trend that justifies the need of change.
D. Predictive research
Such research goes beyond explaining why and how things happened. It predicts the probability of
happening similar situation in other places.
It tries to explain about the probability of happening in similar things in the future.

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E. g. how would an increase interest rate affect our profit margin?

What type of packing will improve the sales of our products?

III. On the basis of the process of research

That is, on the basis of data used in the research process research an be

 Qualitative research: Such research is applicable for phenomena that cannot be

expressed in terms of quantity. Things related to quality and kind. Research designed to
find how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or institution is an
example of such research.
 Quantitative research: Quantitative research on the other hand, is concerned with
quantitative phenomena. It is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is
applicable for phenomena that can be expressed in term of quantity.

Iv. On the basis of the environment in which the research is carried out research can be:

a. Field research
It is a research carried out in the field. Such research is common in social science, agricultural
science, history and archeology.
b. Laboratory research
It is a research carried out in the laboratory. These are commonly experimental research. Such
researches are common in medical science, agriculture and in general in natural sciences.
c. Simulation research
Such research uses model to represent the real world. Simulation is common in physical science,
economics and mathematics.

V. On the basis of the time required to complete the research, research can be:

a. One –time research: it is a research limited to a single time period

b. Longitudinal research: Such research is also called on-going research.
It is a research carried out over several time periods.

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Common Objectives of Research

Any research activity is designed to discover and answer to questions through the application of
scientific procedure. It is an activity aimed at finding out the truth which is hidden and which has
not been discovered yet or to verify or reject that the existing phenomenon (theory, principle or
law) accepted as true.
Through each research study has its own specific objectives, any research has got the following
common (general) objectives.
o To generate new knowledge, principle and scientific law
o To review and synthesize existing knowledge. That is, To verify the validity of the
previous work
o To investigate some existing situation or problem
 To explain new phenomena
 To examine the cause of the problem
 To examine the nature of the problem
o To provide solutions to a problem
o To conduct or create a new procedure and new system
o A combination of any one of the above

1.4. Research and Scientific method

The two terms, research and scientific methods are closely related. The researcher is not interested
in particular results; rather he is interested in the repeatability and validity of results and their
application to more complicated and general situations.

Research methodology and techniques are mostly different from one science to another or can be
different from research to research. The philosophy common to all research methodology and
technique is called scientific methods.

Steps in Scientific methods

The steps in scientific methods are summarized as follows:
 Observation: the first or initial step in the scientific method is a minute and careful
observation of the subject matter of research.

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 Recording: the next step to observe in scientific method is a careful recording of all
information (data) obtained in the first step, i.e. observation
 Classification: the collected data (information) have to be classified and organized. The
classification implies systematically arranging and organizing the recorded data on the
logical basis so that they will become viable for the analysis and to make generation.
 Generalization: It is an extension of general laws and principles on the basis o the
pattern exhibited by the classified material. This general law is known as scientific law.
 Verification: the scientific method does not stop only at the formulation of general law.
The general principle must be verified.

Forms of Scientific Methods

There are six primary forms of scientific methods
1. Induction: the movement of knowledge from particular facts to general rule or
principle.
2. Deduction: a movement in knowledge from a general rule to a particular case.
3. Historical: historical method is back ward movement in knowledge to trace the cause
of phenomenon
4. Comparative: this method is used for the analysis and comparison of two contemporary
(coexisting and present) phenomenon.
5. Structural: a study of what a things, what are its outline and significant feature is a
structural study (the comparison of a thing)
6. Functional: In contrast to the structural method, functional method studies the
processes and their cause, that is, how and why of a thing.

Methods versus Methodology

o Research techniques: Refers the behavior and instruments we use in performing research
operation such as making observation, recording data, data processing techniques and the
like.
o Research methodology: can be understood as all those approaches and techniques that
are used in conducting particular research.

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 Research methodology can be put in to three groups:

 The first group include approaches or techniques of data collection
 The second group consists of those statistical techniques used to established
relationship between variables
 The third group consists of those techniques involved in evaluating the accuracy of
the result obtained
o Methods: is a way to systematically solve the research problem. Method can be
understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically.

1.5. Research Process

Before starting the details of research methods, it is appropriate to have a brief overview of the
research processes.
Research processes consist of a series of actions or steps, which are necessary to successfully carry
out research activities. The research process consists of a number of closely related activities.
These activities (steps) can overlap continuously rather than following a strictly prescribed
sequence. The first step can determine the nature of the last step to be undertaken. These steps
are not separate and distinct they do not necessarily follow each other in any specific order
kothari (1990)
However, the following order of steps provides a useful procedural giudline regarding processes.
 Identification and formulating the research process
 Extensive literature survey
 Developing working hypothesis
 Preparing the research design
 Determine sample design
 Collecting data
 Execution of the project
 Analysis of the data
 Hypothesis testing
 Generalization and interpretation
 Reporting the result

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CHAPTER TWO
2. DEFINING RESEARCH PROBLEM AND HYPOTHESIS
In research processes, the first step happens to be identifying and properly defining a research
problem. The researcher must find any social, economic, business problem and formulate it into
research problem. The problem identified initially may be stated in broad general way and then
gradually the ambiguity will be resolved. The feasibility of a possible particular solution has to be
considered before formulating the problem. The best way of understanding a problem is to
discuss it with colleagues or those of having some experiences in the matter.

What is a Research Problem?

A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty, which a researcher faces (experiences) in
the context of both theoretical and practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.
We say a research problem exist, if the following conditions are met:
1. There must be an individual or group or organization which has some difficulty/the
problem
2. There must be some objectives to be attained at
3. There must be an alternative means or actions for obtaining the objective (s) one wishes
to attain. This means that there must be two or more means or actions available for/to
researcher for if he has no choice of means, he cant’ have a problem
4. There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the selection of
alternatives. This means that research must answer the question concerning the relative
efficiency of the possible alternatives.
5. There must be some environment (s) to which the difficulty pertains.

2.1. Defining Research Problem

“The problem clearly stated is a problem half solved.” In other words, defining a problem involves
the task of laying down boundaries within which a researcher shall study the problem with a pre-
determined objective(s) in view.
This statement emphasis that a research problem needs to be specified explicitly and needs to be
narrowed down to the workable size.

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Techniques involved in defining the problem

The techniques of defining a problem involves the undertaking of the following steps:
1. Understanding the origin and nature of the problem clearly. The best way of
understanding the problem is to discus it with those who first raised it in order to find out
how the problem originally came about and with what objectives in view.
2. Survey and examining the available literature related to the problem thoroughly. This
helps to know what data and other materials, if any are available for operational purpose
and to narrow the problem as well as the technique that might be used.
3. Developing idea through discussions with colleagues and other experienced personalities.
This quite often known as an experience survey. Discussions with such people help the
researcher:
i. Sharpen his/her focus of attention on specific aspects within the field of
investigation
ii. Develop clear impression about the general approach to the given problem
and techniques used for the research operation
iii. Predict possible solutions for the problem etc
4. Rephrasing the research problem (reformulation of the problem) in to analytical or
operational propositions. At this stage, the researcher is required to put the problem in
specific terms as possible. So that it may become operationally viable and may help in
the development of working hypothesis.
In addition to what has been stated above, the following points also be noted while redefining a
research problem.
1. Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used in the statement of the
problem, should be clearly defined
2. Basic assumption or postulates (if any) relating to the research problem should be clearly
stated
3. Straightforward statements of the value of the investigation, i.e., the criteria for the
selection of the problem) should be provided.
4. The suitability of the time period and the sources of data available must also be
considered by the researcher in defining the problem

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5. The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be studied must
be mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem

Evaluation of the Problem

Before the final decision is made on the investigation of the problem, the feasibility of the problem
has to be tested with regard to personal suitability of the researcher and social value of the
problem. In short, the research problem should be evaluated in terms of the following criteria:
 Is the problem researchable? Some problem cannot be effectively solved through the
process of research. Particularly research cannot provide answers to philosophical and
ethical questions that don’t show the relationship exiting between two or more variables.
 Is the problem new? As much as possible, the research problems need to be new. One
should not target his investigation to the problem that has already been thoroughly
investigated by other researchers. To be safe from such duplication, the researcher has to go
through the record of previous studies in a given field. However, there are times where by a
problem that has been investigated in the past could be worthy of study. A researcher may
repeat a study when he/she wants to verify its conclusions or extend the validity of its
findings in a situation entirely different from the previous one.
 Is the problem significant? The question of significance of the problem usually relates to
what a researcher hopes to accomplish in a particular study. What his /her purpose in
undertaking to solve the particular problem selected/chosen? What new knowledge does
he/she hopes to add to the sum total of what is known? And what value is this knowledge
likely to have? When all this questions are answered by the researcher the problem should
be considered for further investigation. The major dimensions are academic awareness and
policy.
 Is the problem feasible for the particular researcher? In addition to the above points, the
feasibility of the research problem should also be examined from the point of view of the
researcher’s personal aspect.
o Research competency: the problem should be in an area in which the researcher is
qualified and competent. The researcher has to make sure that he/she is familiar with
the existing theories, concepts, laws and related to the problem. He/she must also
posses the necessary skills and competence that may be needed to develop, administer,

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and interpret the necessary data gathering tools. What is more, he needs to consider
whether he has the necessary knowledge of research design and statistical procedure
that may be required to carry out the research through its completion.
o Interest and enthusiasm: the researcher has to make sure that the problem really
interests him/her. He/she must also be truly enthusiastic about the problem. If the
problem is chosen properly by observing these points, the research will not be boring;
rather its will be love’s labor.
o Financial consideration: research is an expensive endeavor, which requires a great
deal of money invest. In this regard, the researcher should ascertain whether he has
necessary financial resources to carry on the investigation of the selected problem.
An estimate of the expenditure involved in the data gathering equipment, printing, test
material, travel, and clerical assistance to be specified.
o Time requirement: research should be undertaken within a given scope of time,
which was allocated, with careful analysis of the prevailing situation. Each and every
of research process require time. Particularly, it is worthwhile to plan for the time
that will be needed for the development and administration of tools, processing and
analysis of data and writing of the research report.
o Administration consideration: the researcher has to pay attention to all
administrative matter that is necessary to bring his/her study to its full completion. In
this regard the researcher should consider kinds of data, equipment, specialized
personnel and administrative facilities that are needed to complete study successfully.
The researcher must assure whether the pertinent data are available and accessible to
him/ her.
Hypothesis
Once the selection and definition of the problem have been accomplished, the derivation of working
hypothesis is the most important step in the research process. The word hypothesis is a compound
of two words, ‘hypo’ and ‘thesis’. Hypo means, under or below and thesis means a reasoned
theory or national viewpoint.
The term hypothesis is defined as a proposition that is stated in a testable form and predicts a
particular relationship between two or more variables.

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RESEARCH PROBLEM: “Factors that contribute to lower achievement of female students than
males in ESLCE in A.A”
The following hypotheses could be derived from the above research problem:
H1. Female Students receive significantly less support to their education than that of their male
counterpart.
H2. Female Students sustain significantly higher stereotypes in textbooks than do their male
counterpart.
It should be noted that these hypothesis are taken as a tentative solutions to the problem with the
understanding that the investigation in due course may lead either to their retention or rejection.
Establishing a hypothesis should follow rules like:
 The variables must be clearly specified and measurable by some techniques we know
 The relationship between them must be stated precisely.
Importance of hypothesis
A well-grounded hypothesis provides the following advantages:
Represents specific objective, which determine the nature of the data needed to test the
proposition
 Offer basis for selecting the sample, the research procedure, and the statistical analysis
needed
 Keeps the study restricted in scope thereby preventing it from becoming too broad
 Sets a framework for reporting the conclusion of the study

Source of Hypothesis
The inspection for hypothesis comes from a number of sources w/h include the following:
1. Professional Experience: The daily life experience or the day to day observation of the
relationship (correlation) between different phenomena leads the researcher to
hypothesize a relationship and to conduct a study if his/ her assumptions are confirmed.
2. Past Research or Common beliefs: Hypothesis can also be inspired by tracing past
research or by commonly held beliefs.
3. Through direct analysis of data or deduction from existing theory: Hypothesis may also
be generated through direct analysis of data in the field or may be deducted from a formal
theory. Through attentive reading, the researcher may able to get acquaintance with

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relevant theories, principles and facts that may alert him or her to identify valid for his/her
study
4. Technological and social changes: Directly or indirectly exerts an influence in the
function of an organization. All such changes bring about new problems for research.

Forms of Hypothesis
Statement of research hypothesis can take a declarative (positive) form, negative form, the null form,
or the question form.
Positive:
Students who learn in small class size will perform significantly better in mathematics test than
those who learn in large class size.
Negative:
Students who learn in small class size will not perform significantly better in math’s test than those
in large class size.
Null Form:
There is no significances difference between students who learn in small class size and those who
learn in large class size in their mathematics performance.
Question Form:
Is there significant difference between students who learn in small class size and those in large
class size in their math’s performance?

In general, when a researcher makes a positive statement about the outcome of the study, the
hypothesis takes declarative forms. When the researcher negates about outcome of the study, the
hypothesis takes the negative form.
When the researcher makes a statement that no relationship exists, the hypothesis takes the null
form. In the question form hypothesis, a question is asked as to what the outcome will be instead
of stating what outcome is expected. It should also be noted that a working proposition stated
either in declarative, negative, null, question form is a matter of preference by the researcher.

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CHAPTER THREE

3. Research Design (Planning Research Project)

3.1. Meaning of Research Design

Research Design:
 Is a plan of collecting and analyzing data in an economic, efficient and relevant manner
 Is a plan of collecting of organizing framework for doing the study and collecting the
necessary data
 Is nothing but the conceptual structure with in which research is conducted
 Constitutes the blue print for collection, measuring and analysis of data.
The following general rules should be followed in planning and preparing a research design:
 Define the nature and scope of the problem
 Specify the related variables (specify the sources and types of information needed).
 Exclude the variable not relevant to the study
 Start with the logical hypothesis
The design decision should be oriented in answering the following question:
o What is the study?
o Why is the study being made?
o Where will be the study being carried out? Here a researcher is expected
to define place and the research target population?
o What types of data are required?
o Where can the required data be found and what techniques of data
collection will be used?
o What period of time will the study include?
o What will be the sample design?
o How will be the data analyzed?
o In what style will the report be prepared?

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Features of research Design

Important features of good research design can be summarized as follows:
o It is a plan that contains a clear statement of the research problem and specifies the
source and types of information relevant to the research problem
o It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering the data or the
relevant information
o Indicate the population to be studied and methods to be used in processing and analyzing
the data.
o It also tentatively includes the time and cost budgets, since most studies done under these
two constraints.

3.2. Important Concepts Relevant to Research Design

 Dependent: If one variable depends upon or a consequences of the other variable
that variable is called a dependent variable. It is variable that is to predicted or
explained
 Independent variable: is a variable that is expected to influence the dependent
variable
 Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of
a study, but may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variable.
 Control: a good research design has to minimize the influences of extraneous
variable. To do so the researcher uses control as a remedy to minimize the effects
of extraneous variable. In experimental research control refers to restrain to
experimental condition.
 Confounded relationship: when dependent variable is not free from the influence
of extraneous variable, then the relationship between dependent and independent
variables is said to be confounded extraneous variable.
 Experimental and control groups: In experimental research when a group it is
exposed to usual condition is called control group, but when a group is exposed to
special condition is called experimental group.
 Treatments: the different conditions under which experimental and control
groups are put referred to as treatment.

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 Experiment: the process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating

to some problem, is known as an experiment. Examining the usefulness of a newly
developed drug is good example of an experiment. Experiment can be
comparative or absolute. If we want to determine the impact of newly developed
drug is a good against the existing drug it is an example of comparative
experiment.
 Experimental Unit: the pre determined plots (or blocks or group) where different
treatments are used are known experimental units.

3.3. Forms of Research Design

Research design is unique to a methodology. Two broad methodology groups can be used to answer
any research problem. These are experimental and non experimental. The main difference
between these two methodologies lies in the control of extraneous variables and manipulation of
at least one independent variable by the intervention of the investigator in experimental research.

3.3.1. Research Design for Non- Experimental Research

A. Design for Exploratory: is a research aimed at identifying and formulating a research

problem or developing working hypothesis. The main purpose of such study is only formulating a
problem for further, precise investigation of developing the only hypothesis from an operational
point of view. An exploratory study is often used as introductory phase of a larger study. The
design for such study is characterized by a great deal of flexibility. Since no clear hypothesis has
been developed about the problem, the following forms of research design can be used.

I. The survey of concentrating literature: this is the most simple and fruitful method of
formulating precisely the research problem or developing hypothesis. Hypothesis stated by
earlier works may be review and their usefulness be evaluated as a basis for further research.

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II. Experience Survey: this implies the survey of people who have practical experience with the
problem to be studied. The objective of such survey is to obtain insight in to the relationship
between variables and new ideas relating to the problem.
III. Analysis of Insight (examining analogous situation): is also important method for
suggesting hypothesis for research. It is particularly suitable in areas where there is a little
experience to serve as a guide. This method consists of intensive study
B. Research Design for Descriptive Study
Descriptive researches are those studies, which are concerned with describing the characteristics or
function of a particular individual, or of a group or a phenomenon.

Descriptive research in contrast to exploratory research is marked by the prior formulation of

specific research problem (question) Investigator already knows a substantial amount about the
research, may be as a result of exploratory study, before the project initiated. Thus, the
researcher should be able to define clearly, what he wants to measure and setup appropriate and
specific means for measuring it.

3.3.2. Research Design for Experimental Research

Experimental studies are those in which the researcher can control and manipulate at least one of the
independent variable and test the hypothesis of causal relationship between variable.

Basic Principles of Experimental Research

1. The Principle of Replication
The experiment should be repeated more than once. That is, each treatment is applied in many
experimental units instead once. By doing so the statistical accuracy of the research of the
experiment is increased. Replication is introduced in order to increase the precision of the study.
Suppose the researcher want to examine the effect of new teaching method on student’
performance. The researcher can divide students’ performance. The researcher can divide
students’ population in to two groups, and one treatment (old teaching method) will be given to
one group and the new teaching method to another group. After treatment the result is compared
in both groups. Applying this principle implies the students population is divided in to more than
one group and each treatment is given more than once.

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2. The Principle of Randomization

This principle of experiment is applied in order to reduce the effect of extraneous factor by
randomizing the application of treatments. In other words, this principle indicates that we should
design or plan the experiment in such a way that the variation caused by extraneous factor all be
combined under the general heading of “chance”. We can apply the principle of randomization
to the above example:To reduce the effect of extraneous variable, which is intelligence, a
researcher can randomly assign students in different groups or we can apply different treatments
randomly.

3. The principle of local Control

This is also another important principle of experimental design. This is used to measure and
eliminate the variability caused by extraneous variable. The extraneous factor, the known
sources of variability, is made to vary deliberately over a wide a range as necessary and this need
to be done in such a way that the variability it causes can be measured and hence eliminated from
the experimental error.
Here the researcher will try to fix the extraneous variable. The students are divided on the basis
of their IQ. Students in each IQ level are divided in to two groups and each group is given
different treatment and results are compared. By doing so the effect of extraneous variable
(intelligence) is controlled.

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CHAPTER FOUR
4. Research Proposal and Guide to Prepare a Proposal
The term “research proposal” is coined two words, research and proposal. Research has been
defined in the first chapter. Proposal lexically means a course of activities etc proposed.
Therefore, a research proposal can be defined as a written document requesting both
authorization and funds to undertake a specific research project. It always includes a statement
explaining the purpose of the study or a definition of the problem. It systematically outlines the
particular research methodology and the details the process that will be utilized at each stage of
the research process.
It is a systematic plan which brings to focus the preliminary planning that will be needed to
accomplish the purposes of the proposed study. It is just like a blue print which the architect
prepares before the construction of building starts.

In research proposal:
o What information will be required?
o What research procedures will be implemented? Will be clearly specified so that others
may understand their exact implications.
4.1. Functions of the Research Proposal
Research proposal may function as:
o A mean of communication: serves to communicate the investigator’s research plan to
those who give consultations and /or disburse fund. The quality of assistance and the
probability of financial support will all depend directly on the clarity and justification of
the proposal.
o A plan: helps the researcher to organize his idea in a systematic manner and to look for
strengths and flaws. A successful proposal sets out the plan in step-by-step detail. That
is, it provides an inventory of what must be done and which materials have to be collected
as a preliminary step. Generally, the acceptability of results is judged exclusively items of
the adequacy of the methods employed in recording, analyzing, and interpreting he data in
the planned study.

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o A contract: a completed proposal approved for execution and signed by all members of
the sponsoring committee, constitute a bond of agreement between the researcher and that
committee.

In addition, the research proposal has the following importance:

o It serves as a basis for determining the feasibility of the research project
o It provides a systematic plan of procedure for the researcher to follow.
o It gives the research supervisor a basis for guiding the researcher while conducting the
study.
o It reduces the probability of costly mistake
Preparation of a full-fledged proposal is not a one-time endeavor. But, is the result of continuous
modification and amendment through discussion with experts in the field.

4.2. General format and Elements of Proposal

There is no hard and fast in format scientific research proposal writing. It varies from one
organization to another and from one country to another. Though the format varies, the essence
expressed in different proposal remains the same.
There are certain elements that appear as very essential to go research which need to be reflected in
the preparation of the research proposal.

1. The title of the Investigation

The title of the research should be worded in such a way that it gives sufficient information about the
nature of the study. In selecting a title for investigation the researcher should consider the
following points:
A. The title shouldn’t be too lengthy
It should be specific to the area of study. For example the following topic appears to be long. “ A
study of academic achievement of children in pastoral regions whose parents had participated
literacy classes against those whose parents didn’t”
B. The title shouldn’t be too brief or too short

The following sentence is too short “ Marketing in Japan” or “Unemployment in Ethiopia”

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2. Abstract
It is summary, which reflects the whole content of the proposal (most of the time less than 300
words). Abstract should be concise, informative, and should provide brief information about the
whole problem to investigated.
Abstract of a proposal should contain the following points:
o Title or topic of the research
o Statement of the problem and objective
o Methodology of Investigation
o Expected result (tentative only if a researcher starts with a formulated hypothesis)

3. Introduction
These sections in research proposal give the general background of the study and the need for
undertaking the study. It reviews the previous work to reveal what is known of the subject.
4. Statement of the problem/The Rationale
Statement of the problem elaborates about he problem under investigation. It attempts to focus
on a clear goal. More specifically, statement of the problem is targeted towards the following:
 Stating the background facts which justify the study to be in order
 Developing hypotheses or key questions, which may show the direction of the whole
exercise.

5. Objectives of the Study

It is where the investigator discuss the major and specific objectives of his /her investigation.
6. Review of the Related Literature: The theoretical and empirical framework from which the
problem arises, must be briefly described. A brief summary of related studies found in journals,
magazines, abstracts and reports should be made. This provides evidence that the researcher is
familiar with what is already known and also what is unknown or unproved. It also helps to avid
the risk of duplication of what has been done and to serve as a basis for formulating hypothesis.

7. Significance of the Study: while preparing the research proposal, the researcher has to
incorporate the justification for the need of the research. He/she should justify the importance
and urgency of the study; as to how the results of the study will be useful to the beneficiaries. The
following are some of the points in which the justification stresses:

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o A wide time gap between the earlier study and the present one.
o Existence of knowledge gaps that were uncovered by the previous studies.
o Lack or shortage of information about a problem. In general, in this section the
researcher can classify and explain the policy, academic and awareness significance of
the investigation.
In general, in this section the researcher can classify and explain the policy, academic and awareness
significance of the investigation.

8. Definition of the Terms or Concepts

The technical terms or words and phrases having special meaning need to be defined operationally
by the help of special dictionaries.

9. Delimitation of the Study (Scope of the study)

Boundaries of the study should be made clear with reference to the scope of by specifying the areas to
which the conclusions will be confined.

10. Research Design and Methodology:

In this section the details about sampling procedures, the data collecting tools, analysis and
administration of the instruments are described.

A. Sampling: in the research process, the researcher often comes across unmanageable size of
population in which case he/she may be forced/ compelled to draw representative sample by
using different sampling techniques. A researcher proposal should clearly indicate the
population from which the researcher will draw his/her sample, and describe the procedure
he/she will use to select the sample.

B. Data Gathering Tools: In order to gather evidence or data for the study, the researcher has to
develop appropriate and reliable instrument(s) The research must be well versed in the use of
these tools or instruments and fully aware of their merits and demerits. The researcher proposal
should explain the reasons for selecting a particular tool(s) for collecting data.

C. Method of Data analysis

In this section, the researcher describes how to organize, analyze, and interpret data. The
details of statistical techniques should be described in the research proposal.

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D. Administrative of the Instrument

In this section the researcher indicates the procedures to be followed in collecting data for his/her
study

11. Limitation of the Study

Although a researcher tries his best to design his research as properly as possible, there are
externals (uncontrolled) variables that confront his/her investigation and affect his/her
conclusion. In his/ her research proposal, the researcher has to specify such factors that hinder
the attainment of his/her objectives. Such anticipated restrictions are referred as limitations of
the study. The possible sources include:

 Practical witness in the methodologies the researcher applied.

 Lack of access to the right data
 Poor development of instruments
 Sampling restriction
 Lack of up to data literature in the areas.

12. Budget of time: A timetable explaining how the researcher expects to carry out his project
and when each of the important phases will be completed is helpful to both the researcher and the
reviewer. It is a plan in terms of number of weeks or months and expected completion dates.
Commonly researcher presents it in a table form.

13. Cost Budget: Most proposals put together with the expectation that funding be necessary
and an itemized list of items needed to carry out the research is listed in some detail. Personal
needs, including the principal researcher’s time are included.
These are items like:
 Field expenses for data collection
 Pay for consultants where they are necessary
 Travel and all such items needed to be detailed.
 A sum of money for contingencies etc
14. Bibliography
This is a section where a list of books, journals and other documents is offered. The researcher
should list all reference material that he has used in selecting the problem and which he may use
during the conduct of the study.

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CHAPTER FIVE
Sources of Information
Any research is based on various types of information. The more information the researcher has
about the phenomena the better will be his investigation, and explanation about it. Without
information no investigation will be made. In order to carry on any research activity, information
should be gathered from proper sources. The more valid is the sources of information, the more
reliable will be the information received, which will lead to correct and reliable conclusion.
Generally, the sources of information are two types, i.e. Primary sources and secondary sources
of information.
1. Primary sources of information: the information obtained from primary sources is often
called as primary data.
Primary Data: are those information gathered by researcher himself and are gathered for the
first time, thus, happening to be original. The sources of such information are individuals and the
incidence around them. These data are obtained by means of questionnaires and schedules or
some other techniques. In some fields primary data are collected through interview and
observation method. The observation method, for collecting primary data, may be either
participant or non-participant. Such data are known as primary because they are gathered by the
researcher himself from the field of research direct and for first time.

2. Secondary sources of Information: these sources of information are called “secondary”

Secondary data are those, which have already been collected by some one and which, have
already been passed through statistical process.
Secondary Data: Are information, which are gathered or obtained indirectly. The researcher
does not obtain them himself or directly rather he gathered them from published and unpublished
materials. Secondary data are collected by the individuals and/or institution for their own use
through personal diaries, letters and survey documents etc.
Examples of secondary data
o Personal documents such as diaries, letters, photographs, and so on
o Public documents such as books, manuscripts, records, census reports of survey by private
and public institution, and various information published in newspapers and magazines.

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5.1. Primary Sources

5.1.1. Observation Method of Data Collection
Observation is the primary source of information especially in studies related to behavioral science.
We all observe things around us, but this type of observation is not scientific observation.
Observation becomes scientific tools and methods of data collection:
o When it serves a formulated research purpose
o When it is systematically planned and recorded
o And it is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability
Direct observation is the most reliable method for gathering information relate to the life style,
status, conduct, behavior, language, custom and tradition and the like phenomenon. The
observer should be absolutely detached and objective in gathering facts.
The main advantages of this method:
o Information obtained under this method relates to what is currently happening. It is not
complicated by either the past behavior or future intention or attitude.
o It is independent of respondents and is not demanding the active cooperation of the
respondents.
Limitation of observation method
o It is an expensive method
o The information provided by this method is very limited.
o Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observation task
o Some people or phenomena are rarely accessible to direct observation
o Subjective Interpretation
The researcher using this method should decide priorly:
o What should be observed?
o How the observation should be recorded?
o How the accuracy of observation can be ensured?
5.1.1. Participant Vs Non- Participant Observation
A. Participant Observation: the researcher lives in the group or in the community as a
member of it and participates in their life. He experiences what the member of the group
experience.

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Advantages of this approach

o The researcher is enable to record the natural behavior of the group
o The researcher can even gather information, which could not be easily be obtained if he
observes in a disinterested fashion.
o The research can verify the verify the truth of the statement made by informant in the
context of the study
Limitation of this study
o The observe may also loss the objectivity to she/he extent participates emotionally
o The problem of observation control is not solved
o It may narrow down the researcher’s range of experience
B. Non Participant observation
The researcher does not participate in the group life but observe as an external spectator. Under such
approach the presence of the researcher is unknown to the people.
Advantage of this approach
o Check and control is possible
o Since the observer is not a part of a group he is less subjective
o Wider range of experience can be obtained
Limitation of this approach
o Internal information can not be obtained
o If the presence of the observer is known, it is very hard to observe the natural behavior
of the observed object.
The choice between participant and non-participant observation depends up on factors like,
o Purpose of the study (Type of the study)
o The cost of the research or availability of fund to carry out the research
o Availability of the group or community (whether it is possible to be apart of a community
or that group)
o Convenience to the observer
5.1.1.2. Control vs uncontrolled observation
A. Uncontrolled observation: is the observation, which takes place in natural setting. Here no
attempt is made to use precision instrument. The main aim of this type of observation is to get a

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spontaneous picture of life or person. The main weakness of uncontrolled observation is that of
subjective interpretation.
B. Controlled observation: Observation takes place according to define prearranged plan,
including experimental procedure. In this observation we use mechanical (or precision)
instruments as aids to accuracy and standardization. Controlled observation takes place in
various experiments that are carried out in a laboratory or under controlled condition.
5.1.1.3. Structured vs unstructured Observation
A. Structure Observation: it is structured and preplanned observation technique. This
observation is characterized by a careful definition of units, the style of recording the
observation information; standardize conditions of observation and the selection of
pertinent observation. Such observation is appropriate in descriptive research. The
approach followed in the observation process is specified in detail. It includes:
o The behavior to be observed
o The unit of observation
o Subject of observation (women, adult etc)
o Conditions of observation (time of observation, place of observation, approaches of
observation, etc)
o Style of recording the observed information and the like are predetermined.
In general, such observation has standardize format and is pre-planned
B. Unstructured Observation:
The observation takes place without the characteristics mentioned above; i.e. with out standardize
format and plan. There is no specification of subject of observation, behavior to be observed
and no standard format for recording the observed information. Such observation is very
much flexible and commonly used in exploratory research.
Advantages of observation Method
The main advantage of this method of data collection is that, information obtained relates to what
is currently happening. That is, it is not complicated by either the past behavior or future
intention or attitude.
Limitation of observation method
o It is an expensive method
o The information provided by this method is very limited

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o Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observation task

o Some people or phenomenon are rarely accessible to direct observation
o The problem of subjective interpretation of the observed matter is not solved
o Recording problem is not solved either

Some suggested methods of recording the observed information

o Write down on a prepared recording format, which can be, on the spot (during
observation or later after each observation).
o Use motion picture like video camera or still camera

5.1.2. Interview Method

In an interview, the researcher meets people and discusses his social economic or some other
problem with them. During the courses of discussion, he gathers facts. An interview is different
from schedules (interview questionnaires). A schedule includes some predetermined questions
asked by the researcher in definite order with out change. But the interview has no such definite
form or order of question. The researcher may ask any question on the basis of his insight in to
the problem. Interview can be either personal interview or interview through telephone.

5.1.2. 1. Personal Interview

Such method requires interviewer –asking question in face to face to contact to respondent. The
interviewer has to be on the spot and has to meet people from whom the data are collected. This
approach is suitable for intensive investigation. But in certain cases it may not be possible or
worthwhile to contact direct the person concerned and the direct personal investigation may not
be used. In such case indirect or oral examination can be conducted under which the interviewer
has to cross-examine other person who are supposed to have knowledge about the problem under
investigation and the information obtained is recorded.

The personnel interview can be of two type –structured and unstructured

Structured Interview: personal interview method of data collection is usually carried out in a
structured and pre-planed way. Structural interview involves the use of a set of predetermined
questions and has highly standardized techniques of recording. It is not possible for interviewer
to change even the sequences of the questions. The recording formats also are standardized.
Unstructured Interview: such interview is characterized by a flexibility of questions to questioning.
It does not follow a system of pre-determined question and standardize techniques

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of recording information. The researcher is allowed much greater freedom to, if it is needed,
supplementary questions or at times he may omit certain questions. Interviewer can change the
sequences of question and he has also freedom in recording the response to include some aspects
and exclude the other. Unstructured interview is much more difficult and time consuming than
that of the structured one.

Merits of the personal interview method

o More information in greater depth can be obtained
o Interviewer by his own skill can over co me the resistance, in any, of the respondent.
o There is greater flexibility and the opportunity to restructure questions specially in
unstructured interview
o Personal information can be obtained easily
o The interviewer can control which person will answer the question
o Misinterpretation of the answer for questions is easily avoided
o It is possible to collect supplementary information about the respondent and environment,
which is often of great value in interpreting result

Weakness of the Personal Interview

o It is very expensive method specially when large and wide spread geographical sample is
taken
o There is still the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the respondent.
o Certain group of respondent (such as important official) may not be easily approachable
under this method
o This method is relatively more time consuming specially when the sample is large
o The presence of the interviewer may cover over stimulate the respondents, some times he
even give imaginary information to make the interview interesting.

5.1.2.2. Telephone interview

This method of collecting information involves contacting respondents on telephone itself.

Strength of such method

o It is flexible compared to mailing method
o It is faster than other method

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o It is relatively cheaper than personal interview

o Recall is easy and callback are simple and economical
o There is a higher rate of response
o Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to respondent
o Easy access to those respondent who are highly officials and can not be contacted
personally
o No field staff is required
o Wider distribution of sample is possible
Weakness of this method
o Little time is given to respondent for considering possible answer. Mostly the interview
will not exceed five minute at most
o Surveys are restricted to respondents having telephone
o Cost consideration may restrict expensive geographical coverage
o There is high possibility of biased- ness from the side of interviewer
o Since questions have to be short and to the point, probes are difficult to handle.

Basic Principles of Interviewing

Interviewers should follow the following principles while conducting interview
o Ask only one question at a time
o Repeat the question if necessary
o Listen carefully to the subjects answer
o Observe the subjects facial expression, gesture and tone of the voice
o Allow the subjects sufficient time to answer the question

5.1.3. Collection of data through questionnaire

Types of questionnaires can be of the following type:
o Mail questionnaires (self-administrated questionnaires)
o Interview questionnaires (schedules)
o Questionnaires through internet (through electronic media)

5.1.3.1. Mail questionnaires

This method of data collection is very popular especially for large study. The questionnaires are sent
by post to the person concerned with a request to answer the question and return them back.

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Questionnaires are mailed to respondents who are expected to read and understand the question
and write down the answer.

Advantage (strength) of this method

o Low cost even for larger sample size and widely spread geographically
o It is free from basis of the interviewer. Answer are in respondent’s world
o Respondents have adequate time to give through answers
o Respondents, who are not approachable, can be reached conveniently (especially, in
mail and e- mail)

Limitations
o Low rate of return
o It can be only for literature respondent
o The control over the questionnaire may be lost once it is sent
o There is inbuilt inflexibility
o The slowest methods of all

Guide to question construction

The questionnaires should be very carefully constructed. In constructing questionnaires both
questions and statements can be used to get information about the problem from respondents.

A). Forms of Questions

Questions in a questionnaire can have either open or closed end form.
Open-end form: the respondent is asked to provide his own answer to the question. His answer
is not any ways limited. E.G the respondents might be asked, “ What do feel the most important
issue facing your community?” The problem associated with such form off questioning is that, it
is not possible to get uniform answers and hence is difficult to process.

Closed Ended Questions: the respondent is asked to select his answer from among a list
provided by the researcher (Yes, no, I don’t etc). Closed ended questions are very popular in
survey research since they provide a greater uniformity response and because they are easy to
process.

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The major shortcoming of closed-ended questions on the researcher’s structuring of response is

that the checklist or the provided list of answers may not include all possible answers.

To limit this shortcoming the following guidelines are helpful:

o The response categories provided should be exhaustive they should include all the
possible response that might be expected
o Often the researchers support this effort by adding a category leveled like “others (please
specify}”
o The answer categories must be mutually exclusive; the respondent should not feel
compelled to select more than one.
B. Make items clear
o Make questionnaires item clear
o Avoid double –barreled questions
o Respondent must be competent to answer
o Avoid negative items
C. General questionnaire format
The format of a questionnaire is important as the nature and wording or the question asked. If
the lay out of the questionnaire is not appropriate it can confuse respondents and in the extreme,
can lead respondents throwing the questionnaires away. Therefore, as a general rule, the
questionnaire should be spread out and putting more than question in one line, leads to the
probability of skipping the coined in case of some respondents.
I. Format for responses: A variety of methods are available for presenting response
categories for respondents to check in answering a given question.
o For closed ended question: from experience boxes adequately spaced are the
best. Most of the time- closed ended questions are followed by contingent.
o For open ended question: Enough space should be provided so that the
respondent could write in all his answers and thoughts. This will avoid ambiguity
in interpreting the response.
II. Ordering questions in questionnaires
The order in which questions are asked can affect response as well as the overall data collection
activity.
*********************III. Opening question:

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iv. Questionnaire Format:

Questionnaires of different research can have different formats. Commonly used formats of
questionnaires contains the following parts:
o Instruction: Every questionnaire, whether it is self administered by the respondent or
administered by an interviewer, should contain clear instruction and introductory
comment. If a questionnaire has different
Parts it needs to have general instruction for the whole questionnaire and specific
instruction for each parts of a questionnaire. Here the researcher will instruct (tell) the
respondent to indicate their answer by putting a check mark by in the box or his
appropriate answer if needed.

V. Mail Distribution and return

The basic method for data collection through the mail has been a transmission of a questionnaire
accompanied by a letter of explanation and a return envelope. The respondents then complete the
questionnaire and return it to the research office through the mail, using the envelope provided
for that purpose.
Vi. Monitoring the return
As questionnaires are returned to the researcher, he should under take a careful recording of
methodological data.
Vii. Follow up Mailing: Follow up will be done by sending another mail to the respondents
Viii. Acceptance Response Rate
The percentage return rate that should be achieved in a mail survey is:
o A response rate 50% is adequate for analysis and reporting
o A return rate at least 60% is good and a response rate of 70% or more is very good
o But we should in mind that the body of inferential statistics used in connection with survey
analysis assumed that all members of the initial sample complete and return their
questionnaires.
5.1.3.2. Schedules (Interview Questionnaires)
Schedules are particular types of questionnaire. These methods are very much like collection of
data through questionnaires, with little difference, which lies in the fact that schedules are being
filled in by enumerators (interviewers) who are specially appointed for the response.

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Importance of interviewer
There are a number of advantages in having questionnaires administered by an interviewer
rather by the respondent himself.
o Interview survey attain higher response rate than mail survey. A properly designed and
executed interview survey ought to achieve a return rate of at least 80-85 %
o The presence of interviewer generally decrease the number of “don’t knows” an “no
answers”
o The interviewer can be instructed to probe for answer, “if you had to pick one of the
answer, which do you think would come closest to your feelings?”
o Interviewer can also provide a guard against confusing questionnaires item. (Clarification
must be strictly controlled)
o The interviewer can observe as well as ask question
General rule for Interviewing
The manner in which the interview would be conducted will vary by survey population and will be
affected by the nature of the survey. Nevertheless, it is possible to provide some general
guidelines that would apply to most, if not all, interviewing situations.
o Appearances and demeanor (behavior or conduct)
o Familiarity with questionnaires
o Record responses exactly
o Probing for response
o Interviewer should be trained
5.2. Secondary Data Collection
Secondary information is information, which has already been collected by some one and which,
have already been passed through statistical process. The researcher does not obtain them
directly rater he gathered them from published an unpublished material.
Why researchers use data from secondary sources? In most cases researchers use secondary data
for different reason like:
o Secondary data may solve problem: if adequate data are available from secondary
sources, primary data collection will not be necessary
o Search costs are substantially lower than primary sources: it is cheap and less time
consuming than primary sources. A comprehensive search of secondary sources can

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almost always be made in a fraction of the time and cost required for collection of primary
data.
It has also important supplementary use, these include:
o It helps to define the problem and formulate hypothesis about its solution.
o It will be help the plan the collection of primary data
o It will help to define the population and select the sample in primary data collection

However, the researcher must be careful when using secondary data, particularly as the only
sources of data. Secondary data be useful, it must be:
o Available
o Relevant to the information needed
o Accurate and sufficient to meet data requirement
Before using data, we must see that posses the following characteristics:
1. Reliability of the data
2. Suitability of the data
3. Adequacy of the data

Secondary data may be obtained either from:

o Internal (with in the company or organization)
o External sources (outside sources)
Internal secondary data: all companies or organizations any other organs keep record of the
every course of conducting business or any other activities:
External sources of the secondary data: The major sources of external information are:
o Government (federal, state, local)
o Trade association and trade press
o Periodicals
o Institution (research, academic)
o Commercial services and the like
The Secondary sources of information can be classified in to:
o Personal document
o Public document

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5.2.1. Personal documents

These include the entire published and unpublished information document by the individuals for
different purpose:
o Personal documents are not written in scientific manner (style) nor do they have an
objective basis.
o They generally represent some ideas, values and feeling etc.
In spite of being subjective unscientific the have been very much useful in social research.
Personal documents have been classified in to four types:
1. Biography/Autography
2. Diaries
3. Letters
4. Memories
Limitations of personal documents
o Difficult in collection
o They are rarely recorded and more seldom preserved
o Problem associated with the reliability of data.
o It is not possible to arrive at some definite conclusion say about a social problem
on the basis of personal document

5.2.2. Public an official document

Public documents can be either unpublished or published documents. Unpublished documents are
like reports of some big companies, confidential records of government departments and non-
governmental organization.
Published document are those published documents in the general interest of the public.
Some common public documents are of the following types
o Record
o Census report and statistics
o Journals and magazines
o Newspapers
o Other documents

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CHAPTER SIX
Sampling Design and Procedure
Some Fundamental Definitions
Population: is the theoretically specified aggregation of survey elements from which the survey
sample is actually selected.
Sampling Frame: is the list of elements from which the sample drawn
Sample: a subset or some part of a larger population
Sample Design: is a definite plan for obtaining a sample frame
Sampling: is the process of using a small number or part of a larger population to make
conclusion about the whole population.
Element: is unit from which information is collected and which provides the basis of analysis
Statistics: is a characteristics of a sample
Parameter: is a characteristic of a population
6.1. Steps Involved in Sample Planning (Sample procedure)
The first thing that the sample plan must include is a definition of the population to be
investigated. This involves the following procedure:

Defining Population

Census vs. Sample

Sample Design

Estimate Cost of Planning

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I. Defining the Population

Defining the target population implies specifying the subject of the study. Specification of a
population involves identifying which elements (items)
Are included, as well as where and when. If the research problem is not properly defined then
defining population will be difficult.

II. Census Vs Sample

Once the population has been defined, the researcher must decide whether the survey is to be
conducted among all members of the population or only a subset of the population. That is, a
choice must be made between census and sample.

Advantages of Census
 Reliability: data derived through census are highly reliable.
 Detailed information: Census data yield much information.
Limitation of census
 Expensiveness: Investigating each elements of the population is expensive to
any individual researcher.
 Excessive time and energy: beside cost factor, census survey takes too long
time and consumes too much energy.

The Need for Sampling

Sampling is a critical issue in survey research; usually the time, money, and effort involved do not
permit a researcher to study all possible members of a population. Furthermore, it is generally
not necessary to study all possible cases to understand the phenomenon under consideration.
Sampling comes to our aid by enabling us to study a portion of the population rather than the
entire population.
Since the purpose of drawing a sample from a population is to obtain information concerning that
population, it is extremely important that individuals included in a sample constitute a
representative cross section of individuals in the population. I.e. samples must be representation
if one is to be able to generalize with confidence from the sample to the population. So,
randomness is basic to scientific observation and reference.

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A type of sample that contains many unrepresentative characteristics would be termed as a biased
sample. The findings of a biased sample cannot legitimately be generalized to the population
from which it is taken.
Limitations of sampling
 Less Accuracy: in comparison to census technique the conclusion derived from sample
are more liable to error. Therefore, sampling techniques is less accurate than the census
technique.
 Misleading conclusion: if the sample is not carefully selected or if samples are
arbitrarily selected, the conclusion derived from them will become misleading if extended
to all population.
 Need for specialized knowledge: the sample technique can be successful only if a
competent and able scientist makes the selection.

Sampling technique is used under the following conditions:

 Vast Data: When the number of units is very large, sampling technique must be used.
Because it economize money, time and effort.
 When utmost accuracy is not required: the sampling technique is very suitable in those
situations where 100% accuracy is not required, otherwise census technique is
unavoidable.
 Infinite population: if the population is unlimited, sampling technique is imminent.
 When census is impossible: if we want to know the amount of mineral wealth in a
country we cannot dig all mines to discover and count. Rather we have to use the
sampling technique.
 Homogeneity: if all units of the population are alike (similar) sampling technique is easy
to use.
Essential of an ideal sample
An ideal sample should fulfill the following four basic characteristics
 Representative-ness
 Independence
 Adequacy
 Homogeneity
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III. Sample Design

Sample design should answer the following:
 What type of sample to use?
 What is the appropriate sample unit?
 What frame (List of Sampling Unit) is available for the population?
IV. Sample Size determination
A researcher is worried about sample size because of the fact that sample size (number of elements in
sample) and precision of the study are directly related. The larger the sample size the higher is
the accuracy. The sample size determination is purely statistical activity, which needs statistical
knowledge. There are a number of sample size determination methods.

Personal Judgment: the personal judgment and subjective decision of the researcher in some cases
can be used as a base to determine the size of the sample.
Budgetary Approach: is another way to determine by the sample size. Under this approach the sample
size is determined by the available fund for the proposed study.
Example:
If cost of surveying of one individual or unit is 30 birr and if the total available fund for survey is say
1800 birr, the sample size then will be determined as,
Sample size (n)= total budget of survey/cost of unit survey, accordingly, the sample size will be 60
units (1800/30= 60 units)

Traditional inferences: This is based on precision taste and confidence level. To estimate sample
size using this approach we need to have information about the estimated variance of the
population, the magnitude of acceptable error and the confidence interval.
 Variance or heterogeneity of the population: it refers to the standard deviation of the
population parameter. The sample size depends up on the variance of the population.
 If the population is similar (homogenous) small sample size can be enough.
 Magnitude of acceptable error: the magnitude of the error (range of possible error)
indicates how precise the study must be. It is acceptable error for that study. The
researcher makes subjective judgment about the desired magnitude of error.

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I. V. Cost of Sampling
The sample plan must take into account the estimated cost of sampling. Such costs are two types,
overhead costs and, variable costs. In reality however, it may be difficult and even for some
people not reasonable to separate sampling cost from over all study cost.
VI. Execution of Sampling Process
The last step in sample planning is the execution of the sample process (procedure). In short the
sample is actually chosen at this stage. The actual requirement for sampling procedure are the
following:
Sample must be representative: when it is a representative, a sample will be relatively small pieces
of e population that mirror the various patterns and subclass of the population.
Sample must be adequate: a sample is adequate when it is of sufficient in size to provide confidence
in the stability of its characteristics.

6.2. Sampling Techniques

They are basically of two types: non-probability sampling and probability sampling.
1. Non- probability sampling
The non-probability sampling is much less complicated and less expensive. It is very convenient in
situations when the sample to be selected is very small and the researcher wants to generalize
some idea of the population characteristics or of the problem using well-informed member in a
short time. The non-probability sample may prove perfectly adequate if the researcher has no
desire to generalize his findings beyond the sample, or if the study is merely a trial run for a
larger study.

There are five types of non-probability sampling

1. Convenience sampling: Non-probability samples that are unrestricted are called
convenience samples or accidents sample. In this sample, the investigator chooses the
closest live persons as respondents.
2. Quota Sampling: it is non-probability sampling, which is equivalent to stratified
sampling with added requirement that each stratum is generally represented in the
sample in the same proportion as in the same population. When stratified random
sampling is impractical to use because of difficulty of getting complete list of the units in
the strata of the population, quota sampling becomes appropriate.

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3. Dimensional sampling: it is basically a multi dimensional form of quota sampling. The

idea is to specify all dimensions/ variables/ of interest in the population to make sure that
every combination of these dimensions is represented by at least one case. This method is
designed for studies in which only small sample is desired so that each case drawn can be
studied in more detail than is possible in a large-scale study. It is designed to over come
the danger of missing important variables in selection of small samples.
4. Purposive Sampling: in purposive or judgmental sampling the investigator doesn’t
necessary have a quota to fill from within various strata as in quota sampling, but neither
does he just pick the nearest bodies as in convenience sampling. Rather the researcher
uses his own judgment about which respondent to choose and pick only those who best
meet the purposes of the study.
5. Snow Balling Sampling: the term snowball comes from the analogy of snowball, begins
small but becomes bigger and bigger as it rolls down hill. This method of sampling is
conducted in stages. In the first stage a few persons having the requisite characteristics
are identified and interviewed. The second stage involves interviewing these persons who
in turn lead to still more persons who can be interviewed in the third stage, and so on.

II. Probability Sampling

It implies that the probability of selection of each respondent is known. Sampling is important in all
research, but it is particularly critical in surveys. The findings of survey are presented in
numerical form, such as percentages, averages, and measures of variability.
The different sampling methods of probability sampling include:

I. Simple Random Sampling: each member of the population understudy has an equal chance of
being selected. The method involves selecting at random from al list of the population (sample
frame) the required number of subjects for the sample. Because of probability chance, the sample
should contain subject s with characteristics similar to the population as a whole: some old, some
young, some tall, some short, some rich, some poor etc.
2. Systematic sampling: this method is the modified form of simple random sampling. It involves
selecting from population lists in a systematic random fashion. For example, from a population
of 2000 a sample of 200 is required and then every 10 th person can be selected. The starting
point for the selection is chosen at random.
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3. Stratified Sampling: it involves dividing the population in to homogonous groups, each group
containing subjects with similar characteristics. For example, group A might contain males and
group B females. In order to obtain a sample representative of the whole population in terms of
sex, random sampling selection of subjects from group A and group B must be taken. I needed,
the exact proportion of males to females in the whole population can be reflected in the sample.
4. Cluster sampling:
It is used when the population under study is large, when the distribution of the members is scattered,
or when the selection of individual members is not continent for several reasons. Cluster
sampling is used in situations where the population members are naturally grouped in unit that
can be used conveniently as clusters. Example: A researcher is interested to survey the Math’s
achievement of 4th grade students in elementary schools found in Ethiopia. It is practically
impossible to test all 4th grade students in elementary school students in the country by a single
researcher.

Since the 4th graders are naturally grouped by regions, Zones, Woredas, schools and classes, the
researcher may take zones or Woredas or schools as clusters. If schools are selected, it will be
easier for him to take students as sample. Then, all students in the selected schools are to be
selected. Cluster sampling differs from stratified random sampling in that in cluster sampling
random selection occurs not with the individual members but with the clusters. The clusters for
the sample are randomly selected from the large population of cluster and once a cluster is
selected for the sample, all the population members in that clusters are included in the sample.
This is in contrast to stratified sampling in which the individual members within strata are
randomly selected.

5. Stage (multi stage) Sampling

It is a further development of the principle of cluster sampling. It is used in large-scale surveys for a
more comprehensive investigation. The researcher may have to use two, there, or four stage
sampling. For example, a researcher wants to study the opinion of teachers towards self-
centered class system. He wants to select a sample from all elementary school teachers in
Ethiopia. A simple random sampling would be impractical and so from the regional state a
sample of five regional states could be selected randomly from Northern, Eastern, southern,
Western and central regions. From the five states chosen, all zones could be listed and random

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sample of 15 zones selected. Form the 15 zones, 30 Woredas can be selected randomly and from
these Woredas all elementary schools could be listed and a random sample of 100 schools
selected. It wouldn’t be difficult to compile a list of all elementary school teachers working in
100 schools and random sample of say 650 teachers selected. The successive random sampling
of regional states, zones, Woredas schools and finally teachers constitute a multistage /5stages/.
Multi stage sampling is comparatively convenient less time consuming, and less expensive method
of sampling. However, an element sample bias gets introduced because of the unequal size of
some of the selected sub-samples.

6.3. Sampling and non Sampling Error

Sampling studies are subject to sampling and non-sampling errors, which are a random, or of a
constant nature. The errors created due to sampling and at which the average magnitude can be
determined are sampling errors, while others are called biases.
A. Sampling Error:
 Is the difference between the result of a sample and the result of census
 Is the difference between the sample estimation and the actual value of the
population
 Is an error that is created because of chance only.
Although a sample is properly selected, there will be some difference between the estimate
obtained from sample (sample statistics) and the actual value of population (parameter). The
mean of the sample might be different from the population mean by chance alone. The standard
deviation of the sample will also probably be different from the population standard deviation.
We can therefore, expect some difference between the sample statistics and the corresponding
population values known as parameters. This difference is known as the sampling error.
B. Systematic/Non Probability/Sampling Bias
It is a non-probability error, which can be created from errors in the sampling procedures and it
cannot be reduced or eliminated by increasing the samples size. Such errors occur because of
human mistakes and not chance. The possible factors that contribute to the creation of such bias
include:
A. Inappropriate Sampling:
If the sample unit is misrepresentation of the universe, it will result in sampling bias. This could
happen when a researcher gathers data from a sample that was drawn from some favored
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locations. It occurs when there is a failure of all units in the universe to have some probability of
being selected for the sample.

B. Accessibility Bias: in a considerable number of research studies, researchers tend to select

respondents who are the most accessible to them (easily reached). But it should be noted that
when all members of the population aren’t equally accessible, the researcher must provide some
mechanisms of controlling so as to ensure the absence of over and under representation of some
respondents.

C. Defective Measuring Devices: in some instances, questions in a questionnaire may not be

phrased so that they are fully understandable by respondents. Consequently, the answers
obtained aren’t accurate. Furthermore, on any measuring device, most individuals are likely to
be mismeasured to some degree due to errors in procedures of observation, interviewing, coding
etc.

D. Non -Response Bias

This is an incomplete coverage of a sample or inability to get complete responses from all the
individuals initially included in the sample. This arises due to failure in locating some of the
individuals of the population selected for sample or due to their refusal.
Non- response errors are also due to the respondents not processing /having correct information
or due to their giving deliberately biased responses.
Note that non-sampling errors occur both in a sample survey and in a census, where as the
sampling errors occur only when a sample survey is conducted. Preparing the survey
questionnaire and handling the data carefully can minimize no-sampling errors.

6.4. Sample Size Determination

The size of the sample is determined by a number of factors such as: the availability of resources
(cost, time and personnel), the nature of the population (degree of heterogeneity or homogeneity),
and the degree of accuracy we seek or magnitude of difference we wish to test, the confidence
levels we wish to use, the appropriate size of he population from which the sample is drawn, and
the response rate. In any case, the size of the actual sample must be larger enough. In deciding
the sample size the researcher must note the following points:

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 The size of the population to be sampled: Even if general rules are hard to make without
knowledge of the specific population, researchers recommend that the sample size of
around 30 cases seems to be the minimum for studies which require statistical data
analysis and which don’t involve many sub-division of data.
 The actual number of cases from which the data are collected: in some instances, the
data actually gathered might be substantially fewer because of respondents who cannot be
located, refuse to be interviewed or return legible or not otherwise unusable
questionnaires. Furthermore, the actual number of cases varies from question of question
depending on the knowledge of respondents who fail to answer particular question.
 The amount of heterogeneity of he variable within the population: the greater the
heterogeneity among members of the population a variable, the larger the sample
required. However, for population in which there is no variability or heterogeneity on a
variable, a sample of any size will be enough regardless of the population size.
 The number of cells the sample may have to be sub-divided data analysis: Every
researcher is required to estimate the number of cells in which the sample may have to be
shared during data analysis and ensure an adequate sample size for each sub-division.
 The degree of accuracy that is needed for the study: if you seek a high degree of
accuracy such as (o.o1) your sample will need to be much larger than if you seek a
relatively lower degree of accuracy such as (0.05).

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Chapter Seven

7.Overview of Data Processing and Analysis

The goal of any research is to provide information out of raw data. The raw data after collection has
to be processed and analyzed in line with the out line (plan) laid down for the purpose at the time
of developing the research plan. The compiled data must be classified, processed, analyzed and
interpreted carefully before their complete meanings and implications can be understood.
7.1. Data Processing
Data processing implies editing, coding, classification and tabulation of collected data so that they
are amenable to analysis.
A. Editing: is a process of examining the collected raw data to detect errors and omission
(extreme values) and to correct those when possible.
 It involves a careful scrutiny of completed questionnaires or schedules
 It is done to assure that the data are:
o Accurate
o Consistent with other data gathered
o Uniformly entered
o As complete as possible
o And has been well organized to facilitate coding and tabulation.

Editing can be either field editing or central editing

Field Editing: consist of reviewing of the reporting forms by the investigator for completing what has
been written in abbreviation and/ or in illegible form at a time of recording the respondent’s
response. This sort of editing should be done as soon as possible after the interview or
observation.
Central Editing: it will take place at the research office. Its objective is to correct errors such as
entry in the wrong place, entry recorded in month.
B. Coding: refers to the process of assigning numerical or other symbols to answers so that
responses can be put in to a limited number of categories or classes. Such classes should be
appropriate to the research problem under consideration. There must be a class of every data
items. They must be mutually exclusive (a specific answer can be placed in one and only one cell
in a given category set).

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C. Classification: Most research studies in a large volume of raw data, which must be reduced
in to homogenous group. Which means to classify the raw data or arranging data in groups or
classes on the basis of common characteristics
Data classification implies the processes of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of
common characteristics. Data having common characteristics placed in one class and in this way
the entire data get divided in to a number of groups or classes.
D. Data according to attributes: Data are classified on the basis of common characteristics,
which can either be descriptive (such as literacy, sex, honesty, etc) or numerical (such as weight,
age, height, income, expenditure, etc). Descriptive characteristics refer to qualitative
phenomenon, which cannot be measured quantitatively: only their presence or absence in an
individual item can be noticed. Data obtained this way on the basis of certain attributes are
known as statistics of attributes and their classification is said to be classification according to
attributes.
E. Classification according to Class interval : unlike descriptive characteristics the numerical
characteristics refer to quantitative phenomena, which can be measured through some statistical
unit. Data relating to income, production, age, weighted, come under category. Such data are
known as statistics of variables and are classified on the basis of class interval. For example,
individuals whose incomes, say, are within 1001-1500 birr can form one group, those whose
incomes within 500-1500 birr can form another group and so on. In this way the entire data may
be divided in to a number of groups or classes or what are usually called class interval. Each
class-interval, thus, has an upper as well as lower limit, which is known as class limit. The
difference between the two-class limits is known as class magnitude. The number of items that
fall in a given class is known as the frequency of the given class.

7.2. Data Analysis

Data analysis is further transformation of the processed data to look for patterns and relations
among data groups. By analysis we mean the computation of certain indices or measures along
with searching for patterns or relationship that exist among the data groups. Analysis
particularly in case of survey or experimental data involves estimating the values of unknown
parameters of the population and testing of hypothesis for drawing inferences. Analysis can be
categorized as:
 Descriptive Analysis

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 Inferential (Statistical) Analysis

7.2.1. Descriptive Analysis

Descriptive analysis is largely the study of distribution of one variable. Analysis begins for most
projects with some form of descriptive analysis to reduce the data in to a summary format.
Descriptive analysis refers to the transformation of raw data in to a form that will make them easy
to understand and interpret.
The most common forms of describing the processed data are:
 Tabulation
 Percentage
 Measurers of central tendency
 Measures of dispersion
 Measures of asymmetry
Tabulation: refers to the orderly arrangements of data in a table or other summary format. It
presents responses or the observations on a question-by-question or item-by item basis and
provides the most basic form of information. It tells the researcher how frequently each response
occurs.
Need for Tabulation
 It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a minimum
 It facilitates the process of comparison
 It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and omission
 It provides basis for various statistical computation
Percentage: whether the data are tabulated by computer or by hand, it is useful to have percentages
and cumulative percentage. Table containing percentage and frequency distribution is easier to
interpret. Percentages are useful for comparing the trend over time or among categories.
Measures of Central Tendency: describing the central tendency of the distribution with mean,
median, or mode is another basic form of descriptive analysis.
These measures are most useful when the purpose is to identify typical values of a variable or the
most common characteristics of a group. Measures of central tendency are also known as
statistical average. Mean, median, and mode are most popular averages.

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The most commonly used measure of central tendency is the mean. To compute the mean, you add
up all the numbers and divide by how many numbers there are. It's not the average nor a halfway
point, but a kind of center that balances high numbers with low numbers. For this reason, it's
most often reported along with some simple measure of dispersion, such as the range, which is
expressed as the lowest and highest number.

The median is the number that falls in the middle of a range of numbers. It's not the average; it's
the halfway point. There are always just as many numbers above the median as below it. In cases
where there is an even set of numbers, you average the two middle numbers. The median is best
suited for data that are ordinal, or ranked. It is also useful when you have extremely low or high
scores.

The mode is the most frequently occurring number in a list of numbers. It's the closest thing to
what people mean when they say something is average or typical. The mode doesn't even have to
be a number. It will be a category when the data are nominal or qualitative. The mode is useful
when you have a highly skewed set of numbers, mostly low or mostly high. You can also have two
modes (bimodal distribution) when one group of scores are mostly low and the other group is
mostly high, with few in the middle.

Measure of Dispersion: is a measurement how the value of an item scattered around the truth-
value of the average. Average value fails to give any idea bout the dispersion of the values of an
item or a variable around the truth-value of the average. After identifying the typical value of a
variable the researcher can measure how the value of an item is scattered around the true value
of the mean. It is a measurement of how far is the value of the variable from the average value. It
measures the variation of the value of an item.
Important measures of dispersion are:
 Range: measures the difference between the maximum and the minimum value of the
observed variable.
 Mean Deviation: it is the average dispersion of an observation around the mean value. E
(Xi-X)/n
 Variance: it is mean square deviation. It measures the sample variability.
 Standard deviation: the square root of variance

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Measure of asymmetry (skew-ness): when the distribution of items is happen to be perfectly

symmetrical, we then have a normal curve and the relating distribution is normal distribution.
Such curve is perfectly bell shaped curve in which case the value of Mean= Median= Mode
Skew ness is, thus a measurement of asymmetry and shows the manner in which the items are
clustered around the average. In a symmetric (normal distribution) the items show a perfect
balance on either side of the mode, but in a skewed distribution the balance is skewed one side or
distorted. The amount by which the balance exceeds on one-side measures the skew-ness.
Knowledge about the shape of the distribution is crucial to the use of statistical measure in research
analysis. Since most methods make specific assumption about the nature of distribution.

Skew -ness describes the asymmetry of a distribution. A skewed distribution therefore has one tail
longer than the other.

A positively skewed distribution has a longer tail to the right A

negatively skewed distribution has a longer tail to the left

A distribution with no skew (e.g. a normal distribution) is symmetrical

7.2.2. Inferential analysis

Most researcher wishes to go beyond the simple tabulation of frequency distribution and calculation
averages and/or dispersion. They frequently conduct and seek to determine the relationship
between variables and test statistical significance.

When the population is consisting of more than one variable it is possible to measure the
relationship between them.
I. Is there exist association or correlation between the two or more variable? If yes, then up to
what degree?
This will be answered by the use of correlation technique.

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CORRELATION

The most commonly used relational statistic is correlation, and it's a measure of the strength of
some relationship between two variables, not causality. Interpretation of a correlation coefficient
does not even allow the slightest hint of causality. The most a researcher can say is that the
variables share something in common; that is, are related in some way. The more two things have
something in common, the more strongly they are related. There can also be negative relations,
but the important quality of correlation coefficients is not their sign, but their absolute value. A
correlation of -.58 is stronger than a correlation of .43, even though with the former, the
relationship is negative. The following table lists the interpretations for various correlation
coefficients:

.8 to 1.0 Very strong

.6 to .8 Strong

.4 to .6 Moderate

.2 to .4 Weak

.0 to .2 Very weak

Pearson's correlation coefficient, or small r, represents the degree of linear association between
any two variables. Unlike regression, correlation doesn't care which variable is the independent
one or the dependent one, therefore, you cannot infer causality. Correlations are also dimension-
free, but they require a good deal of variability or randomness in your outcome measures. A
correlation coefficient always ranges from negative one (-1) to one (1), so a negative correlation
coefficient of -0.65 indicates that "65% of the time, when one variable is low, the other variable is
high" and it's up to you, the researcher to guess which one is usually initially low. A positive
correlation coefficient of 0.65 indicates, "65% of the time, when one variable exerts a positive
influence, the other variable also exerts a positive influence". Researchers often report the names
of the variables in such sentences, rather than just saying "one variable". A correlation
coefficient at zero, or close to zero, indicates no linear relationship.

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The most frequently used correlation coefficient in data analysis is the Pearson product moment
correlation. It is symbolized by the small letter r, and is fairly easy to compute from raw scores
using the following formula:

II. Is there any cause and effect (causal relationship) between two variables or between one
variable on one side and two or more variables on the other side?
This question can be answered by the use of regression analysis. In regression analysis the
researcher tries to estimate or predict the average value of one variable on the basis of the value
of other variable.

REGRESSION

Regression is the closest thing to estimating causality in data analysis, and that's because it
predicts how much the numbers "fit" a projected straight line. The most common form of
regression, however, is linear regression, and the least squares method to find an equation that
best fits a line representing what is called the regression of y on x. Instead of finding the perfect
number, however, one is interested in finding the perfect line, such that there is one and only one
line (represented by equation) that perfectly represents, or fits the data, regardless of how
scattered the data points. The slope of the line (equation) provides information about predicted
directionality, and the estimated coefficients (or beta weights) for x and y (independent and
dependent variables) indicates the power of the relationship.

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Yi= Bo + B1Zi
Yi= Outcomes score for the nth unit (dependent variable)
B0= coefficient for the intercept
B1= Coefficient for slope
Zi= independent variable

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Chapter 8

8.Interpretations and Reporting of the Research Result

After collecting and analyzing the data, the researcher has to accomplish the task of drawing
inferences followed by report writing. Interpretation has to be done carefully so that misleading
conclusion will not be drawn and the whole purpose of doing research will not be violated.

8.1. Meanings and Technique of Interpretation

Interpretation: refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after analytical or
experimental study.
The task of interpretation has two major aspects:
 The effect to establish continuity in research through the results of a given study with
these of others
 The establishment of explanatory concept

In one sense, interpretation is concerned with relationships within the collected data, partially
overlapping analysis.

Technique of interpretation
There are no existing rules to guide the researcher about how to interpret the data. However, the
following suggested steps could be helpful.
1. Researcher must give reasonable explanation of the relation, which he has found and he
must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the underlining process and must try to
find out the thread of uniformity that lies under the surface layer of his diversified
findings.
2. Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered while
interpreting the final result of research study, for it may prove to be a key factor in
understanding the problem under consideration
3. It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, to consult some one having
insight in to the study and who is frank and honest and will not hesitate to point out
omissions and errors in logical argumentation. Such a consultation will result in correct
interpretation and, thus, enhance the utility of research result.
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4. Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering all relevant
factors affecting the problem to avoid false generalization.

Precaution in Interpretation
Researcher must pay attention to the following points for correct interpretation
o At the outset, researcher must invariably satisfy him self that the data are appropriate,
trust worthy, and adequate for drawing inferences. The data reflect good homogeneity
(no extreme) and popular analysis has been done through statistical or any other methods.
o The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly arise in the
process of interpreting results
o He should be well equipped with and must know the correct use of statistical measures for
drawing inferences concerning his study.
o Broad generalization must be avoided, because the coverage restricted to a particular
time, a particular area and particular condition. Such restriction, if any, must invariably
be specified and the results must be farmed within their limit.
o The researcher must remember that there should be constant interaction between initial
hypothesis and, empirical observation and theoretical conceptions

8.2. Reporting the Research Result

Lay out of the Research Report
o Preliminary section
o The main text
o The lat section/part

1. The preliminary section

This section contains:
A. The title page- it contains the following information:
 Title of the sturdy
 Name of institution to which the report is will be submitted
 Name of candidate
 Degree for which the report will be submitted

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 Date of submission of the report

B. Acknowledgment- this is a section that recognizes individuals and institutions to which
you are indebted for providing credible assistance in due course of your study. Keep this
part as brief and simple as possible.
C. Table of contents: include list of classification of the research report with their
corresponding page numbers for easy references
D. List of Tables and Figures: when you have figures and tables in your report, you need a
separate page for list of tittles to tables and figures along with their corresponding page
numbers
2. The Main Text Section
The main body of the research consists of five chapters namely:
 Introduction Chapter One
 Review of the related literature----------------------------Chapter Two
 The research design and methodology--------------------Chapter Three
 Presentation, Analysis and interpretation of data--------Chapter Four
 Summary, Conclusions & Recommendations-----------Chapter Five

3. The End part

Acknowledging sources and bibliographical ways using the works of other writer in the course of
your is a normal procedure of research undertaking. In doing so, you are required to give
appropriate acknowledgment that shows what you have borrowed as ideas. To do otherwise is
plagiarism- taking some one idea as your own without acknowledging.
Plagiarism – is the act of using another person’s ideas in your writing without acknowledging the
source.
Citing Sources
The usual style of acknowledging your source of is keeping brief citation in the text that refer to an
alphabetical list of works that appear at the end of your research.
Example: “Quality and standard are in fact relative matter, relative to the particular time and place
and particular learners and their circumstances (Coombs, 1985:102). The citation (Combos,
1985:107) tell you that Coombs is the name of author, 1985 is the year of publication, 107 is
page number from which the indicated information has been derived.

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Bibliographical Usage
A bibliography is a list of all the works referred in due course of investigation in alphabetical
order. The basic styles for documenting major sources in a bibliography are the following:

Books: When the name of the author is indicated, basic entries are authors name, title of the
book, and publication information- year of publication, place of publication and publisher.

Example:
Johnson, D. (1994). Research Method in Education Management.
London: Long man Group Uk ltd.

Books with a single author

1. Author’s name: reverse the author’s name and add comma (,) after the last name. For
instance the name of the author in the author in the example above appears on title page
as Dephen Johnson. Omit titles, affiliations and degrees that come before after names
such as Dr., PHD, MA, and Professor.
2. Title of the book:
 State the full title of the book including sub titles
 If the book has sub-title, put a colon (:) directly after the main title.
 Place a period and year of publication before entire title
 Underline or bold the whole title.
3. Publication Information
 Write the year of publication in bracket, city, of publication and publisher in that order
 Use dot between the year of publication and book title, use colon between the city and
publisher
 If several cities are listed in the book, use only the first.
Example: Kuthari, C.R. (1994). Research Methodology: Methods andTechniques.
Bombey: Johripunbliser
Books with two Authors
Example: Coomb and Sunder Girma (1994)
Citing a book with three or more authors

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When a book is written by more than three authors you will come only the first author and others
or et al.
Gorton, R. and Others or Gorton, R. etal (1988). Harvard book of School Management. Phoenix:
Oryd Press

Journals
The entry for an article in a journal has three major divisions. These are: Author name, title of
the article in quotation marks, and publication information.
Example:
Rosner, B. (1991) “Women in Management.” Harvard Business Review. Vol. 69, No.
3 (Pp. 152-165)
News Papers
The citation includes:
 The name of the author and year of publication
 The title of the article in quotation mark
 The name of the news paper underlined
 Page number of the news paper
Example
Abebe Asfaw (Sept, 1994) “attacking unemployment in Ethiopia” The Ethiopia
Herald. (Pp. 3-5)

Unpublished sources
Essential entries are the following:
 The name of the writer
 The title of unpublished work under quotation
 Description about the sources
Example:
Sakala, C. (1993). “Maturity Care Policy in the United States: Toward a more Rational and
Effective Society.” Unpublished Dissertation Boston University.

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Government publication
If the information sources are published by government ministries/Agencies, cite as an author
government agency that issued it.
Example:
Ministry of Education (1993). Basic Education Statistics. Addis Ababa:
Educational Management and information system
General Points to Note in Bibliography
 When the authors name is not indicated alphabetize the book by its title. Ignore articles (a,
an or the) for the order of alphabetization
 When the same name (a person or an institution) is referred to more than once in your
bibliography, give the name in the first entry only. Then, in place of the names use bars
( )
 If several works by the same author appear in bibliography, they must be alphabetized
among themselves in bibliography; they must be alphabetized among themselves by title.
 When the same author produces two or more publications in a year alphabetize by
assigning sequential letters (a,b,c,…) next to their year of publications
Example: (1973a, 1973b)

If the bibliography is long (more than 25 entries), references can be grouped according to their
category usually in three parts:
o Books
o Periodicals- Journals
o News Papers and Unpublished Material

N.B
 When the author is an Ethiopian take the name as written on title pages Ethiopian names
cannot be converted.
 When materials in Amharic are used, place on the last line of bibliography page.

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