Learning Outcome BIOSL 4.

3: Evaluate Nervous
Coordination in Humans

This section explores how the human nervous system works to control and
coordinate the body's activities.

4.3.1 Describe the relationship between sense organs, receptor

cells and effector organs.

 Sense Organs: These are special parts of your body that detect
changes in the environment (both inside and outside your body).
Examples include your eyes (for light), ears (for sound), nose (for
smell), tongue (for taste), and skin (for touch, temperature,
pressure, pain).
 Receptor Cells: Within the sense organs are specialized cells
called receptor cells. Their job is to detect a specific type of stimulus
(e.g., light, heat, pressure) and convert that stimulus into an
electrical signal (a nerve impulse).
o Analogy: Think of a smoke detector in your house. It's a
"sense organ" that detects smoke. The actual sensor inside
that detects the smoke is like the "receptor cell."
 Effector Organs: These are parts of the body that carry out a
response to a stimulus. They are usually muscles or glands.
o Muscles: When stimulated by a nerve impulse, muscles
contract to produce movement.
o Glands: When stimulated, glands release chemical
substances (like hormones or sweat).
o Analogy: Following the smoke detector analogy, if the smoke
detector goes off, you might grab a fire extinguisher. The fire
extinguisher (and your arm movements) would be the
"effector organ" carrying out the response.
 Relationship:

o A stimulus (a change) is detected by receptor cells in a

sense organ.
o The receptor cells convert this stimulus into an electrical
signal (nerve impulse).
o This nerve impulse is sent along nerves to the central nervous
system (brain and spinal cord) for processing.
o The central nervous system then sends a new nerve impulse
to an effector organ (muscle or gland).
o The effector organ carries out a response.
4.3.2 Relate structure of neurones to their functions.

 Neurones (Nerve Cells): These are the basic units of the nervous
system. They are specialized cells that transmit electrical signals
(nerve impulses) rapidly around the body.
 Structure of a typical neurone:
o Cell Body (Soma): Contains the nucleus and other
organelles. It's the main part of the neurone where basic cell
functions occur.
o Dendrites: Short, branched extensions that receive incoming
nerve impulses from other neurones and carry them towards
the cell body. Think of them as antennae.
o Axon: A long, slender projection that carries nerve impulses
away from the cell body to other neurones, muscles, or
glands. Some axons can be very long (e.g., from your spinal
cord to your toe).
o Myelin Sheath: A fatty layer that surrounds and insulates
many axons. It's like the plastic coating around an electrical
wire.
 Function: Speeds up the transmission of nerve
impulses along the axon. Impulses "jump" along the
gaps in the myelin sheath (called Nodes of Ranvier),
which is much faster than travelling continuously.
o Axon Terminals (Nerve Endings): The branched ends of
the axon that release chemical messengers
(neurotransmitters) to transmit the impulse to the next cell.
 Types of Neurones:
o Sensory Neurones: Carry nerve impulses from receptor cells
(in sense organs) to the central nervous system (brain and
spinal cord).
o Motor Neurones: Carry nerve impulses from the central
nervous system to effector organs (muscles or glands).
o Relay Neurones (Interneurones): Found within the central
nervous system. They connect sensory neurones to motor
neurones, or connect different parts of the brain and spinal
cord. They are involved in processing and interpreting
information.

4.3.3 Describe a simple reflex arc.

 Reflex Arc: A rapid, involuntary (automatic) response to a stimulus

that does not involve conscious thought. It's a quick pathway of
nerve impulses that bypasses the brain for immediate reaction.
 Pathway of a simple reflex arc:
1. Stimulus: (e.g., touching a hot object).
 2. Receptor: (e.g., pain receptors in the skin) detects the
stimulus.
3. Sensory Neurone: Carries the nerve impulse from the
receptor to the spinal cord.
4. Relay Neurone: In the spinal cord, the sensory neurone
connects directly to a relay neurone. The relay neurone then
connects to a motor neurone.
5. Motor Neurone: Carries the nerve impulse from the spinal
cord to the effector organ.
6. Effector: (e.g., biceps muscle in the arm) receives the
impulse and contracts, pulling the hand away.
7. Response: (e.g., withdrawing hand quickly).
 Why are reflexes important? They protect the body from harm
by allowing very fast reactions.

4.3.4 Describe transmission of impulses across a synapse.

 Synapse: A tiny gap or junction between the axon terminal of one

neurone and the dendrite or cell body of another neurone, or
between a neurone and an effector cell (like a muscle). Neurones do
not physically touch each other.
 Process of synaptic transmission:
1. An electrical nerve impulse arrives at the axon terminal
(presynaptic neurone).
2. This arrival triggers the release of special chemical
messengers called neurotransmitters from vesicles (small
sacs) in the axon terminal into the synaptic cleft (the gap).
3. The neurotransmitters diffuse (spread out) across the synaptic
cleft.
4. The neurotransmitters bind to specific receptor proteins on
the membrane of the next neurone (postsynaptic neurone) or
effector cell.
5. This binding triggers a new electrical nerve impulse in the
postsynaptic neurone, or a response in the effector cell.
6. After binding, the neurotransmitters are quickly broken down
by enzymes or reabsorbed by the presynaptic neurone to
ensure the signal is brief and controlled, ready for the next
impulse.
 Importance of Synapses: They allow signals to be transmitted
from one neurone to another, ensuring communication throughout
the nervous system. They also allow for the integration of
information and for signals to be either passed on or inhibited.

4.3.5 Describe the structure and function of the brain.

 The Central Nervous System (CNS): Made up of the brain and
the spinal cord. It's the body's control centre, processing information
and sending out instructions.
 The Brain: The most complex organ in the body, responsible for
conscious thought, memory, emotions, voluntary actions, and
coordinating involuntary functions.
 Main parts of the Brain and their functions:
o Cerebrum:
 Structure: The largest part of the brain, highly folded
(convoluted) with an outer layer called the cerebral
cortex (grey matter). Divided into two hemispheres.
 Function: Responsible for higher-level functions like:
 Thinking, learning, memory, intelligence.
 Conscious thought and decision-making.
 Voluntary movement (e.g., walking, talking).
 Interpreting sensory information (sight, sound,
touch, taste, smell).
 Language and creativity.
o Cerebellum:
 Structure: Located at the back of the brain, below the
cerebrum.
 Function: Coordinates muscle movements, balance,
posture, and fine motor skills. It helps make movements
smooth and coordinated.
o Medulla Oblongata:
 Structure: Located at the base of the brainstem,
connecting the brain to the spinal cord.
 Function: Controls vital involuntary bodily functions
that keep you alive, such as:
 Heartbeat rate.
 Breathing rate.
 Blood pressure.
 Reflexes like coughing, sneezing, swallowing, and
vomiting.
o Hypothalamus:
 Structure: Small area located deep within the brain,
above the brainstem.
 Function: Controls many vital bodily functions,
including:
 Body temperature regulation.
 Hunger and thirst.
 Sleep cycles.
 Links the nervous system to the endocrine
(hormone) system by controlling the pituitary
gland.
o Pituitary Gland:
 Structure: A small gland located at the base of the
brain, attached to the hypothalamus.
  Function: Often called the "master gland" because it
produces and releases many hormones that control the
activity of other endocrine glands in the body. It's
crucial for growth, metabolism, reproduction, and stress
response.

4.3.6 Explain effects of drugs on the central nervous system.

Important Note: The content in the syllabus mentions specific types of

drugs. This explanation will focus on the general effects and categories, as
it's crucial to understand the biological impact without promoting or
encouraging the use of these substances.

Drugs can significantly alter the normal functioning of the central nervous
system (brain and spinal cord) by interfering with neurotransmitter
systems at synapses. They can either increase or decrease the activity of
neurones.

 General Effects:
o Altered mood: Euphoria, depression, anxiety.
o Changes in perception: Hallucinations, altered senses.
o Changes in behavior: Increased aggression, reduced
inhibitions, increased risk-taking.
o Impaired coordination and reaction time.
o Addiction: The body becomes dependent on the drug,
leading to withdrawal symptoms if use is stopped.
o Tolerance: The need for increasingly larger doses to achieve
the same effect.
o Long-term health problems: Damage to brain, liver, heart,
mental health issues.
 Categories of Drugs and their effects (generalized):
o Stimulants: (e.g., nicotine, caffeine, amphetamines)
 Effect: Increase alertness, energy, heart rate, and brain
activity. They speed up the transmission of nerve
impulses.
 Mechanism: Often work by increasing the release or
blocking the reuptake of neurotransmitters like
dopamine and noradrenaline, leading to increased
stimulation of postsynaptic neurones.
o Depressants: (e.g., alcohol, tranquilizers, sedatives)
 Effect: Slow down brain activity, reduce alertness, and
can cause drowsiness, relaxation, and reduced anxiety.
They decrease the rate of nerve impulse transmission.
 Mechanism: Often work by increasing the activity of
inhibitory neurotransmitters (like GABA) or decreasing
the activity of excitatory neurotransmitters.
 o Hallucinogens: (e.g., cannabis (in high doses), certain
synthetic drugs)
 Effect: Alter perception, mood, and thought. Can cause
hallucinations (seeing or hearing things that aren't
there).
 Mechanism: Interfere with various neurotransmitter
systems, particularly serotonin, leading to distorted
sensory input and altered consciousness.
o Painkillers (Analgesics): (e.g., opiates like morphine)
 Effect: Reduce the sensation of pain. Some can also
cause drowsiness and euphoria.
 Mechanism: Work by mimicking the body's natural
pain-relieving chemicals (endorphins) and binding to
opioid receptors in the brain and spinal cord, blocking
pain signals.
o Poisons/Toxins: (e.g., some venoms, certain chemicals)
 Effect: Can severely disrupt nervous system function,
leading to paralysis, convulsions, coma, or death.
 Mechanism: Can block neurotransmitter release,
destroy neurones, or interfere with nerve impulse
transmission in various ways.

4.3.7 Discuss the psychological and economic effects of drug use.

Important Note: This section is about understanding the consequences

of drug use, not about providing information on how to use or obtain
drugs.

 Psychological Effects: These relate to mental health and

behavior.
o Addiction: A powerful craving and compulsive need for the
drug, leading to psychological dependence. Users feel they
cannot function normally without the drug.
o Mental Health Issues: Increased risk of depression, anxiety,
paranoia, psychosis (e.g., schizophrenia-like symptoms), mood
swings, and hallucinations.
o Cognitive Impairment: Problems with memory,
concentration, learning, and decision-making.
o Behavioral Changes: Increased aggression, irritability,
dishonesty, secretive behavior, loss of motivation, neglecting
responsibilities (work, school, family).
o Social Isolation: Strained relationships with family and
friends, withdrawal from social activities.
o Increased Risk-Taking: Impaired judgment can lead to
dangerous behaviors, accidents, and unprotected activities.
o Overdose: Can lead to severe brain damage, coma, or death.
 Economic Effects: These relate to financial costs at both individual
and societal levels.
o Individual Level:
 High Cost of Drugs: Users spend significant amounts
of money on drugs, often leading to debt and financial
ruin.
 Loss of Income: Inability to maintain employment due
to drug use, leading to job loss and unemployment.
 Healthcare Costs: Costs for treating drug-related
illnesses, overdoses, and mental health issues.
 Legal Costs: Fines, legal fees, and potential loss of
earnings due to incarceration.
o Societal Level:
 Healthcare Burden: Increased strain on healthcare
systems due to drug-related emergencies, long-term
treatment, and rehabilitation services.
 Lost Productivity: Reduced workforce productivity due
to drug addiction, absenteeism, and premature deaths.
 Crime: Increased crime rates (theft, violence) to fund
drug habits, leading to higher law enforcement and
judicial system costs.
 Social Welfare Costs: Increased need for social
support services, housing assistance, and programs for
affected families.
 Prevention and Education Programs: Government
spending on public awareness campaigns and
prevention initiatives.
 Impact on Tourism/Investment: Societies heavily
affected by drug problems may face reduced tourism
and foreign investment.