CHAPTER SIX

6 INTERSECTION AND INTERCHANGES

6.1 Types of Intersection and interchanges
Intersections are inevitable parts of any street system. A road or street intersection can be defined
as the general area where two or more roads join or cross, including the roadway and roadside
facilities for traffic movement within it (AASHTO, 2001). An intersection needs to be designed
considering the efficiency, safety, speed, cost of operation, and capacity that it can offer to users.

In general, there are three types of intersections:

(1) At-grade intersection
(2) Grade separated without ramps, and
(3) Interchanges
The common intersection is at-grade intersection where two or more highways join. The
approaches are referred to as intersection legs. When it becomes necessary to accommodate high
volume of traffic through intersections, intersections that are separated by grade are used, and
these are generally referred to as interchanges. When two highways or streets cross each other at
a different grade, with no connections, the arrangement is referred to as a grade separation.
Details of the geometric design of at-grade intersections and interchanges are given in A policy
on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets published by the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO, 2001).

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Figure 6-1 Examples of At-Grade Intersections

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Figure 6-2 Types of Interchanges

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6.2 Design Consideration and Objectives
The objective of intersection design is to reduce the severity of potential conflicts between vehicles
(including pedestrians) while providing maximum convenience and ease of movement to
vehicles. Four basic elements are generally considered in the design of at-grade intersections.

a. Human factor, such as driving habits and decision and reaction times
b. Traffic considerations, such as capacities and turning movements, vehicle speeds, and
size and distribution of vehicles
c. Physical elements, such as characteristics and use of abutting property, sight distance,
and geometric features
d. Economic factors, such as costs and benefits and energy consumption
The design and type of interchanges is influenced by many factors, such as highway
classification, character and composition of traffic, design speed, and degree of access
control. Interchanges are high-cost facilities, and because of the wide variety of site conditions,
traffic volumes, and interchange layouts, the warrants that justify an interchange may differ at
each location. AASHTO (2001) provides details regarding grade separations and
interchanges. The main important thing when considering interchanges is clearly the economic
justification.

6.3 Conflict area at Intersection

Fig. 5.3 shows vehicle streams and the merging, diverging, and crossing maneuvers for a simple
four-leg intersection, and for a more complicated staggered intersection. Such diagrams are
useful because the number and type of conflicts may indicate the accident potential of an
intersection. In the case of a regular two-lane, four-leg intersection there are 16 potential
crossings conflict points, 8 merging and 8 diverging conflict points. The staggered T-intersection
shown in the figure serves about the same function as the four-leg intersection, and consists of
only six potential crossing conflict points, three diverging and three merging conflict points.

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Figure 6-3 Vehicle Streams and the Merging, Diverging,and Crossing Maneuvers

6.4 Type of Intersection Control

There are at least six principal ways of controlling traffic at intersections, depending on the type
of intersection and the volume of traffic in each of the vehicle streams. In an ascending order of
control exercised at the intersection, these include no control, channelization, yield or stop signs,
roundabouts and traffic signals. The FHWA, 2000 provides guidelines for adopting any
particular type of intersection control, in the form of warrants.

6.4.1 Stop signs

Stop signs are warranted at intersections under the following conditions:
I. Intersection of less important road with a main road, where application of the
normal right-of-way rule is unduly hazardous
II. Intersection of a county road, city street, or township road with a state highway
III. Street entering a through highway or street
IV. Unsignalized intersection in a signalized area
V. Unsignalized intersection where a combination of high speed, restricted view and
serious accident record indicates a need for control by the stop sign

Multiway (fourway or all-way) stops can be used as a safety measure at some locations where the
volume on the intersecting roads is approximately equal and following conditions exist:

I. An accident problem, as indicated by five or more reported accidents in a 12 months

period, which may be corrected by a multiway stop installation

II. (a) The total vehicular volume entering the intersection from all approaches averages
at least 500 vehicles per hour for any 8 hours of an average day, and (b) the combined

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 vehicular and pedestrian volume from the minor street or highway averages at least
200 units per hour for the same 8 hours, with an average delay to minor street vehicular
traffic of at least 30 seconds per vehicle during the maximum hour, but (c) when the
85th percentile approach speed of the major street traffic exceeds 40mph, the minimum
vehicular volume warrant is 70% of the foregoing requirements.

III. Where traffic signals are warranted, the multiway stop control can be used as an
interim measure while arrangements are being made for installation of the signal.

6.4.2 Yield Signs

Yield signs are established as follows:

i. On a minor road at the entrance to an intersection when it is necessary to assign the right-
of-way to the major road, but where a stop is not necessary at all times, and where the
safe approach speed on the minor road exceeds 10mph.
ii. On the entrance ramp to an expressway, where an adequate acceleration lane is provided
iii. Where there is a separate or channelized right-turn lane without an adequate acceleration
lane
iv. At any intersection where a problem can be possibly corrected by a yield sign installation
v. Within an intersection with a divided highway, where a stop sign is present at the
entrance to the first roadway, and further control is necessary at the entrance to the
second roadway. Median width between roadways must exceed 30 ft.

6.4.3 Intersection Channelization

Channelization is the separation or regulation of conflicting traffic movements into definite paths
of travel by traffic islands or pavement markings to facilitate the safe and orderly movements of
both vehicles and pedestrians. Proper channelization increases capacity, improves safety,
provides maximum convenience, and increases driver confidence. Channelization is frequently
used along with stop or yield signs or at signalized intersections.

Some basic principles to help design channelized intersection are as follows:

i. Motorists should be provided with channel lines that are easy to follow.

ii. Sudden and sharp reverse curves should be avoided.

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iii. Areas of vehicle conflict should be reduced as much as possible.

iv. Traffic streams that cross without merging and weaving should intersect at or near right
angles.

v. Islands should be carefully selected and be as few as possible.

vi. Over channelization should be avoided, as it has proved to be counterproductive.

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 Figure 6-4 Typical Examples of Channelized Intersections (AASHTO, 2001)

Rotaries and Roundabouts

Rotaries and roundabout are channelized intersections comprising a central circle surrounded by
a one-way roadway. The basic difference between rotaries and roundabouts is that rotaries are
generally signalized, whereas roundabouts are not. Naturally, in the case of roundabouts,
entering traffic yields to traffic within.
Roundabouts generally have good safety records and traffic does not have to stop when traffic
volumes are low. A well-designed roundabout should deflect the path of vehicles passing
through an intersection by the use of a sufficiently large central island, properly designed
approach islands, and staggering the alignment of entries and exits.

6.4.4 Uncontrolled Intersections

Where an intersection has no control device, the operator of a vehicle approaching an
intersection must be able to perceive a hazard in sufficient time to alter the vehicle‟s speed,
before reaching the intersection. The time needed to start decelerating is the driver‟s perception
and reaction time and may be assumed to be 2.0 sec. In addition, the driver needs to begin
braking some distance from the intersection. This distance from the intersection, where a driver
can first see a vehicle approaching on the intersecting road, is that which is traversed during 2.0
seconds for perception and reaction, plus an additional 1.0 second to actuate braking or to

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accelerate to regulate speed. By referring to Fig. 5.5, the sight triangle is determined by the
minimum distances along the road. For instance, if highway A has a speed limit of 50 mph and
highway B has one of 30 mph, it would require an unobstructed sight triangle, with legs
extending at least 220 ft and 130 ft, respectively, from the intersection, based merely on the average
distance traveled in 3 seconds.

Fig. 6.5 Sight Triangle (AASHTO 2001)

These minimum distances will permit a vehicle on either road to change speeds before reaching
the intersection, but this fact by itself does not imply that the intersection is safe.

There can be potential danger to vehicle operators on such intersections, especially when
successions of vehicles are approaching the intersection, when time is sufficient to avoid only a
single vehicle. Because the distance covered in 3 seconds ranges from 70% of the safe stopping
distance at 20 mph to only 36% at 70 mph, the use of sight triangles for design purposes must be
approached with caution.

A safer design for such intersections should allow drivers on both highways to see the
intersection and traffic in sufficient time to stop the vehicle before reaching the intersection. The
safe stopping distances in this case are the same as those used for designing any other section of
highway.

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6.5 Interchanges
Interchanges are combinations of ramps and grade separations designed as a system of
interconnecting roadways to separate the turning and through movements at the junction of
two or more roads. They provide the greatest efficiency, safety and capacity for handling
large volumes of traffic in these situations. Interchange design is a special form of intersection
design. The traffic interchange is the best solution available to the problems encountered in
intersections at grade, as it separates the major crossing movements and enables maximum
traffic volumes to operate uninterrupted on at least the freeway. Crossing conflicts are
eliminated and turning conflicts are minimized depending on the type and degree of
development of the interchange, and on the degree of access limitation imposed. Interchanges
can be provided between freeways, between freeways and arterial roads, and between arterial
roads. The general principles of design are similar but standards for clearance, curvature, sight
distance and visibility depend on the standard and the design speed of the roadway to which
the element of the interchange connects. Each interchange is an individual problem and even
standard types require customization to suit a particular site. Consistency of form assists in
driver understanding and the design must be considered in conjunction with the design of
adjacent interchanges. An interchange or series of interchanges on a route through an area may
affect large adjacent areas or even the entire community. Interchanges should therefore be
located and designed so that they will provide the best possible traffic service consistent with
community interests. To this end all interchanges should provide for flexibility of operation
and be subject to reasonably easy modification if required by future traffic patterns. When
interchanges are required at relatively close spacing, the weaving maneuvers between the
interchanges may limit capacity. Weaving occurs when an entry ramp is followed by an exit
ramp within a distance of about 1.5km. Weaving involves lane changing as well as merging
and diverging. Longer distances between the entry and exit ramp results in freeway capacity
being limited by merge and diverge capacity. The influence of lane changing is not the limiting
factor as more opportunities to change lanes arise on longer stretches of road. Weaving may
be reduced or eliminated by special design features. Freeway capacity may be modeled by
use of the Highway Capacity Manual (either using manual calculation or HCS 2000 software).
Microscopic simulation software such as Paramics or Aimsun may also be used to assess
freeway operating conditions under different traffic loadings and geometric layout options.

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6.6. Selection of Junction Type

The choice of a junction type requires knowledge of traffic demand, intersection performance and
accident prediction. It is often difficult to determine the best intersection type for any particular
situation, taking into account capacity, delay, safety and physical layout factors. Several
alternatives may be possible at a junction. A guide for the selection of junction type based on
different combinations of traffic flows is shown in Figure 11.2. For lower volume junctions, the
applicable junction type depending on traffic flow is shown in further detail in Figure 11.3.
The basic advantages and disadvantages of different junction types, including grade separation,
are as follows:
Priority (T-Junction, Cross-Junction). For low flows. These can cause long delays. They require
sufficient stopping sight distance. Delays can be improved by signal installation.
Roundabouts. These are best for low to medium flows. They provide for minimum delays at lower
flows. They have been shown to be safer than priority junctions. They require
attention to pedestrian movements and the accommodation of slow-moving traffic.
Grade-Separation. This is only for high flows because they are expensive but they result in
minimum delays. Pedestrian movements also need special consideration.
These options are discussed in more detail below.

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Figure 11-2: Junction Selection Based on Traffic Flows

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Figure 11-3: T-Junction Selection for Various Major and Minor Road Traffic Flows

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