M.E.

S INDIAN SCHOOL (MESIS)

ABU HAMOUR BRANCH, DOHA – QATAR
NOTES [2024-2025]
Class & Div. : XII B Subject : Computer Science
Lesson / Topic : 9. Computer Networks Date : 10/10/2024
=====================================================================================================

Ref. No: CS-N-09

Computer Network :
A computer network is a set of nodes like computers and networking devices that are
connected through communication for the purpose of communication and sharing resources
(hardware/software) among the users.

Benefits / Uses of computer network :

 Facilitate communication through email / video conferencing /instant messaging or any other
mode.
 Share hardware devices like a printer or scanner
 Enable file sharing
 Share software or operating programs
 Share information

Disadvantages of computer network :

 Lack of robustness
 Security issue
 High cost of network

Evolution of networking

ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency NETwork) :

In 1969, The US govt. formed an agency named ARPANET to connect computers at various
universities and defense agencies. The main objective of ARPANET was to develop a network that
could continue to function efficiently even in the event of a nuclear attack.
The National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET) was a program of coordinated, evolving
projects sponsored by the National Science Foundation (NSF) from 1985 to 1995 to promote
advanced research and education networking in the United States.

Internet (INTERconnection NETwork) :

The Internet is a worldwide network of computer networks. It is not owned by anybody. The
internet has evolved from ARPANET. The internet is a globally connected network system that utilizes
TCP/IP to transmit information.

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 Following services are instantly available through internet : Email, Web-enabled audio / video
conferencing services, Online movies and gaming, Data transfer/file-sharing, Instant messaging,
Internet forums, Social networking, Online shopping, Financial services.

Interspace :
Interspace is a client/server software program that allows multiple users to communicate
online with real –time audio, video and text chat in dynamic 3D environments.

Data Communication Terminologies :

Communication means the means of sending or receiving information, such as phone lines or
computers.
Components of communications sender, receiver, message, communication media, protocols.

Communication Channel (Transmission media):

A communication channel is either a physical transmission medium such as a wire, or to a
logical connection over a multiplexed medium such as a radio channel in telecommunications and
computer networking.

Bandwidth :
The amount of data that can be transferred from one point to another.it is a measure of the
range of frequencies a transmitted signal occupies. In digital systems, bandwidth is the data speed in
bits per second. In analog systems, bandwidth is measured in terms of the difference between the
highest-frequency signal component and the lowest-frequency signal component. Bandwidth is
expressed in Hz, KHz, and MHz. The hertz (symbol: Hz) is the derived unit of frequency in the
International System of Units (SI) and is defined as one cycle per second. It is named after Heinrich
Rudolf Hertz. Hertz are commonly expressed in multiples: kilohertz (103 Hz, kHz), megahertz (106 Hz,
MHz), gigahertz (109 Hz, GHz)

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Data transfer rate :
DTR is the amount of data in digital form that is moved from one place to another in a given
time on a network. Data rates are often measured in megabits (million bits) or megabytes
(millionbytes) per second.
bps bits per second Bps bytes per second
Kbps kilobits per second KBps kilo bytes per second
Mbps megabits per second MBps megabytes per second
Gbps giga bits per second GBps giga bytes per second
Tbps tera bits per second TBps tera bytes per second

Transmission media

Wired Networks :
It is also known as Ethernet networks, that is most common type of LAN technology. A wired
network is simply a collection of two or more computers, printers, and other devices linked by
Ethernet cables / any form of wired media. Ethernet is the fastest wired network protocol, with
connection speeds of 10 megabits per second (Mbps) to 100 Mbps or higher. Computer must have an
Ethernet adapter (sometimes called a network interface card, or NIC) to connect with wire. Most of
the network topology uses wired networks.

Cable Twisted pair Coaxial cable Fiber optic

Signal form Electricity Electricity Light

Cost Least Moderate High

Speed Low Moderate High

Professional Professional
Ease of use Easy to install
installation installation
Reliability Low Moderate High
Real life Telephone Data transmission
TV cable
application network & telephone line
Data transmission
10Mbps – bps 100Mbps >100Gbps
rate
Data transfer
100m 185m - 500m -
range

image

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Wireless Networks :
It uses high-frequency radio waves rather than wires to communicate. Wireless allows for
devices to be shared without networking cable which increases mobility but decreases range.

Infrared Wave Transmission :

 Short Range Communication : Infrared waves can travel from a few centimetres to several
meters. (Approx. 5m ).
 Line of Sight Propagation : Infrared uses point to point communication, both transmitter and
receiver should be placed in line of sight of each other and there should not be any obstacle in
between.
 Cannot Penetrate Solid object.
 It is Inexpensive mode of Communication.
 Secure : At a time only two devices can communicate therefore information passed to one device
is not leaked to another device.

Radio Wave Transmission :

 Long Range Communication : Radio waves can cover distances ranging from a few meters (in
walkie - talkies) up to covering an entire city.
 Omnidirectional: Radio waves are propagated in all directions. Therefore sending and receiving
antennas do not have to be aligned.
 Penetrates Solid Objects.
 Inexpensive mode of communication.
 Radio wave communication is insecure communication.

Microwave radio :
 It is a form of radio transmission that use Ultra-high frequencies.
 It is a point-to-point, rather than a broadcast, transmission system.
 Additionally, each antenna must be within line of sight of the next antenna.
 Frequency Bands Maximum Antenna Separation Analog / Digital 4-6 GHz 32-48 km Analog 10-12
GHz 16-24 km Digital 18-23 GHz 8-11 km Digital.

Satellite Communication :
 It provide worldwide coverage independent to population density.
 Satellite communication Systems offer telecommunication (Satellite Phones), positioning and
navigation (GPS), broadcasting, internet, Mobile, TV, etc.
 It support Very Long Range Communication with Line of Sight Propagation.
 It Cannot Penetrate Solid Objects.
 It is Very Expensive communication mode.

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Network devices :
Computer hardware devices which are used to connect computers, printers, or any other
electronic device to a computer network are called network devices. These devices transfer data in a
fast, secure and correct way with some specific functionality over same or different networks.
Some devices are installed on the device, like Internal modem, NIC card or RJ45 connector,
whereas some are part of the network, like router, switch, etc.,

NIC (Network Interface Card_:

 This is at top among other networking devices and mostly used networking device.
 This is also known as Network adapter card, Ethernet Card and LAN card.
 It allows our PC to communicate with other PCs.
 A PC uses parallel data transmission to transmit data between its internal parts whereas the
media that connects this PC with other device / PCs uses serial data transmission.
 A NIC converts parallel data stream into serial data stream and vice versa.

RJ-45 (Registered Jack – 45) :

It is an eight wired connector that is used to connect computers on a local area network (LAN),
especially Ethernet.

HUB :

 HUB is used to connect multiple computers in a single LAN network of one workgroup.
 Generally HUBs are available with 4, 8, 12, 24, 48 ports.
 When a hub receives signal on its port, it repeats the signal and forwards that signal from all ports
except the port on which the signal arrived.
 In below diagram leftmost node try to send signal to rightmost node, but signals are distributed
to all ports (nodes).

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Types of HUB :

There are two types of HUB. They are :

Passive HUB :
It only forwards the signal on all ports without amplifying the signal.
Active HUB :
It forwards the signal with improvement in the quality of data signal by amplifying it. That why
such hubs need additional power supply.

Based on port type, there are two types of HUB :

Ethernet HUB :
All ports have RJ-45 connectors.
Combo HUB :
Several different types of connectors such RJ-45, BNC, and AUI available as ports in such HUB.

SWITCH :
 Switch is also used to connect multiple computers together in a LAN workgroup, just like hub.
 Switches are available with 4, 8, 12, 24, 48, 64 ports.
 Switch makes their switching decisions by using application specific integrated circuits (ASICs).
 Due to switching decision capability, switch sends signal to recipient only and that’s why switches
are called as intelligent hub.
 In below diagram leftmost node sending signal to rightmost node.

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Modem :
 Modem is short for Modulator Demodulator.
 It’s an electronic device used to access the Internet that modulates carrier waves to encode
information to be transmitted and also demodulates incoming carrier waves to decode the
information they carry.
 Modulation means digital to analog signal conversion and its vice versa is known as demodulation.

Repeater :
 In a network signal travels a long distance in transmission media.
 Due to resistance of media signal becomes weak.
 Repeater is a networking device which regenerates the signal and forwards these signal with more
power.

Router :
 Routers operate in the physical, data link and network layers.
 Router is a networking device which chooses the best optimal path from available pats to send the
signals.
 It interconnects different networks.
 The simplest function of a router is to received packets from one connected network and pass
them to second connected network.

Gateway :
 A networking device capable to convert protocols so that two different network architecture based
system can communicate with each other.
 It works as protocol converter.

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Hub Vs. Switch :
 A hub works on the physical layer (Layer 1) of OSI model while Switch works on the data link layer
(Layer 2).
 Switch is more efficient than the hub.
 A switch can join multiple computers within one LAN, and a hub just connects multiple Ethernet
devices together as a single segment.
 Switch is smarter than hub to determine the target of the forwarding data.
 Since switch has a higher performance, its cost will also become more expensive.

Switch Vs. Router :

 In the OSI model, router is working on a higher level of network layer (Layer 3) than switch.
 Router is very different from the switch because it is for routing packet to other networks.
 It is also more intelligent and sophisticated to serve as an intermediate destination to connect
multiple area networks together.
 A switch is only used for wired network, yet a router can also link with the wireless network.
 With much more functions, a router definitely costs higher than a switch.

Router vs Gateway :
 Gateway regulates traffic between two dissimilar networks, while router regulator traffic
between similar networks.
 A router is a hardware device that forwards data packets between computer networks.
 Routers perform the traffic directing functions on the Internet.

Connection In One Network With Router :

For example, there are 30 computers connected inside Network A. All these computers
communicate with each other. In this situation, no gateway is needed. Because a router with a
routing table that defines the hops within those 30 computers is enough.

Connection Between Different Networks With Gateway :

In another hand, we suppose that there are two networks, that are Network A and Network B.
Computer X from Network A wants to send data to Computer Y from Network B, then there need to
have both a Gateway A and a Gateway B so that the two networks will be able to communicate.

Wi-Fi cards :
 Wi-Fi cards are small and portable cards that allow your computer to connect to the internet
through a wireless network.
 Wi-Fi transmission is through the radio waves, these signals are picked up by Wi-Fi receivers such
as computers and cell phones equipped with Wi-Fi cards.
 The devices need to be within the range of a Wi-Fi network to receive the signals and produces a
wireless internet connection.
 Once a connection is established between user and the network, the user is prompted with a
login screen and password for establishing is a secure connection.

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 Wi-Fi cards can be external or internal.
 If a Wi-Fi card is not installed inside your computer, you may purchase an external USB antenna
attachment and connect it to your device.
 Many computers and mobile devices are nowadays equipped with wireless networking capability
and do not require a Wi-Fi card.

Structure of a network
The geometrical arrangement of computer resources, network devices along with
communication channel is known as Network structure or Network topology.
Topology can be physical or logical.
 Physical Topology - physical layout of nodes and cables in the network.
 Logical topology - the way information flows between different components.

Types of Physical Network Topologies :

 Bus or Linear Topology
 Star Topology
 Ring Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Tree Topology
 Hybrid Topology
 Fully Connected

Bus or Linear Topology :

Nodes are connected through a common communication media like diagram given below.

Advantages of a Bus topology :

 Easy to install
 Minimal Cable
Disadvantages of a Bus topology :
 Difficult reconnection
 Difficult to find the problem
 Difficult to add new devices
 Break stops all transmission of data

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Star Topology :
The star topology uses a separate cable for each node / workstation. The cable connects the
node to a central device typically a HUB.

Advantages of a Star topology :

 Less expensive than mesh.
 Easy to install, easy to configure.
 If one link fails the network can still function.

Disadvantages of a Star topology :

 Everything depends on the hub.

Ring Topology :
Ring topology is a type of network configuration in which each device on the network is
connected to two other devices, forming a “ring.” Data travels around the ring in one direction only,
from device to device, until it reaches its destination.

Advantages of ring topology :

 Short cable length.
 No wiring closet space required.
 Suitable for optical fibres.
 It provides alternative round.
 Cheap to install and extend.
 Each computer has equal access to resources.
 Additional components do not affect the performance of a network.

Disadvantages of Ring topology :

 Node failure causes network failure.
 Difficult to diagnose faults.

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 Network reconfiguration is difficult.
 It is slower in performance as compared to the bus topology.
 It is Expensive.

Mesh Topology :
Mesh technology is a network configuration in which computers are linked to one another by
numerous redundant connections. There are numerous methods for transferring from one computer
to another. It lacks a switch, hub, or any other central computer that acts as a communication hub.

Advantages of a Mesh topology :

 It is scalable.
 Easier fault identification and isolation.

Disadvantages of a Mesh topology :

 Maintenance of the network may be an issue when the network spans a great area.
 If the backbone fails, the entire network is crippled.

Tree Topology :
In which a central root node (the top level of the hierarchy) is connected to one or more other
nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy.

Advantages of a Tree topology :

 It uses point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
 It is supported by several hardware and software vanders.

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Disadvantages of a Tree topology :
 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 It is more difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

Fully Connected :
When in a network each host is connected to other directly i.e., there is a direct link between
each host, then the network is said to be fully connected. This characteristic is termed as fully
connectivity.

Factors to consider for Network selection :

1. Cruciality of work
2. Cost
3. Length of cable needed
4. Future growth
5. Communication media

Types of network :
1. Personal Area Network (PAN) – communication between two-three mobile devices or PC for
personal purpose.
2. Local Area Network (LAN) – limited area (within building).
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) – within city.
4. Wide Area Network (WAN) – within multiple city/state/countries.

1. Personal Area Network (PAN) :

 Spread in the proximity of an individual.
 Cover an area of a few meters radius.
 Set up using guided media (USB cable) or unguided media (Bluetooth, Infrared).
 Owned, controlled, and managed by a single person.
Examples : A network of devices such as computer, Phone, MP3/MP4 Player, Camera etc.
Transferring songs from one cell phone to another is a PAN of two phones.
Transferring files from a PC to an MP3 player is a PAN between the two.

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2. Local Area Network (LAN) :
 LANs are the most frequently used / discussed networks.
 It is one of the most common one of the simplest types of network.
 It is designed for small physical areas such as an office, group of buildings.
 Any of different types of topologies can be used to design LAN like Star, Ring, Bus, Tree etc.
Examples : A networked office building, school or home.
Sometimes one building can contain a few small LANs (like some schools have
independent LANs in each computer lab).
Characteristics of LAN :
 Private networks means no need of regulatory control.
 Operate at relatively high speed.
 Ethernet, Token ring, etc., type media access controls are used.
 Connects computers in a single building, block or campus.

Advantages of LAN :
 Resource Sharing
 Software Applications Sharing
 Easy and Cheap Communication
 Centralized Data
 Data Security
 Internet Sharing

Disadvantages of LAN :
 High Setup Cost
 Privacy Violations
 Data Security Threat
 LAN Maintenance Job
 Covers Limited Area

3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) :

 Spread within a city.
 Cover an area of a few kilometres to a few hundred kilometres radius.
 Set up using all types of all guided and unguided media.
 Owned and operated by a government body or a large corporation.
Examples : A network of schools, or banks, or Government offices etc. within a city.
A MAN is usually formed by interconnecting a number of LANs and individual computers.

4. Wide Area Network (WAN) :

 Slightly more complex than a LAN, a WAN connects computers across longer physical
distances.
 The Internet is the most basic example of a WAN, connecting all computers together around
the world.
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  Because of a WAN’s vast reach, it is typically owned and maintained by any single person or
owner.
Examples : A network of ATMs, BANKs, National Government Offices, International Organizations'
Offices etc., spread over a country, continent, or covering many continents.

Characteristics of WAN :
 Covers large distances (states, countries, continents).
 Communication medium like satellite, public telephone networks etc., and routers are used
establish connection.

Advantages of WAN :
 Long distance business can connect on the one network.
 Shares software and resources.
 Messages can be sent very quickly to wide range of nodes.
 Hardware devices can be shared.

Disadvantages of WAN :
 Need a good firewall to restrict unauthorized access.
 Setting up a network can be an expensive, slow and complicated.
 Maintaining a network is a full-time job.
 Security is a major issue when many different people have the ability to use information.

Network Layout :
The plan or design or arrangement of network wings and nodes to be laid out is known as
network layout.
A good network layout provides the following features :
 Communication speed
 File sharing
 Back up and Roll back is easy
 Software and Hardware sharing
 Security
 Scalability
 Reliability

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How to decide Network Layout :
The network layout can be best which provide less installation and maintenance cost as well as
easy installation and maintenance. It is only possible when it is properly designed, design with
shortest cable length and fulfill our network requirements.

Example :
Freya Tech Corporation (FTC) is a professional consultancy company. The company is planning
to set up their new offices in India with its hub at Udaipur. As a network adviser, you have to
understand their requirement and suggest them the best network layout.

Possible Bus topologies :

a) Human Resource  Conference  Finance = 110 + 80 = 190m
b) Conference  Finance  Human Resource = 90 + 40 = 120m
c) Finance  Human Resource  Conference = 40 + 110 = 150m
d) All can be arranged in round robin manner.
e) Ring topology will be discarded as it will increase the cable length.

Possible Star topologies :

a) Human Resource
110 + 40 = 150m
Conference Finance

b) Finance
80 + 40 = 120m

Conference Human Resource

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c) Conference
80 + 110 = 190m
Finance Human Resource

Here best layout is b) finance to conference and finance to Human Resource as it require
minimum cable length.

How to decide Server location - Example :

 Server location can be decided by seeing the number of computers / nodes required in each
block of network.
 Server must be installed at the wing / block with Maximum number of Computers due to
maximum load / requirement of services in that block in whole network.
 So in above example Server can be installed at Finance block.

How to decide Repeater location :

 We need a repeater when the total length of a single span of network cable (Twisted pair)
exceeds 100 meters (328 feet).
 We need a repeater when the total length of a single span of network cable (Coaxial cable)
exceeds 500 meters.
 Maximum distance of a fiber optic link can be 80-100 km but it depends on varying factors like
the bit rate and the quality of the splices and the total attenuation of distance.
 It also depends on the power of the transmitter and receiver quality.
 Satellite link is required when network blocks / wings are too much far from each other or
where installation of cable is hard.
 For data security firewall can be installed in network.
 For economic internet connection – dialup internet connection would be preferred but for
faster internet broadband internet connection would be preferred.

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How to decide hub/switch location :

 The answer is always switch when we can afford it.

 A Hub is always half-duplex, and simply acts as a repeater.
 The resulting packet collisions, even with only 2 devices, will make it slower than simply using a
cable, whereas a switch intelligently directs traffic based on the Ethernet address (MAC
address), and is full duplex, resulting in full speed between any devices on the network at the
same time.
 In general sense Hub or switch any device can be installed when there are more than one
computer in a wing / block.

*********

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