SEMICONDUCTOR TWO TERMINAL

DEVICES-8

PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
OR
SOLAR CELL

CLASS NOTES -COMPILED BY: ANITA VISHEN

 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
OR
SOLAR CELL
A Solar Cell (also known as photovoltaic cell ) is an electrical device that converts
light energy into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect. A solar cell is
basically a p-n junction diode or we can have other types of diodes like Schottky
Barrier or MOS cells etc. Solar cells are a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a
device whose electrical characteristics – such as current, Voltage, or Resistance
vary when exposed to light.
This device differs from other types of optoelectronic devices in that there is a direct
conversion from radiant to electrical energy within it.
P-N JUNCTION SOLAR CELLS
Solar cells are large area silicon devices whose spectral response is arranged to match that
of the Sun’s radiation.
They consist of a thin layer (up to 1𝝁 𝒎) 𝒐𝒇 𝒏 𝒕𝒚𝒑𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒐𝒏 𝒂 𝒑 𝒕𝒚𝒑𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆. At high
illumination levels an individual solar cell may generate an open-circuit voltage of up to 0.5
or 0.6 V.
 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
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SOLAR CELL
Operational efficiencies of about 15 % are obtainable, and cells can be connected in
series to give an increased output voltage or in parallel to give a higher current.
Individual solar cells can thus be combined to form modules commonly known as
solar panels. As stated earlier, the common single junction silicon solar cell can
produce a maximum open-circuit voltage of approximately 0.5 to 0.6 volts. By itself this
isn’t much. But when combined into a large solar panel, considerable amounts of
renewable energy can be generated.
CONSTRUCTION OF SOLAR CELL
A solar cell is basically a junction diode, although its construction is little bit different from
conventional p-n junction diodes. A very thin layer of either n-type semiconductor is grown
on a relatively thicker p- type semiconductor or vice versa. We then add a few finer
electrodes on the top of the n-type semiconductor layer. These electrodes are such that they
do not obstruct the light to reach the thin n-type layer. Just below the n-type layer there is a
p-n junction.
 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
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SOLAR CELL

n-type

P-type

Fig. 1
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SOLAR CELL

Anti Reflection Coating

Incident Light

1/4𝝁 𝒎

Solar Cell 0.5 𝝁 𝒎 n-type

1 cm P-type Si

Fig. 2
Back Contact

Fig. 3 Side View

 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
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SOLAR CELL
A current collecting electrode is also provided at the bottom of the p-type layer. This is
the back contact. The entire assembly is encapsulated in thin glass to protect the solar
cell from any mechanical shock.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF SOLAR CELL

When light reaches the p-n junction, the photons can easily enter the junction, through
very thin n-type layer. The light energy, in the form of photons, supplies sufficient energy
to the junction to create a number of electron-hole pairs. The incident light breaks the
thermal equilibrium condition of the junction.
Some of the absorbed photons will have energy greater than the energy gap between
valence band and conduction band in the semiconductor crystal. Hence, one valence
electron gets energy from one photon and becomes excited and jumps out from the
bond and creates one electron-hole pair. These electrons and holes of e-h pairs are
called light-generated electrons and holes.
 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
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SOLAR CELL

The light-generated electrons near the p-n junction are migrated to n-type side of the
junction due to electrostatic force of the field across the junction. Similarly, the light-
generated holes created near the junction are migrated to p-type side of the junction due
to same electrostatic force. In this way a potential difference is established between two
sides of the cell and if these two sides are connected by an external circuit current will
start flowing from positive to negative terminal of the solar cell. This is the basic working
principle of a solar cell. Next important discussion will be about the different
parameters of a solar or photovoltaic cell upon which the rating of a solar panel depends.
During choosing a particular solar cell for specific project it is essential to know the
ratings of a solar panel. These parameters tell us how efficiently a solar cell can convert
the light to electricity.
 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
OR
SOLAR CELL

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL

Fig. 4
 V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF A PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL

Fig. 5 (a)
V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF A PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL

Anode Zero
Current Illumination
Increasing Illumination

B
Anode
Voltage

Photo Diode quadrant

Fig. 5 (b)
 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
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SOLAR CELL
From the characteristic curves shown above we can see that at point A
on the curves, anode voltage is zero and the current flow is entirely
due to leakage current. This corresponds to the condition when the cell
is short circuited. The application of a small forward bias reduces the
height of the potential barrier, so that a few majority charge carriers
can cross the junction. The net result is a reduction in the reverse
current and at point B the anode current is zero. The cell is then open
circuited. The transition from A to B is brought about merely by
increasing the value of the external load resistance connected to the
cell from zero to infinity.
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SOLAR CELL
ANALYSIS
SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT : Let us first consider the short circuit current of
the cell. This is denoted by Isc
We know that Isc =Ip
The total current will be given by
I = Ip -Io [exp(qV/KT) –1]
If we put I=0,
Ip =Io [exp(qV/KT) –1]
Or we can have
exp(qV/KT) = (Ip / Io +1)
Therefore V will be given by
V=KT/q ln (1+Ip / Io )
 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
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SOLAR CELL
OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE OF SOLAR CELL
It is obtained by measuring voltage across the terminals of the cell when no load is
connected to the cell. This voltage depends upon the techniques of manufacturing and
temperature and not only on the intensity of light and area of exposed surface. Normally
open circuit voltage of solar cell nearly equals 0.5 to 0.6 volt. It is denoted by Voc.
Therefore Voc=V=KT/q ln (1+Ip / Io )
Thus for a good response, the dark current should be small.
For very low light levels, Ip ≪ Io and Voc ≈KT/q . Ip / Io ≈ Ip . Ro
Where Ro =KT/q Io
This is the internal diode resistance for zero bias. The device then operates in it’s linear
region.
For higher levels, , Ip ≫ Io and the response will, therefore, be logarithmic.
i.e. Voc = KT/q ln (Ip / Io )
 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
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SOLAR CELL

The junction must lie very close to the surface and the surface region must
be very thin. This condition is satisfied best for a Schottky-barrier photo
diode with a transparent metal electrode.
The curve passes through the 4th quadrant and the power can be extracted
from the device.

MAXIMUM POWER POINT OF SOLAR CELL

The maximum electrical power one solar cell can deliver at its standard test
condition. If we draw the V-I characteristics of a solar cell maximum power
will occur at the bend point of the characteristic curve. It is shown in the V-I
characteristics of solar cell by Pmax as shown in Fig 6. The rectangle
represented by the product ImaxVmax is called the maximum power rectangle.
 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
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SOLAR CELL

Pmax

Fig. 6(a)
Fig. 6 (b) Inverted Voltage axis
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SOLAR CELL
CURRENT AT MAXIMUM POWER POINT
This is the current at which maximum power occurs. Current at Maximum Power Point
is shown in the V-I characteristics of solar cell by Imax.(Fig.7)
VOLTAGE AT MAXIMUM POWER POINT
This is the voltage at which maximum power occurs. Voltage at Maximum Power Point
is shown in the V-I characteristics of solar cell by Vmax. (Fig.7)
FILL FACTOR OF SOLAR CELL
The FF is the ratio between product of current and voltage at maximum power point to
the product of short circuit current and open circuit voltage of the solar cell.
FF=Imax Vmax / Isc Voc
Ideally maximum value of FF should be equal to 1, when
Imax= Isc and Voc= Vmax, which is not possible.
 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
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SOLAR CELL

FF=Imax Vmax / Isc Voc

Imax Pmax
Vmax

Imax

Vmax
Fig.7
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SOLAR CELL

EFFICIENCY OF SOLAR CELL

It is defined as the ratio of maximum electrical power output to the
radiation power input to the cell and it is expressed in percentage. It is
considered that the radiation power on the earth is about 1000
watt/square meter. If the exposed surface area of the cell is A then total
radiation power on the cell will be 1000 A watts. Hence the efficiency of
a solar cell may be expressed as
η = Imax Vmax / Pin = FF Isc Voc / Pin
To maximize the efficiency, we have to maximize all the three items in
the numerator.
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SOLAR CELL
CRITERIA FOR MATERIALS TO BE USED IN SOLAR CELL
➢ Must have band gap from 1ev to 1.8ev.
➢ It must have high optical absorption.
➢ It must have high electrical conductivity.
➢ The raw material must be available in abundance and the cost of the
material must be low.
ADVANTAGES OF SOLAR CELL
➢ No pollution associated with it.
➢ It is a long lasting device.
DISADVANTAGES OF SOLAR CELL
➢ It has high cost of installation.
➢ It has low efficiency.
➢ During cloudy days and at night, the energy cannot be produced as the Solar
Energy is not available around these times
 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
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SOLAR CELL

APPLICATIONS
Applications include expensive meters, punched tape and punched card readers and
aerospace applications. They furnish the most important long duration power supply for
Satellite and space vehicles. Also used as an alternative energy source.
CONCLUSIONS
Though solar cell has some disadvantages associated it, but we are expected to
overcome the disadvantages with the advances made in the technology. With advancing
technology , the cost of solar plates (panels), as well as the installation cost, would come
down so that this alternative source of energy falls within everybody’s reach.
Furthermore, with emphasis on using Solar energy as an alternative source, the
government initiatives may lead us to a situation where we expect that every household
and also every electrical system would be powered by solar or the renewable energy
source.
SOLAR PANELS FOR POWER GENERATION