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DOCKET FOR
ERA(S)-IV ‘Q’ COURSE
DOCKYARD SPECIAL ENTRY SAILORS

TRADE: CARPENTRY
SUB: CARPENTRY, GRP AND BOAT BUILDING

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CONTENT

Chapter Topics Period Page

1 Introduction to carpentry works. 1

2 Joints and Fastening. 7

3 Wood Working Machinery. 15

4 Boat Works. 25

5 Maintenance of GRP Boats. 33

6 Wood Working Materials. 53

7 Hand Tools. 59

8 Seasoning of wood Works. 61

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CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION TO CARPENTRY WORKS

0100. All About Wood: Wood is among the most versatile building materials in
the world. Besides its inherent beauty, wood has a much higher ratio of
strength to stiffness than iron, steel, or concrete. With your hands and some
tools, you can form wood to create anything that your mind can conceive. But,
before you can start down the road to calling yourself a carpenter, you need to
know a few things about the material with which you'll be working.
Understanding wood will make it easier for you to work with it, and will give
you better results when finished.

Wood has several properties that you need to be aware of. First, there is a
certain amount of moisture in all wood. Since wood is porous, it will absorb
additional moisture, given a chance. As wood adds or sheds moisture, its
dimensions will change. As a result, the wood will push towards or pull away
from where it is attached.

Second, as the sun or other heat sources evaporate the moisture in wood, the
wood has a tendency to warp, buckle, or cup – all terms for the uneven way in
which wood can twist as the moisture is dried from it. To help keep this from
happening, store wood out of the sun and away from other sources of heat,
until it is used and fastened into place. You should alsoprevent it from
absorbing as much moisture as is practical. It's as bad to lay wood directly on
the ground or leave it out in the rain as it is to expose it to the direct sun. As
little as one day under any one of these extremes can be enough to
permanently affect the wood – and often make it unusable.

There are several ways to minimize the chances that a piece of wood will
warp, split or chip:

1. As you look at the end of a board, you will notice a series of rings. These
are the growth rings of the tree from which the board was cut(see illustration).
If you nail the board in place with the rings pointing down, the board will be
less likely to cup.

2. Nailing close to the end of a board tends to split it. You can usually avoid
this by turning the nail over and blunting its end with a hammer.

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3. When cutting a board, put the side that you intend to see down, and cut
from the back of the board. That way, the board will not chip or splinter along
its face as much.
4. Where it is important to maintain a tight joint without a gap between pieces
of molding or other wood, use some white glue on the edges to be joined.

5. And finally, seal wood with paint, sealer, or varnish where applicable, to
help stabilize its moisture content and maintain its dimensions, regardless of
the environment.

For some carpentry projects, you may use plywood – a versatile form of wood
made by gluing several thinner layers (“plies”) of wood together. The direction
of the wood grain alternates in each layer, resulting in a sheet of wood
(usually 4’ by 8’ standard) that is resistant to splitting when nailed through.
Plywood comes in varying thicknesses, from 1/8” to 1”. Although there are
probably a hundred or more types, you will most likely use the three or four
most common to a home. The basic differences are:

1. The number of layers that make up a sheet. 1/2”-thick plywood can be

made of 3 to 5
layers, and still be 1/2” thick. The more layers used, the stronger the sheet
produced,
and the less likely it is to warp.

2. The glue used. Plywood is designated “exterior” or “interior,” depending on

the glue that bonds the layers together. Use exterior plywood inside in high-
moisture or water-prone areas, to prevent the layers from ungluing
("delaminating").

3. Rough or smooth finish. Each side of the plywood can be rough or smooth,
so you can have any combination: two smooth sides, two rough sides, or a
rough and a smooth. The price goes up with the number of layers and with the
quality of smoothness.Making wood work for you depends on your ability to
cut it accurately. To do that, you have to be able to mark and measure it
accurately. The basic unit for measurement in woodworking is one inch,
usually divided into 16ths. It is important that you feel comfortable using the
divisions of your ruler (see Illustration below), because these relate directly to
the finished quality of your job. Practice makes perfect here.You will also need
to understand which tools work best, for which projects. A radial saw, a table
saw, a circular saw, a saber saw, and a hand saw will all cut wood – but each
one is designed to be used at a certain time, and knowing which tool to use
for your particular situation will give you the best results. Most of this
knowledge of tool use comes from experience. So, you need to
practice,starting on small projects and working your way up. Soon you will be
proud to call yourself a carpenter.

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0101. Bench work: The woodworking bench is constructed of timber
and the top usually includes a well running the whole length so that off-cuts
and tools can be set aside without interfering with the working face of the
bench.

'Stops' are provided as shown against which the work can be set
when planning. The stops can be raised or lowered as required for varying
thickness of wood.

The bench vice is set with the top faces of the jaws flush with
the working face of the bench, and the vice is usually fitted with a release
catch for quick setting movements.

The trestle is used as an extension support for long work

on the bench, or separately as a support for sawing away from the bench.

The cramps are used for setting two or more pieces together as in joint work.

The bench hook is used on the face of the bench as

shown, for holding the work in the flat position.

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Fig: Wood Working Bench and Equipment

0102. Hand Tool Identification:

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Fig: Basic Hand Tools

0103. Care and Maintenance of Tools:

1. Wipe or clean after every use with a clean and soft cloth to remove dirt.
2. Keep all tools in a tool room or tool rack.
3. Tools should be applied with appropriate oil to prevent them from rusting.
4. Drill tools should be sharpened properly if they are dull.
5. Tooth cutting tools should be sharpened as often as necessary.
6. Never drop tools especially precision instruments or testing tools.
7. Except hammers never use tools as hammers.
8. Never use screwdrivers as wood chisel nor cold chisel.
9. If necessary never file the soldering tip of soldering copper Wipe the with a
neat soft cloth to remove dirt.
10. Do not overheat the electric soldering iron.
11. Never use dull tools, it will cause harm to your work or yourself.
12. Always issue or lend tools with receipt.
13. Tools borrowed should be returned in good condition, otherwise it should be
replace with a new and of the same kind.

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0104. Measuring and marking tools : Measuring and marking tools are as
follows.

1. Rule.
2. Straight edge.
3. Out of winding battens.
4. Square.
5. Sliding bevel.
6. Marking gauge.
7. Marking knife.
8. Mortise gauge.
9. Compasses.

0105. Cutting bevels for hand tools : Planes - grind at 200 to 250 sharpen at 300
to 400 paring chisels - grind at 15 0 sharpen at 200 former chisels - grind at 20 0
sharpen at 250 . Mortise chisels - grind at 250 sharpen at 30.

Rule: A wooden four fold rule, two feet in length, marked in inch, with
graduation in tenths, twelfth, eighth and sixteenths.

Note: A two fold steel rule is also supplied for working in metal.

Straight edge: Uncelebrated strip used for testing flats and edge for
straightness but wooden straight edge are available and are made from
straight grained wood that does not twist, preferably yellow pine or mahogany.

Out of winding battens: These are wooden straight about 18 inch’s long
and 2 in X ½ inch. Material which are used to test the twist in a piece of
timber. They are laid one at each end across the face of the timber and then
sighted as shown in the illustration to assess the amount of twist.

Square: This is used for testing surface at right angels to each other and
for drawing square to an edge.

Sliding bevel: The tool consist of a slotted wood stock in which is fitted
a metal blade that can be adjusted to any angel. The blade has a long slot to
give him freedom for long movement and can be locked in any position by
tightening the set screw. It is used for marking and testing bevels or angels
other than right angels. The stock as is customary in all these types of tools
must be held firmly against the face or slide.

Marking Gauge: This is used to describe the line parallel to a face edge or
slide. It consists of a stock and an adjustable arm through which is pointed
marking pin. The arm is adjusted and secured to the stock at the required
setting by a threaded wooden screw. The maximum effective width for
marking is approximately six to seven inches. The tool is often made of beech
although box or ebony is sometimes used.

Marking Knife: This is a sharp-edge tool to mart required lengths or

shoulder line on timber across the grain. It is never used with grain. It has a
single bevel and is sharpened on an oilstone in similar fashion to a chisel. The
angel of approach when marking is such that only the point of the cutting edge

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does the marking with the face of the knife. Kept vertical and enclosed contact
with the square or bevel. They are normally made for the right –handed use
although in some cases a double ended knife has the returned and sharpened
for the left hand. The marking knife gives a definite fixed line and actually cuts
across the fibres of the timber. This slight incision provides a groove for a
chisel to be accurately used and is therefore applicable to work in which the
material will be cut away at the mark e.g. dovetails, tenons, etc.

Mortise Gauge: Similar in appearance to the marking gauge accept that it

has in addition to the fixed pin and adjustable pin secured to a sliding brass
strip set in flash with the face of the arm. The stop and sliding strip are each
logged in positioned by threaded set screw. This tool is used to scribed two
lines in one operation. Parallel to face site or edge for mortise and tenon
joints.

Compass: These are used for scribing circles, corners radius and
associated contour work.

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CHAPTER-2

JOINTS AND FASTENING

0200. Wood Joint (L¡Wl ®S¡s¡): Every place that two separate pieces of wood
meet each other is considered to be a joint. Joints may be as simple as one
end of a piece of wood placed on another or they may be as elaborate
(pÇfÐp¡¢la) as several interlocking slots. Joint can be designed to hold
without the use of glue or fasteners; a pined mortise and tennon is an
example of this.

Purpose (EŸnÉ): One of the most important features of woodwork is the

fitting of timber in such a manner that the completed structure may have the
greatest possible strength and be as little liable (c¡u£) to shrinkage (pw-
L¡Qe) as the nature of the materials permit. When the connection is effected
entirely (pÇf§eÑ i¡h) by means of the timbers, it is called a joint.

0201. Types of Joint (S¡s¡l dle): The types of joint used vary with the
applications.There are many wood joints available to make, joints are used to
build strength into products. The joints below are the joints that are commonly
used in schools. Note only glue is used to join these joints together.

a. Halving Joint (AdÑL i¡N Ll ®S¡s¡). A Halving (AdÑL i¡N Ll¡) joint
is a wood working joint in which the two members are joined by removing
material from each at the point of intersection so that they overlap.The
halving joint is mainly used in frame work and is moderately (f¢l¢jal©f)
difficult to construct because it consist of two channels that interlock and
are bonded (®S¡l¡) together with adhesive (BW¡m¡) and some times a
nail or screw is added for extra strength.

Fig: Halving Joint

b. Lap Joint (iy¡S ®S¡s¡). This joint is only slightly stronger than the
butt joint. Lap joint is one of the many joints used to joint two pieces of
wood together. Lap joint can be used to build drawers, Desks and
Dressers. They can also be used for building a cabinet or side board face.
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This type of joint is done by overlapping the wood and fastening them
together. They are made in Two categories-

(1) The Full .

(2) The Half.

Fig: Lap Joint

c. Housing Joints (q¡E¢Sw ®S¡s¡). The housing joint has a trench (f

¢lM¡) cut into the face of one member to take the end of another member.
Housing joint is used for-Fixing shelves in cabinets, Partitions in
cupboards, Building frames and Treads on ladder.

Fig: Housing joints

d. Miter Joint (f¡N¢s ®S¡s¡). Miter joints are often used to produce the
corners of picture frames and boxes. The miter needs to be cut at a 45
degree angle, this is often used with a miter saw that can cut at many
different angles. It is used for doors, window making, picture frame,
cabinets and pattern making.

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Fig: Miter Joint

e. Mortise and Tenon (My¡S L¡V¡ Hhw L¡Wl Mä ®S¡s¡ m¡N¡e¡).

This is a very strong joint. The joint is split (¢hiš² Ll¡) into two parts
one part is the tenon (L¡Wl Mä S¤¢su¡ ®cJu¡) named after the tenon
saw, the other part is the mortise which is named after the mortise chisel.
Within industry the joint is milled (Q§eÑ Ll¡) using a milling machine.

Fig: Mortise and Tenon

f. Dowel Joint (L£mL ®S¡s¡): This joint is quite (f¤l¡f¤¢l) easy to

make, it consists (N¢Wa) of drilling accurate holes in both sections of
wood and joining them with dowel pegs. Within in industry this is often
used to construct (NWe Ll¡) flat pack furniture.

Fig: Dowel Joint

g. Butt Joint (h¡V ®S¡s¡). A very simple joint but it is also very weak.
They tend to be used for making picture frames, corner pieces and nails
(®flL) are often used to strengthen (n¢š²n¡m£) the joint.

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Fig: Butt Joint

h. Finger Joint (B‰¥m ®S¡s¡). This is the strongest joint on this

page, the only joint that is stronger is the dovetail (M¡S M¡S BVL¡e¡) joint.
The finger joint can be difficult to make but looks very good. It has a lot of
surface area to glue together.

Fig: Finger Joint

0202. Fastening (håe). Fastening means to attach ( Something) or joint (Two

parts of something) especially by using a pin, nail etc.

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Fig: Basic Fastener

0203. Screw And Nails:

Classification (®nÐe£¢hi¡N). Screw is classified by length and gauge as

indicated (¢e¢cÑø) in fig. The gauge is the diameter of the shank irrespective
(¢elfr¡) of length , e.g. a 1 inch -9 gauge screw will be the same diameter and
size of head as a 2 inch -9 gauge screw. Gauges range from 0000 to 50 and
those from 4up to 12 are most commonly used. The gauge of a screw cab be
ascertained (¢edÑ¡¢la) as follows (diameter in sixteenths of the head x 2) –
2 = gauge size.

Types. The types most commonly used are:

a. Countersunk head
b. Round head
c. Raised head.

Hexagon (osi¥S) head screws (known as coach screws) are available in the

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larger sizes.

Fig: Types of Screw

Fig: Screws and Nails

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CHAPTER-3

WOOD WORKING MACHINERY

0300. Basic construction (®j±¢mL ¢ejÑ¡e): This

machine is fitted in the major warships, and is usually the only power machine in the
woodworking shop except for the powered hand tools. The machine consists
basically of a planning machine and circular saw set side by side on a common
base, with the driving motor mounted (ÙÛ¡¢fa) above, incorporating (HL¢hÐa Ll¡)
a transverse overhead spindle for cross-cutting, etc.
0301. Planning table (®fÔ¢ew ®V¢hm): The planning table is in two sections,
the 'front' table and the 'back' table, with a transverse 'gap' between them.
each table can be set independently for height to vary the depth of the
planning cut. the planning cutter, consists of a cylindrical metal cutter block
mounted on a high speed transverse spindle, and is .set to rotate in the gap
just below the level of the back table, two knives are fitted in the cutter block,
one in each groove, with the cutting edge facing the direction of rotation. the
knives are firmly located by securing bolts, and the 'height' of each planning
knife is set by touching' on to a batten held down flat on the back table. the
cutter block, is moved slowly by hand, and the knife is adjusted until it moves
the batten forward the same amount on both sides. for work on the planning
table the overhead slide is positioned so that the motor drives the cutter block
only, with the saw and overhead spindle belts 'cast off'. for planning and
'surfacing, the work is progressed along the table against the direction of
rotation of the cutter block from the front table to the back table, with the
holding springs set to keep the work in contact. the front table is adjusted for
the depth of cut required.

Rebating (qÊ¡p Ll¡) and molding on the planning table fig. 17(2). the work
can be set over the edge of the table as shown so that a shallow rebating cut
can be made progressively (L¡kÑœ²j), using the fence ,for the width setting.
(a molding cutter can be fitted in the cutter block for molding on the edge of
the Table in a similar manner to the rebating' process). Chamfering (®N¡m
Ll L¡V¡) on the planning table fig. 17(3). the fence can be angled as shown for
cutting chamfers, with the loose plate on the fence adjusted as required to
meet the table.

0302. Circular saw table (hªš¡L¡l Ll¡a ®V¢hm): For work on the circular saw
table, the
' overhead slide is turned through 1800 from the - planning position, with the
motor driving the saw spindle, and the planning cutter 'and overhead spindle
belts 'cast off'.The saw table is adjustable for height to give varying protrusion
(fÐp¡lL) of the saw blade above the table. the saw protrudes through a loose
plate which can be removed to allow the saw to be fitted to, or removed from

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the spindle. Ripping on the saw table fig. 17(4). the cut is made from right to
left as shown, with the fence, guard, and riving knife in position. thickness' can
be done by turning the work on edge, but this is a dangerous process for
planking and boarding (L¡ùgm¡L¡hªa Ll¡), and should only be used for heavy
section timber such as 4 in. x 4 in., 6 in. x 6 in.,' etc.- light 'ploughing' can be
carried out to groove heavy section timber, with the blade protrusion set to the
depth of the groove (M¡yS).

0303. Overhead spindle (j¡b¡l Efl ¢Øfäm): The unit consists of a transverse
spindle and the motor mounted (EµQ ÙÛ¡¢fa) on a common base which can
be moved along the slide. The motor drives the spindle through a belt, and
when in use the planning belt and the rip-saw belt must both be 'cast off',. the
spindle can be adjusted for height by the hand wheel shown, and the whole
unit is moved along the slide by an adjacent handle.

Planer knife, grinding by

overhead spindle fig.17(5). The planer knives are sharpened by a grinding
wheel fitted to the overhead spindle. The knife js fitted to the clamp provided
which in turn is bolted to the saw table fence and angled so that the
chamfered edge only of the knife will be ground. The overhead slide is set
parallel to the saw table as shown, and very small 'cut;' are made
progressively along the knife until a clean edge is produced. a hand stone is
then used to finish off after the knife has been removed from the machine.

Cross-cutting by the
overhead spindle fig. 17(6). the overhead slide is turned through 900 to lie
transverse (Bs¡B¢s i¡h) to the circular saw table to which is fitted the wooden
cross-cutting board as shown. the table height is adjusted so that the circular
saw does not. Protrude above the, board, although for thick section work it is
necessary to remove

0304. Wood working machine: A wood working machine is a machine that is

intended to process wood. These machines are usually powered by electric
motors and are used extensively in wood working.
Or
Machines employed in a wood processing operation to cast the desired shape
or damnation from the wood work piece are known as wood work machine.
0305. Combination machine (p¢Çj¢ma k¿»f¡¢a): A combination machine is a
wood working machine that combines the function of two or more separate
machine into a single unit. For example: a combination machine might (rja¡)
consist of a table saw with a side mounted joint.
0306. Name of wood working machine (L¡Wl L¡Sl k¿»f¡¢al e¡j).
1. Wood jointing machine
2. Board finishing machine.
3. Universal wood working machine.
4. Veneer (f¡am¡ aš²¡l Bhle) press wood furniture press.
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5. Wood cutter machine. (construction)
6. Band saw.
7. Bench pillar drill.
8. Portable (hqe£u) circular saw Machine.
9. Router.(Wood working)
10. Disc and belt sanding machine.
11. Scroll saw.

0307. Various portable wood working machine (¢h¢iæ dlel hqek¡NÉ L¡Wl L¡Sl
k¿»f¡¢a)

1. Portable circular saw machine.

2. Portable chain saw.
3. Portable jig saw.
4. Portable planer machine.
5. Portable drilling machine.

0308. Wood working machine parts (Awn)

1. Saw blade.
2. Fence.
3. Knife.
4. Guard.
5. Belt fitted to circular saw spindle.
6. Motor.
7. Planner blade.
8. Back table.
9. Cutting block.
10. Front table.
11. Belt fitted to cutting block spindle.

0309. Universal wood working machine (C¢ei¡pÑ¡m L¡Wl L¡Sl k¿»f¡¢a): A

universal wood working machine is a power tool that provides multiple
functions for wood workers. This machine might be fitted with joiners, planer,
saws and sharper (MfÑl).

Universal wood workers are multifunction machines that usually have four
operation:- circular saw, spindle molded, surface planer and thickness
planner.

0310. Planning machine (Wood) (L¡Wl ®fÔ¢ew ®j¢ne): A machine for

planning wood, the usual form of which has cutters on a drum rotating on a
horizontal axis over the board, which process beneath.
Or
A machine that smoothes or finishes the surface of wood by planning. it is
used for planning the face and edge of wood square to each other.

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0311. Type of wood planer machine (L¡Wl fÔÉ¡e¡l ®j¢nel dle)

There are mainly three type of planner, such as-
1. Manual planner.
2. Electric planner (Aes).
3. Stationary planner.

Manual planners (qÙ¹Q¡¢ma fÔÉ¡e¡l): are less expensive (hÉuhým) and

are sold in deferent styles and sizes.
Electric planners (°hc¤É¢aL fÔÉ¡e¡l): are more powerful and are suitable for
both large and small projects.
Stationary planners (¢ÙÛl fÔÉ¡e¡l): are ideal for larger and more complex
project.

Fig: Planer machine

0312. Thickness planer (fÔÉ¡e¡l f¤l¦aÅ): A thickness planer is a wood working

machine to trim board to a consisted (N¢Wa) thickness through out their
length and flat on both surfaces.
A thickness planer consists of three elements:
1. A cutter head
2. A set of roller.
3. A table.

Uses of Thickness planer (¢bLep fÔÉ¡e¡ll hÉhq¡l): A thickness planer is a

tool used for smoothing (jpªZLle) rough timber or reducing the thickness of a
board, with a planer every board on a project can be perfect match. Used to
plane wood to width and thickness.

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0313. Band Saw (hÉ¡ä Ll¡a) :

Band Saw : A band saw is a long sharp blade consisting of a

continuer’s band of toothed (c¡y¡a Ju¡m¡) metal rotating (®O¡l¡) on
opposing wheel to cut wood or material. It is especially for making curved cut
in wood.
According (Ae¤p¡l) to the classification, there are two types of the band saw
machine, such as-
1. Vertical band saw. 2. Horizontal band saw.

Write down the name of basic band saw parts (®hä Ll¡al ®j±¢mL Awnpj§ql
e¡j ®mM).
 Blade tensioning (fÐp¡¢la) screw
 blade cover
 Arm
 Thrust Bearing
 Table
 Table insert
 Table angle scale
 Switch
 Work lamp
 Guide post
 Guide post locking screw
 Guide locking screw
 Blade
 Blade guides
 Blade slot
 Miter gage slot.

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Fig. Band saw parts

0314. Band Saw Safety and Operational Safety Rules (hÉä Ll¡al ¢el¡fš¡ J
®fСuN Na BCe):
Band Saw Safety Rules

1. Always wear approved eye protection (p¤lr¡) when using this machine.
2. Set the saw guide to within ½ inch of the stock before turning (hy¡L) on
the power.
3. Do not put your fingers closer than two inches from the blade.
4. Do not place your hands directly in line with the blade.
5. Do not stand on the right side of the band saw. A broken blade is likely to
fly in that direction (¢cL).
6. Turn off the power before backing (pjbÑe) out of a cut. This avoids
(hSÑe) pulling the blade off its wheels.
7. To avoid bending or breaking the blade, you should not twist or bend the
saw blade with your stock. Make relief (j¤¢š²) cuts before sawing sharp
(d¡l¡m¡) curves and never use extreme (Qlj) force to cut your material.
8. If the blade breaks or comes of the wheels: shut off the power, stand clear,
let the machine coast to a complete stop, do not open the wheel guards,
and inform the teacher immediately (A¢hmð).
9. Do not reach around a moving saw blade.
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10. Never try to clean off the band saw table with your hands when the saw is
running. If scraps (h¢SÑa¡wn) and or cut stock need to be cleared away,
use a piece of scrap material at least ten inches long to remove stock
away from the moving blade.

0315. Band saw Operating Procedures.

1. Select the proper blade width; refer to a chart which gives the blade
width for minimum radii cuts.
2. The teeth on the blade of a properly installed band saw should point
downward in the direction of blade travel.

3. Check tension and tracking of the blade frequently (Oe Oe), make
adjustments as needed. Disconnect power and turn wheels by hand to see if
the blade is tracking in the middle of the wheel.

4. Be sure material being sawed is free of nails, paint and other

obstructions (h¡d¡).

5. Plan your cuts carefully. Lay out work clearly, use relief cuts, and avoid
blackouts (AfÐc£f).

6. Do not cut stock until the machine is running at full speed.

7. Always place stock flat on the band saw table.

8. Do not force the stock into the blade at a rate faster than it can be
readily cut.

9. If sawing freehand, use one hand to guide the stock into the blade and
the other hand to push the stock into the blade. DO NOT PUSH STOCK
WITH HANDS IN LINE WITH THE BLADE.

10. Do not place excess stress on the blade by twisting (®j¡Ql) the stock,
cut curves gradually (¢dl ¢dl).

11. If a problem develops and the blade has to be backed out, shut off the
machine and wait until the blade has stopped.

12. If the blade breaks, shut off the power and move away from the
machine. Never try to free a blade while the wheels are turning.

13. An indication (Cw¢Na Ll¡) of a cracked blade is a rhythmic (Bh

¢aÑa/¢eu¢ja) click as the cracked portion of the blade passes through the
wood.

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14. Cylindrical stock should be mounted (EµQ ÙÛ¡¢fa) in a holding
device to keep it from spinning (O§ZÑ) and crowding (N¡c¡N¡¢c) the blade
while being cut.

15. Make sure the band saw has stopped before leaving it.

0316. Circular saw Machine (hªš¡L¡l Ll¡a k¿»): Circular saw is a power saw
for cutting wood/metal/plastic, consisting of a toothed disk rotated at high
speed.

Purpose (EŸnÉ): Circular saw Machine are used for sawing straight- line
oblong, cross and angular cuts in solid wood.

Types of Circular saw Machine (hªš¡L¡l Ll¡a k¿»l dle): Different types of
circular sawing machine are used in wood work shop. For example-

1. Table Circular saw Machine : It is used for straight-line and parallel form
cuts, particularly of sheet material and Furniture construction.
2. Double- format Circular saw Machine : It is used for straight-line oblong,
cross and angular cuts as the most common circular sawing machine
3. Hand circular saw : Used for oblong and cross cuts of solid wood and sheet
material on building sites and during assembling wood.

0317. Circular Saw Safety Rules (hªš¡L¡l Ll¡a k¿»l ¢el¡fš¡ BCe)
1. Always keep the ground down over the saw while the machine is in
operation. Use auto kick-back device and spreader (fÐp¡¢la) when ripping.

2. Use a saw blade that is designed for the work and properly conditioned
(naÑj¤mL). Select lumber to reduce binding.

3. Never allow the saw blade to project more than one-fourth inch above the
stock to be cut.

4. Bring the saw blade to the front of the label.

5. Do not use a saw that is dull or in need of setting.

6. Do not stand directly behind or in line with the saw blade.

7. Do not use the ripping fence for a stop when crosscutting unless a
clearance (R¡g¡C) block is attached to the fence. (This is very important.)

8. Stop the saw for all adjustments.

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9. Be sure all adjustments are secure and that the ripping fence or the
crosscutting guide is fastened (eÜ) properly before the power is turned on.

10. Keep the fingers clear of the track of the saw and never allow the hands to
cross the line of the saw while the machine is in operation.

11. Turn on the saw dust exhaust before starting the machine.

12. Be sure that you know specifically what you are going to do before turning
on the power.

13. See that no fence or setup is in the line of the saw before turning on the
power.

14. Be sure that the tilting arbor saw, when tilted, will clear the table, the
fence, the
cross-cutting guide, and other special setups, before turning on the power.

15. Do not reach over the saw.

16. Never attempt to clear scraps away from the blade while it is running. Stop
the machine, if this is necessary, and use the push stick to remove scraps.

17. Arch the fingers while feeding instead of laying the hands flat.

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CHAPTER-4

BOAT WORKS

0400. Boat (®e±L¡): A small open vessel or water craft, usually moved by oars or
rowing (c¡lV¡e¡). It is commonly distinguished (f¡bÑLÉLle) in law from a ship
by being of smaller size and without a deck.

0401. Types of Boat (®e±L¡l dle). According to Propulsion there are three
types of boat.

a. Pulling or Rowing Boat (°hW¡ Q¡¢ma ®e±L¡). When a boat is

propelled by the oars is called pulling or rowing boat. The normal method
of pulling or towing a boat is to sit facing aft and pun on the looms of the
oars. The boat is steered (h¡¢qa) by its rudder.

b. Sailing Boat (f¡ma¡m¡ ®e±L¡). A sailing boat is a boat whose primary

means of propulsions (f¢lQ¡me¡) by sail, but she may also be equipped
for rowing or with some from of mechanical propulsion, in which case she
is known as an auxiliary sailing boat.

c. Power Boats/ Motor Boats (k¿» Q¡¢ma ®e±L¡). Power boats are
driven by internal-combustion engines and are therefore known as motor
boats. They may be classified as inboard or outboard according to the
position of the motor. They may also be classified according to speed
(fast, medium speed or slow).

0402. Kinds of Boat (®e±L¡l fÐL¡lic). There are three kinds of boats.

a. Cutter. It is a clinker built boat. Length 9.75m and weight about 52cwt.
Carrying capacity 29 men and life saving capacity 59men. Total 12 in No
"Ash" type oars are used out of which 8 in No 4.57m (15ft) and other
4.26m(14 ft).

b. Whaler. It is also clinker but and single bank boat. Lengths 8.23m and
weight 26 cwt. Carrying capacity 15 men and Life saying' capacity 27men.
Total 5 in No «Spoon" Type oars are used. out of which 4 in No 5.18m (17
ft) and 1 in No 4.88m

c. Dingh. It is also clinker built boat lengths 4.2m weight 10 cwt, carrying
capacity 6men and life saving capacity 12 men. When used as pulling
boat, 4 in No 2.44m(8-ft) paddle type oars are used.

0403. Use of Boat (®e±L¡l hÉhq¡l).

a. A boat only carries a small quantity of goods.
b. Boats are used to make people cross smaller distance.

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c. A boat is not ocean going. boat is a vessel that is Shore/coastal (EfL¥
¢mu).

0404. Used of Boat on BN (¢hHe H hÉhq©a ®e±L¡).

a. In Harbour. When In harbour a war ship’s boats are used for embarking
(EW¡/Ahale) disembarking (e¡j¡) and transferring mail, stores armed
parties, working parties, fire parties, liberty men, passengers and visitors.
Also for mooring, laying out the ship's anchors, laying down buoys for
salvage work, for training and for recreation such as regattas and picnics.
b. At Sea. When at sea a warship's boats are used for rescue,
transferring men and stores to and from another ship, for transferring a
boarding-party to another ship, or for landing and embarking personnel and
stores from beaches.

Fig: Motor Boat

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Fig: Whaler

Fig : Sailing Boat

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0405. Parts of Boat:

Scarf
Oarlock/ Kabe
Gun whale
Stringer

Knee
Beam
Thwart Caulking
Rib
Treenail Iron rivet
The overlap Garboat strake

Drain plug Beam stanchion

Keel

Fig: Parts of Boat

0506. Principal parts of boats (®e±L¡l fÐd¡e Awnpj§q): The parts of

boats are-

a. Rudder j. Pole
b. Propeller k. Antennas.
c. Keel. l. Mast head.
m. Light.
d. Hull
n. Cross tree.
e. Davits. p. Bow
f. Pilot House. q. Deck
g. Rader r. Mast.
h. GPS

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Parts of Boat:

Fig: Parts of Boat

7. Hull (q¡m). A hull is the water tight body of a ship or boat, above the
hull is the superstructure or deck where the present.

8. Keel (L£m). keel in shipbuilding the main structural member and

backbone of a ship or boat running longitudinally (mð¡m¢ði¡h) along the
center of the bottom of the hull from stem to stern. It may be made of timber
meal or other strong stiff (nš²) material.

9. Propeller (Q¡mL f¡M¡). A propeller is a type of fan that transmits

(f¡W¡e¡) power by converting rotational motion to thrust. A pressure
difference is produced between the forward and rear surfaces of the air foil-
shaped blade.

10. Mast (j¡Ù¹¤m). A spare or structure rising above the hull and upper
portion of a ship or boat to hold sail, spares, rigging, booms, signals etc. at
some point on t he fore and aft line as a foremast or mainmast.

11. Winches (EC¾p). A hauling (pcm V¡e¡) or lifting device consisting

of a rope or chain winding (O¤l) round a horizontal rotating drum, turned
typically by a crane or by motor.

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12. Capstan (LÉ¡fØV¡e). A capstan is a type of devise used on ships to
wound (ra) the cables and ropes during anchoring. Capstans are to old
wooden ship what windless (h¡u¤¢qe) are to modern ships.
13. Bow (h¡). The bow is a nautical term for the forward part of the hull
of a ship or boat. The point that is most forward When the vassal is under
way.

The Bow is design to reduce the resistance of the hull cutting through water
and should be tall enough to prevent water from easily washing over the top
of it.

14. Stern (S¡q¡Sl ¢fRel Awn). The stern is the back or aft most
point of a ship or boat. Technically defined as the area built up over the stern
post, extending (hÉ¢ç) upward form the counter rail to the tuff (Q¤eju f¡bl)
rail. The stern lies opposite of the bow, the foremost part of a ship.

15. Deck (f¡V¡ae). A deck is permanent covering over a compartment

or a hull, which forms the ‘roof’ for the hulls. which both strengthens the hull
and serves as the primary working surface.

16. Caulking (håLle). Caulk (håLl¡) is a non-structural physical

compound that provides (fÐc¡e Ll¡) an airtight, watertight or non porous seal
(R¡f). The seal or closure made by caulk is used to prevent something such
as air, water, gas, liquid or steam from entering or escaping (fm¡ue Ll¡)
between two other materials. Caulk is used to seal joints or spaces between
those two materials whether they are similar substance (fc¡bÑ) or not.

17. Planking (fÔ¡w¢Lw). Planks collectively (p¢Çj¢ma i¡h),

especially (¢hnoa) when use for flooring or as parts of a boat.

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Fig : Parts of Boats

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CHAPTER-5

MAINTENANCE OF GRP BOATS

0500. Reinforcing materials:

Various materials are used for reinforcing plastics-mineral fibres ( glass,

asbestons, etc.) natural fibres ( cotton and silk ), and synthetic fibres ( rayon,
nylon, Orlon and Terylene). Glass fibre is dimensionally stable ( see glossary at
end of this section, page 335), non-hygroscopic and unaffected by water, can be
produced in many forms and is the material most suitable for marine purposes.

The glass fibre used is the ‘E’ type low alkali borosilicate glass produced in
the continuous filament form and made up into chopped strand mats or tape, or
woven into a glass cloth for specific purposes. The glass fibre is applied with a
resin ( epoxy resin is normally supplied from Naval stores) after mixing with a
‘hardener’, with successive layers as required, so that the glass fibre and resin
form up together into a solid body of considerable strength with very good
resistance to impact.

The glass reinforcement materials in general use are summarized as follow:-

MATERIAL PROPERTIES APPLICATIONS

Loose chopped Can be mixed with the resin to Filling of small canvities and
strands from a ‘filler’ cracks
Mats-chopped Basic material used in the Ships boat hulls. Vehicle bodies
strand production of G,R.P. and panels. Pipes for high
mouldings. velocity water circulation and
delivery.
Mats-needled The material consists of For pressure mouldings of
chopped strands with needle involved shape and two
strands to hold the material dimensional curvatures.
together during the moulding
process
Woven roving A woven material with good High strength moulding.
fabric surface finish and strength.
Weaves-plain A woven material of high High strength mouldings. surface
strength, available in cloth or finishing of aircraft radomes.
tape. Tapes for repair work.
Weaves- satin Fine close weave of high High strength surface facing.
strength and smooth face.
Weave- Mock Open weaving with interlocking Used with epoxide resins to
Leno. to prevent edge fraying. provide good wearing faces.

Loose Chopped-Strand Mat is commonly used for large work such as boats,
etc.Plain Weave in cloth or tape is normally used for repair work generally. The
remainder are used for special applications as stated. Garnet paper is often used
for aircraft work where high-class skin finish is necessary, but this material would
not normally be applicable to ship and boat work.
0501. General description and comparisons:

Epoxide And Polyester Resins are supplied in liquid form, with separate liquid
additives to cure the resins to form hard thermosetting plastic. Epoxide (or epoxy)
resins are expensive, but are used when high strength, higher working
temperature, and chemical resistance is required, and the cold-curing type is
particularly suitable for repair work. Polyester resins are not so expensive, and as
they are superior to the epoxide resins in the cold-curing category, they are
extensively used for large work where hot-curing is impracticable. Epoxide resins
are excellent adhesives and are extensively used in industry for sticking materials
to one another, including metals. Polyester resins are also adhesive, but will not
adhere to a cured epoxide resin surface. Epoxide resin is resistant to corrosion, is
non-hygroscopic, and is a very good insulator. Polyester resin does not 'weather'

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so well, and in some cases it may be finished with a coating of Neoprene to give
external protection against rain erosion at high speeds.

0502. Epoxide resins (cold-curing type as supplied for repair work) These consist
basically of a resin and a 'hardener', each supplied separately in liquid form in
airtight containers, usually with measuring cups for preparing the mixing
proportions. The addition of the hardener is necessary to produce the 'cross-
linking' curing process of a thermosetting resin. Detailed instructions are given on
the container tins regarding the proportion of hardener to resin, the time limitation
'in the pot' and the subsequent time interval required for full curing. These
instructions cannot be varied to adjust the setting time, or in respect of the
atmospheric temperature.

Fig: Glass reinforcing materials

An exothermic reaction takes place when the resin and hardener are mixed, in
that the heat required for curing is generated by the attendant chemical action,
and no external supply of heat is necessary. There is no reaction with either the
resin of the hardener until they are mixed, and therefore the two constituents
retain fluidity within their airtight containers for protracted periods, whereas
polyester resin will thicken without its curing additives, and may have a 'shelf-life'
of only a few months. The atmospheric temperature for working epoxide resins is
not important, for the curing process proceeds irrespective of the ambient
surrounding temperature. The hardeners supplied for boat repair work are of a
quality which is also unaffected by damp and water, and the repair kit can
therefore be used 'on site'.

0503. Polyester resins:

These consist of a syrupy resin, with a fluid or paste catalyst, and an

'accelerator'. The catalyst is necessary to produce the cross-linking of a
thermosetting resin, and the `accelerator' is used to adjust the 'setting time' to suit
the atmospheric temperature surrounding the work. The three constituents are
supplied in airtight tins and polythene bottles with full working instructions which
must be followed in detail.
Polyester resins are very susceptible to atmospheric temperature, draughts, and
dampness. They must be used in 'still air' within the limits of 60°F to 70°F with
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minimum humidity—not to exceed 60 per cent relative humidity at the atmospheric
temperature. These restrictions usually demand, therefore, that the work must be
carried out in an isolated `dry' compartment, free from draughts, with thermostatic
control of the atmospheric temperature, and 'on site' working will necessitate an
'accelerator proportion' variation to conform to the temperature deviation.
It is important that the polyester 'mix' should 'gel' (surface harden) within an hour,
otherwise the very volatile chemical Styrene, which is necessary in exact
proportions for cross-linking, will be given off to atmosphere and complete curing
may not then take place. When laying-up, however, a succeeding layer must be
applied before the preceding layer is fully cured, otherwise the bonding of the
layers may be unsatisfactory.

General: Glass fibre particles and epoxy resins can cause irritation of the
skin, and the hands must be protected when using these materials. Polyester
resins do not affect the skin, although protection is still necessary against the
glass fibre particles.

Barrier cream: Special barrier cream is supplied with each repair kit and this
must be applied to the hands and forearms before putting on the gloves supplied.

Gloves : The gloves supplied with the repair kit (epoxide resins) are usually of
the `throw-away' type and must be discarded after use with the resins.
Rubber gloves may be used with polyester resins and these can be used
repeatedly if z. properly cleaned after use.

Ventilation : Ventilation at the working position is always necessary to

minimise the risk of inhaling glass fibre powder, especially when rubbing down
after using epoxide resin. As polyester resin can only be used in controlled
atmosphere without draughts, the general ventilation of the space is required to
maintain a clean atmosphere at the working position.

Masks and goggles : It is always advisable to wear goggles and masks

when working with G.R.P., particularly when sanding the work.

0504. Disposal of contaminated material : Throw-away gloves, cleaning rags, and

any other unserviceable material arising from the work must be collected together
and burned, or thrown overboard at sea, due to the risk of spontaneous
combustion if these materials are allowed to stand over an extended period.

0505. Cleaning of tools : Acetone cleaning solution is supplied for cleaning the
tools and equipment but must be used before the resin has gelled. Gloves must
be worn when using this cleaning agent.
Cleaning of hands: Hand cleaning creams are supplied for this purpose.
The acetone supplied for cleaning the tools is not suitable because it removes the
natural oil from the skins. The hands and forearms must be subsequently washed
in hot water, with soap or detergent, and dried off on 'throw-away' towels or clean
rags.
70. Fire precautions
There is always a risk of fire when using the various inflammable materials used in
G.R.P. work, and fire extinguishers must therefore be placed readily to hand.
Smoking or naked lights are prohibited in the working space or working area.

Shelf-life of resins: Epoxide resins are normally given a 'shelf-life' of one

year for ships in commission, and polyester resins are given six months for all
conditions. Replenishments must therefore be made accordingly, and the date on
each tin must be checked before use.

Manufacturing and repair processes--glass reinforced plastics

General description fig
The process which is generally applicable to the manufacture of large structures
and repair work consists of applying successive layers of glass-fibre mat material
and resin to obtain the required thickness, each lying being applied before the
resin of the preceding layer has 'cured'.
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The illustration shows the application of this principle to the manufacture of a boat
hull. The layers are applied to the internal surface of a mould by one of the
following processes:-

HAND OR WET LAY-UP—in which the successive layers are applied by hand
only.
VACUUM BAG METHOD—in which the layers are moulded to the finished shape
by creating a vacuum between a contoured bag and the mould.

PRESSURE BAG METHOD-similar to the vacuum method, but with pressure

applied to the bag to compress the layers.The hand or wet-lay-up process is in
general use, and is the method employed for repair work consists of applying
successive layers of glass-fibre mat material and resin to processes.

The other manufacturing processes include the FLEXIBLE PLUNGER METHOD

with a ram and flexible plunger instead of the pressure bag, or MATCHED DIE
MOULDING with a female mould pressed down over a matching male mould. The
fixed mould is heated in both cases so that high temperature curing resins can be
used. Injection moulding is also used, employing a male and female mould with
the glass fibre material between the moulds before they are closed up. The resin
is then drawn into the mould by vacuum and/or injected by pressure, to permeate
the reinforcing material.

0506. Hand or wet-lay-up method

MANUFACTURING PROCESS. The MOULD is made from well seasoned

low-moisture wood when a small number of articles are required, or may be
formed up in glass-reinforced plastic from an existing article. When a large
number of articles are to be produced, the mould is usually made in plaster or
metal.The mould may be mounted on a pivot for boat hulls, as shown in the
illustration, to facilitate the application of the layers of G.R.PA RELEASE AGENT,
usually wax, but not a silicone wax, is first applied to prevent the G.R.P. from
adhering to the mould surface.A GEL COAT of resin, with colouring pigment if
required, is then applied evenly and allowed to 'gel' so that it provides a
hardened exterior surface to prevent the intrusion of subsequent layers of glass
fibre. The resin used for the gel coat may be a quick curing polyester resin, or
cellular acetate solution with a 'flexibiliser' added to prevent surface cracking in
the hardened condition. The gel coat may be strengthened by the addition of a
second coat of resin with a glass fibre cloth, which is then allowed to surface
harden.The MAIN LAY-UP then proceeds in the form of successive layers of
polyester resin and glass fibre mat with the application of a suitable roller to force
the resin up into the fibre. Continuous layers may be applied without waiting for
each layer to 'gel', although the work should be phased for thick laminates to
allow the heat from the curing process to disperse so that 'blisters do not form on
the lay-up.Internal stiffeners, framing, ribs, etc., as applicable, are then
incorporated with complete or partial overlays of glass fibre and resin to form an
attachment to the main lay-up. lass fibre SURFACE FINISH can then be applied
in the form of a resin coat with fine g cloth or tissue, if required.

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Fig: Large glass reinforced Plastic Moulding

The complete laminate must then remain in the mould for about 24 hours,
dependent upon the atmospheric temperature, although this period may be
reduced by the application of post-heating to 80°F-100°F as specified.The
laminate can then be removed from the mould but should stand for some days for
complete curing before use.

0507. General repairs other than boats :

The repair kit supplied for this work includes glass fibre tape and one foot
wide cloth, together with the epoxy resin and hardener. The class of work which
can be done embraces the temporary repairs around pipes or joints, which would
otherwise be done with a hardening paste within a wrapping with clips or binding,
or facial patching with wide cloth to cover a slit or hole which would require a
metal covering plate with riveting or welding. The limitations of the plastic
equipment would be 350°F in terms of working temperature, and low pressures
except when a generous wrapping can be applied to a small hole.

The surface to be repaired must be thoroughly cleaned by removing all

paint, rust, grease and oil. The hardener and resin are then mixed in the
proportions specified. This mixture is generously applied with a brush, and the
cloth is laid on or the tape is wound tightly over the surface, and again coated with
the resin mixture. The process can be repeated as required to obtain the desired
thickness. Finishing of the patch surface is not appropriate to this form of
emergency repair.

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Fig: Glass Reinforced Plastic Repairs to Boats and thick Laminates

If a damaged frame member is in the way of the repair, or if a stiffener is

considered desirable, a new frame can be incorporated and laid over with resin as
shown. The work is then allowed to dry thoroughly, the former is removed, and the
outside surface is finished with sand paper.

Small holes can be filled with the plastic putty, and do not require cutting out and
laying-up as above. When one side is not accessible, a former must be made
which can be inserted diagonally and attached at the edges by a coat of resin
which is allowed to dry before the process is continued. DOUBLE SKIN BOATS
are repaired by cutting away 'the outside skin only, leaving the damaged inside
skin as the former against which the plastic can be applied.

Note: Although the processes have been developed for G.R.P. boats in particular,
the technique can also be applied to metal surfaces.

Thick laminates, such as division bulkheads, etc., are bevelled towards the centre
from both sides, and a former is made to fit up to the centre as shown, so that one
half can be laid-up first. The former is then removed,. and the other side is laid-up,
and both sides are finished by sanding and subsequent painting as applicable

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requires temporary replacement until a 'spare' can be obtained. The PLASTIC

KITS available in ships may be useful in this respect so long as the working
temperature is below 350°F and the stresses imposed upon the component are of
a minor order.
A mould can be made by a lay-up on the broken component, and the mould so
produced can then be used for a further lay-up to produce a replica of the broken
component, using glass fibre cloth, tape or chopped strand mat from the repair kits
as applicable.

0508. Aircraft repair techniques—non-metallic in glass reinforced fibre

The Air Department maintain a comprehensive stock of materials for glass fibre
repairs to cover the work of damaged radomes (fibre glass radar nose-cones),
ducting, aerial masts, and etc., with associated publications giving comprehensive
details of many types of repair work which can be carried out.

BAKELITE POLYESTER RESIN S.R. 17449 with peroxide CATALYST and

ACCELERATOR is used with various forms of fibre glass cloth or thin 'garnet'
paper for patching, with Neoprene as a final external protection coating.

Epoxy resin ARALDITE AY. 103 with hardener HY. 951 is used mainly as a filler
or as an adhesive, and can also be used as a protective coating. Although aircraft
repair is highly specialised, and would not normally be applicable to general ship
repair work, the facilities available in material and skill from the Air Department
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would be of considerable value in an emergency. Some radomes are constructed
of honeycomb 'expanded' glass fibre with inside and outside coverings of
fibreglass weave cloth, to produce a thick nose-cone of considerable strength and
rigidity without undue weight. Appropriate materials are available for repairing
these nose-cones, so that the damaged area can be cut out and replaced by new
honeycombing and surface patches. Further details are given in D.T.Ms.—
Emergency repairs with glass cloth and epoxy resins, and in ADMIRALTY
SPECIFICATION No. D.G.S. C22/2096—Plastic repair kit for G.R.P. (glass-
reinforced plastic) boats and similar structures.Aircraft repairs are detailed in AIR
PUBLICATION—Non-metallic repairs—fibreglass laminate.

0509. Glass Reinforce Plastic (GRP) . GRP is a composite (pwk¤š²) material or

fiber reinforced polymer made of a plastic reinforced by fine fibers made of glass,
like carbon fiber reinforced plastic. The composite materials are commonly
referred to by the name of its reinforcing fibers (Fiber glass).

0510. Name of GRP Material (¢SBl¢f EfLlel e¡j). The name of GRP materials
are :

a. Resin:

(1) Polyester resin

(1) Epoxy resin.

b. Glass fiber

(1) Loose chopped strand (a¡l f¡¢Lu c¢s °a¢l Ll¡)

(2) Mats chopped strand (CSM)
(3) Mats Needed
(4) Woven roving (e¡e¡ ÙÛ¡¢eu) plain weave fiber
(5) Weaves (®h¡e¡) plain
(6) Weaves satin
(7) Weave mock (S¡m) leno

c. Curing agent and drying agent:

(1) Accelerator (hNhdÑL)

(2) Catalyst
(3) Gel coat

d. Cleaning agent:

(1) Acetone
(2) Barrier cream.

Fiber glass mat can be used between layers (Ù¹l) of woven fiber to help build
thickness quickly and aid (p¡q¡kÉ) in all layers bonding (BhÜ) well together.

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Figure. Chopped Strand Mat (CSM) Figure. Epoxy Resin Figure. Release
Agents

Figure. Gelcoat Figure. MEKP Figure. Accelerator

Figure. Acetone

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Figure. Barrier Cream Figure. Pigment

0511. Glossary (nëL¡o) .

a. MEKP(Methyl Ethyl Ketone Peroxide). MEKP is the catalyst added to

polyester resin. It is a clear and colorless solution (âhe).

b. Polyester Resins. Polyester resins are the most commonly used matrix in
the marine and composite industry. Boats hull are molded with an unsaturated
(ApÇfªš²) polyester resin. The resin usually has a thyrotrophic agent added to
achieve (ASÑe) a measure for non-drip, non-drain control.

c. Glass Fiber Reinforcement. The most widely used reinforcement is

supplied in the form of a chopped strand mat (CSM) in varying thickness
identified for convenience (p¤¢hd¡) by its weight per square foot. In many
boat moldings small percentage of woven roving (WR) or cloth, once again in
varying thickness is used, identification of these two materials is by their weight
per square yard.

d. PVC. Polyvinyl Chloride.

e. Catalysts (Ae¤OVL) and Accelerators (®hNhdÑL). All polyester resins

require (fÐu¡Se) the addition of catalyst and accelerator to complete
polymerization and cure. The catalyst is usually MEKP and it should only be
mixed with the resin immediately before use, No more resin than can be used
in half an hour should be catalysts at any one time.The accelerator can be
added by the resin manufacturer as it has little effect with out the presence of
catalyst. It both catalyst and accelerator are to be added to the resin, they
should be poured and mixed separately (Bm¡c¡), stirring (jbe) briskly (â¦ahN)
after each has been added. Resin, Catalysts and Accelerator are highly
inflammable and should not be exposed to a naked flame, material should be
stored at temperature between about 600 -750 f (15-200c)

f. Acetone. Acetone is a liquid solvent much used to dissolve (…m¡) and

remove polyester from brushes, roller and other tools before the polyester sets
up or cures, acetone can be absorbed through skin and stored in the body,
Extensive (hÉfL) use of acetone over long period without proper protection
can have serious hellth implications, direct contact should be avoided (f¢lq¡l)
by the use of protective gloves when working with acetone, hands should not
be washed in acetone.

g. Glass Fiber. Glass fiber is dimensionally stable, non-hygroscopic and

unaffected by water, can be produced in many forms and is the material most
suitable marine purpose, the glass fiber is applied with a resin after mixing with
a “hardener” with successive layers as required, that the glass fiber and of
considerable strength with very good resistance to impact.

h. Barrier Cream. To protect or clean the skin-barrier cream should be worn in

conjunction with gloves when handling resins or glass fiber and cleansing
cream (Not- Acetone) should be used to remove resins etc from the skin.

i. Release Agents. Release (j¤¢š²) agents are applied to the mould prior to
laminating, to prevent the laminate adhering (pw¢nÔù) to the mould surface;
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they are not usually required for silicone or latex (l¡h¡l N¡Rl BW¡) moulds
where self releasing flexible moulds are used.

j. Hardener. A material used to promote (â¦a) the setting of certain types of

synthetic resin.

k. Pigment. Although laminates and casting can be painted, it is simpler to

make them self-coloured, by adding pigment past to the resin and gel coat and
pool coat.

l. Loose Chopped Stand Mate. It is commonly used for large work, such as
Boats etc.

m. Plain Weave (fCe Jui). Plain weave in cloth or tape is normally used for repair
work generally.

n. Laminating (Ù¹¢la Lle). The process of building up and consolidating

(pwL¥¢Qa) the layers of laminated plastics material.

o. Polymerization. The formation of polymers from simpler molecules (Ae¤

Le¡).

p. Cleaning of tools (f¢lú¡lL k¿»f¡¢a). Acetone cleaning solution is supplied

for cleaning the tools and equipment but must be used before the resin has
gelled. Gloves must be worn (f¢lNª¢qa) when using this cleaning agent.

0512. GRP TOOLS (¢SBl¢f k¿»f¡¢a):

a. brushes m. Screwdrivers
b. Resin roller n. Scissors
c. Sand paper p. Wooden Chisel
d. Wet sandpaper q. Rubber Mallets
e. Funnels r. Hammer
f. Measuring containers s. Combination Wrenches
g. Weight scale t. Spanner
h. Syringes u. Hack saw
j. Scrapers v. Electric Drill
k. Soft steel Trowels w. Hole saw Attachments
l. Knife x. Electric disc Grinder
y. Belt Sanders
z. Power saw
aa. Plastic Buckets

0513.GRP Tools Used (¢SBl¢f k¿»f¡¢al hÉhq¡l):

a. Brushes. The brushes are best for applying gel coat but can also be used for
getting polyester resin into tight corners and onto small derails (m¡CeQ¤aÉ Ll¡).

b Resin Roller. Resin rollers of different sizes can be used. They should be
made of materials that will not be damage by solvents.

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c. Sand Paper. The 60 grit sand paper is used to sand the laminate (Ù¹¢la Ll¡)
first. The 80 and 120 grit sand papers are used for medium finish work.

d. Wet Sandpaper. Wet sand paper should be in this grit: 240, 400, 600, 800,
1000 and 1200. These are intended (mrÉ) for finish work on the mould and on the
gel coat of the hull.

e. Funnels. Funnels are Handy for pouring polyester safety into smaller
containers when larger bucket are not being used.

f. Measuring containers. Transparent (üµR) Measuring containers of several

sizes are useful for measuring polyester and gel coat.

g. Weight scale. A weight scale is an alternative for measuring small amounts

of gel coat and polyester and also for weighting fiber glass.

h. Syringes. A variety of syringes (¢fQL¡¢l) can be used for correctly

measuring very small amounts of hardener. A Typical cap from a soda bottle can
usually hold around small of hardener.

j. Scrapers. Scrapers with handles are used for spreading putty.

k. Soft steel Trowels. The wider soft steel trowels typically used for bodywork on
cars can also work well for this purpose.

0514. GRP Personal equipment (¢SBl¢f EfLle):

a. Rubber sole shoe
b. Hand gloves
c. Face Mask
d. Over-all
e. Goggle

0515. Properties of GRP Material (¢SBl¢f EfLlel djÑ): The glass reinforcement
material in general use is summarized (p¡lpwrf) as follows:

a. Loose chopped strand:-Properties- Can is mixed with the resin to form filler
Application- Filling of small cavities (NaÑ) and cracks.

b. Mats chapped strand:

Properties: - Basic material used in the

(1) Production of GRP molding.
(2) Good strength the impact (fÐi¡h) value
(3) High impingement (pwO¡a) resistance
Application- Ships boat hulls, vehicles bodies and panels pipes for high velocity
water circulation (Qœ²) and delivery.

c. Mats needs:

Properties- The material consists of chopped strands with needle strands to hold
the material together during the molding process.

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Application- For pressure molding of involved shape and two dimensional
curvatures.

d. Woven-roving fabric:

Properties - A woven (h¤e¡) material with good surface finish and strength
Application- High strength molding.

e. Weaves plain:

Properties: A woven material of high strength available in cloth or tape.

Application- High strength molding, surface finishing of aircraft radomes, tapes for
repair work.

f. Weaves-satin:

Properties: Fine close weave of high strength and smooth face

Application: High strength surface facing.

g. Weave-mock leno:

Properties- Open weaving with interlocking (HL¢œa qJu¡) to prevent edge

fraying.
Application- used with epoxide resins to provide good wearing face.

Ser Name Specific Tensile Compressive Thermal

Gravity Strength strength Conducti
vity

1. Polyester resin 1.28 55 140 0.20

2. CSM laminate 30% 1.4 100 150 0.20

glass

3. Woven roving laminated 1.6 250 150 0.24

45% glass

4. Satin weave cloth 1.7 300 250 0.28

laminate 55% glass

5. Continuous roving 1.9 800 350 0.29

laminate 70% glass

0516. GRP Working Conditions (¢SBl¢f L¡Sl naÑ). Ideally a GRP/FRP repair
should be carried out indoors (NªqjdÉ) and the requirements which follow should
be approached (aVÙÛ) as closely as circumstance (AhÙÛ¡) permit. Boat repair
can be carried out both indoors and out under a variety of circumstance. It is
advisable (k¤¢š²k¤š²) to work under cover whenever possible so that some
control over working conditions can be exercised particularly (¢hnoa) protection
from rain.

a. Temperature is probably (pñha) the most important single factor influencing

the success of a repair, recommended minimum and maximum temperatures
are 60-750 F (15-250c)
b. Humidity (¯naÉ) can adversely (¢hl¦f) affect the cure of the repair and when
laminating is in progress it should not exceed 60-70% relative humidity.
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c. Direct sunlight should be avoided as it can cause premature (AL¡m) cure or
excess evaporation of the styrene in the polyester resin. Both can result in
permanent under-cure of the repair.
d. The surface on which the repair is to be carried out must be dry.

OR
a. Arrangement (hÉhÙÛ¡) to make to control the temperature 150c to 250c.
b. Humidity should not exceed 50% to 75%
c. Direct sunlight is avoided as it can cause excess evaporation of polyester
resin.
d. Room must be dust free.

0517. Safety Precaution during GRP work (¢SBl¢f L¡Sl ¢el¡fš¡ hÉhÙÛ¡).
These material are safe, provided they are used with proper care and
adequate (fkÑ¡ç) precautions are taken:

a. GRP materials produce vapor which are flammable and should not be inhaled.
b. Always work in a well-ventilated area and never smoke or use naked light or
fires in the work area.
c. When you have finished working, make sure materials like catalyst (Ae¤OVL)
and brush cleaner (acetone) are securely stored away, never store acetone
and catalyst MEKP together.
d. Wear gloves and goggles do not let any materials contact the skin, and
especially the eyes or mouth.
e. do not swallow (®Nm¡) any of the materials,
f. Catalyst should be treated with special care: it is flammable (A¢NÀc¡qÉ) and
corrosive (ru L¡lL) do not let it contact the skin, mouth or eyes, should it do so,
wash from the skin immediately under running water. If it contacts the eyes,
flush them under running water for at lest 15 minutes and obtain medical
attention at once.
g. Glass fiber, resins and an ancillary materials should not be used by children,
please keep in a safe place.
h. Threat liquid catalyst (hardener) with special care, measure out small
quantities with syringes, for large quantities use a purpose designated safely
dispenser bottle.

0818. Advantage/Benefit of GRP Boat (¢SBl¢f ®e±L¡l p¤¢hd¡).

a. It is light in weight but strong.

b. It is high strength to weight ratio.
c. It is good thermal insulation properties.
d. It is corrosion resistance
e. It is water resistance.
f. Cost is low then the steel.
g. Easily does not rotten.
h. It is non-flammable
j. It is stronger the plastic and wood.
k. Not cracked easily due to its cross grain (h¡¢mLe¡) construction.
l. Riveting, welding and jointing are not required.
m. So much beauty and fair.

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0519. Repair to boats and Thick GRP laminates (Repair Kites are Applicable for
Boat Work). Following repair kites are applicable for boat work (GRP boat work)
such as:
a. Chopped strand mat.
b. Polythene sheet.
c. Special epoxies putty.
d. Putty hardener.
e. Epoxy resin.
f. Resin hardener.
g. A roller included- work framing/plywood, hand grinding.

0520. How you will a GRP Boat are New Built (¢Li¡h a¥¢j HL¢V ¢SBl¢f
®e±L¡ ¯a¢l Llh), Described (process).

a. The easiest method of making GRP product, e.g a canoe is to use a mould, the
mould may be made from GRP or it may be made from another structurally
strong material.

Figure. GRP Boat

b. The mould is first checked for defects, any scratches (ByQll c¡N) etc, are filled.
The mould is then polished with a wax polished to a very smooth, high quality
finish, next a very thin film of a liquid release agent (fТa¢e¢d) is applied to
the inside of the mould, the wax and the release agent are there to prevent the
glass fiber product from sticking (¢hÜ Ll¡) to the mould.
c. The gel coat is the first layer of resin to be applied to the mould, The gel coat is
a mixture of polymer resin, hardener and a pigment mixed in the proportions
recommended by the resin manufacturer (A layer of resin mixed with a pigment
is then applied all over the inside of the mould, This layer is known as a gel
coat.)
d. When the gel coat (resin) has cured a layer of reinforcing (n¢š²n¡¢m Ll¡)
material such as strand glass fiber is laid in side the mould and a measured
amount of polyester resin mixed with a hardener is stippled and rolled into the
reinforcing layer.
e. This layer is also allowed to cure more layers may be applied until the required
thickness is achieved.
f. When the product has fully cured, it may be removed from the mould. The
colored gel coat that was on the inside of the mould is now the exterior (h
¢ql¡Na) covering of the GRP product.
g. Any blemishes (œ¦¢V) in the finished moulding.

h. When the 1st GRP layer has cured, another layer of fiber reinforcing material is
laid in the mould and resin is stippled and rolled into it. As each layer cures,
more layers may be applied until the required thickness is achieved.

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0521. Briefly Describe the Procedure of Repairing GRP Board (¢SBl¢f ®e±L¡l
®jl¡ja fÜ¢al ¢hhle).
a. The method of approach (A¢ij¤M) to a repair work will be governed by the
type of boat and the location of the damage.
b. The damage area is cut away to an accurate rectangular shape with rounded
corners and the edge is beveled to a shallow angle from the inboard side.
c. A thin sheet of plywood is then set up on the outboard side to cover the hole
and to act as a former against which the plastic patch can be applied.
d. A parting agent of hard work polish or polythene sheet must be applied to the
exposed face of the former to prevent adhesion by the resin.
e. The mixture of resin and hardener is then made up and a set of fiber glass mat
patches are cut out to form a succession (fkѡu) of layers overlapping to the
bevel.
f. The resin material is applied generally to the former and bevel edge with a
brush and the first patch is laid on and brushed over with resin. The roller is
then applied to face the resin into mat interstices (g¡L).
g. A further coat of resin is then applied without waiting for the first application to
dry and the second layer of mat is applied and rolled.
h. The sequence is continued until the full thickness is made up. The work is then
allowed to dry through, the former is removing and the outside surface is
finished with sand paper.

Note. Small holes can be filled with plastic putty and do not require cutting out
lying up.
Double skin boats are repair by cutting away the outside skin only leaving the
damage inside skin as the former against which the plastic can be applied.

0522. Precaution of GRP Material During Working (L¡Sl pju ¢SBl¢f EfLlel
paLÑa¡ Glass fiber particles (Le¡) and epoxy resins can cause irritation
(Sm¡ae) of the skin, the hands must be protected when using these materials
polyester resin do not affect the skin, although protection is still necessary against
the glass fiber particles. Following items and materials are used for precaution.

a. Barrier cream
b. Ventilation open
c. Gloves
d. Masks and goggles
e. Disposal of contaminated material.
f. Cleaning of tools
g. Cleaning of hands.
h. Fire protection.
i. Shelf life of resin.

0523. Cleaning of Tools after GRP Work (¢SBl¢f L¡Sl fl f¢lú¡lL k¿»).

a. Wash (®d¡u¡) frequently (OeOe) with a sponge or nonabrasive (ruL¡lL eu

Hje) pad and plain water. A rinse (Bma¡i¡h ®d¡u¡) can help stop growth and
will extend the life of the protective coating. Additional “elbow grease” is
required to remove stains.
b. When detergents are necessary, use soaps that are phosphate free,
biodegradable, and nontoxic. Any soap should be used sparingly (hСaÉi¡h)
because even nontoxic products can be harmful to wildlife. For example,
detergents will destroy the natural oils on fish gills, limiting their ability to
breathe.
c. Wax (®j¡j) your boat, if appropriate (kb¡kb). A good coat of wax prevents
surface dirt from becoming ingrained.

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d. Clean teak with a mild soap and abrasive pads or bronze wool. This method is
safe for the environment and better for the boat than the solvents in standard
teak cleaners, which tend to eat away at the wood and to damage seam
compounds.
e. Avoid detergents that contain ammonia, sodium hypochlorite, chlorinated
solvents (bleach), petroleum distillates, and lye.
f. Try some of the alternative cleaning products such as baking soda, vinegar,
lemon juice, and borax.
g. Select the least toxic product to complete the job.
h. Participate in a boaters material exchange (¢h¢eju) system to get rid of
leftover (®no i¡N) products and materials.
0524. Preservation of GRP Materials (¢SBl¢f EfLlel pwlre).

a. In a tropical climate, FRP materials must be stored in conditions as dark and

cold as possible to ensure maximum shelf-life.
b. In colder climates (Smh¡u¤), if the materials are stored near 0 ºC or colder,
remember that a drum of polyester takes approximately one week at room
temperature (18 to 23 ºC) to warm up to working temperature.
c. It is very important to protect the work area and FRP materials from the
influence (fÐi¡h) of the sun, wind and rain. Similar care is important for
storage of the raw materials.

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CHAPTER-6

WOOD WORKING MATERIALS

0600. Timber (L¡W). The wood which is suitable or fit for engineering construction or
engineering purpose is called timber.

Figure. Timber Figure. Wood

Fig: Timber & Wood

Wood (L¡W): The organic (¯Sh) matter obtained (fСç) from tree is called
wood

0601. Classification of Timber (L¡Wl ®nÐe£¢hi¡N). On the basic of mode of

growth trees are classified in to two groups depending upon growth (Eæ¢a)
pattern.
a. Exogenous (A¯hd i¡h) Tree
b. Endogenous Tree.

a. Exogenous Trees. The trees which grow in out wards across horizontal
section of stem are called exogenous trees.
These trees are only fit for engineering construction exogenous trees are again
subdivide into two types.

1). Coniferous (plm h¢NÑu) . Trees are types that produce seeds without fruit
or nuts, coniferous trees are also called softwood, Spruces firs, Deodar and
Pines etc are coniferous trees.

(I) They are soft wood.

(II) They have pointed leaves

2). Deciduous (reÙÛ¡¢u). Trees drop their leaves each autumn,

deciduous trees are some times called hardwood. Teak, Oaks, Sal,
Shisham etc.

(I) This heavy hard wood.

(II) These have broad leaves.
0602. Tree (N¡R). A plant having permanently woody main stem or trunk, ordinarily
growing to a considerable (¢hhQÉ) height and usually developing branches at
some distance from the ground.

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0603. Cross- Section of Exogenous Tree.

Figure. Cross- section of Exogenous tree

Figure. Parts of Exogeneous tree

0604. Identification of Timber (L¡Wl ¢Q¢q²a Lle).

a. Colour: It should be uniform.

b. Odour: It should be pleasant (Bl¡jfÐc) when cut freshly.
c. Soundness (p¤ÙÛa¡): A clear ringing sound when struck indicates the timber
is good.
d. Texture: Texture of good timber is fine and even.
e. Grains: in good timber grain are close.
f. Density: Higher density strong in the timber.
g. Hardness: Harder timbers are strong and durable (®VLpC).
h. Warping: Good timber not warp more changing environmental condition.
i. Toughness (h¢mùa¡): timber should be capable of resisting stock loads.
j. Strength: timber should have high strength in bending, shear and direct
compression.
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k. Modulus of elasticity: timber with higher modulus of elasticity are preferred (fR-
¾cl) in construction
l. Fire resistance: A good timber should have high resistance to fire.
m. Permeability (hÉ¢çk¡NÉa¡): Good timber has low water permeability.
n. Workability: Timber should easily workable; it should not clog the saw.
o. Durability: Good is one which is capable of resisting the action of fungi and
insects attack.

0605. Plywood . Plywood (f¡am¡ L¡W ¢hno) is a sheet marital manufactured (°a¢l)
from thin layer or plies of wood veneer (aš²¡l Bhle) that are glued together with
adjacent (pwmNÀ) layers having their wood grain related up to 90 0 to one
another.

Fig: Plywood

0606. Properties of plywood: The special properties of plywood which make it so

invaluable to the wood worker are:

a. Its stability, for it does not expand or contract as solid wood will , although it
will absorb moisture and may tend to curl as the surface veneers expands.
b. Its flexibility, for it lends itself admirably to curved work, particularly in the
thinner gauges and
c. Its strength which comes from the crossing of the grains in the laminations
even the thinnest plywood can not be split.

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0607. Types of plywood' There are Two grades of plywood. Such can as
follows:

( a) Plywood for marine craft to BS 1088- which is extensively used for the limit of
light craft and is suitable for immersion in sea water.

(b). Weather proofed or exterior grade to BS 1455 -for light work and general
repairs. Plywood is formed by three or more PLIES or VENEERS of soft wood or
Harwood glued together under pressure with the grain of one layer at right angles
to those adjacent to produce a board of 8ft x 4 ft maximum.

The simplest form is three ply with a middle CORE between two PACE PLIES to
produce a thickness 1/10 of in minimum to 5/16 in maximum (l1/2mm to 7 tnm).
Thicker and stronger material is made of five play or more. The thicker boards
may be formed from plies of unequal thickness the core being made u of heavier
plies and usually of inferior quality with a thick good quality veneer on one or both
outside faces.

0608. Advantages of plywood:

a. The shrinkage and expansion of plywood is almost negligible due to the

cross-grained construction. a single sheet of veneers will shrink or expand in its
width but will move very little in its length. Such movement will however be
considerably restricted when the sheet forms part of a cross-grained plywood
board. Thus, any tendency for the core of a three ply board to move in its width is
restricted by the longitudinal fibers of the two face veneers to which the core is
glued. Likewise any tangential movement of the face plies will be restrained by
the longitudinal grain of the core.

b. Plywood is stronger than ordinary timber of the same area and thickness.
This is due to its cross-grained construction.

c. It does not readily split when nailed near its edges.

0609. Facing and Sizes of Plywood’s

B.S 1088-for Marine Craft

Facing - agba, idigbo, mahogany, makore, 1/8 in to 1 in thickness.
sapele, and utile 7ft x 4ft

B.S 1455- for general repair (not bost hulls) Grdes 1" to 3 qualities:
Facings- agba, gaboon, mahogany, makore red 1/8 in to 1 in thinness.
serays sapele and utile 3ft x 4ft up to 10ft x 4in

Grade 4
Facing - as for grades 1 to -3 and also afara, 1/8 in to 1 in thinness.
3ft x 4ft up to 10ft x 4in
obeche and rycnanthies.

0610. Laminated

General description:
These materials are usually much thicker than plywood and can be used on
shore for large surfaces instead of planks, deals and boarding which would require

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jointing to provide the required width-desk tops lightweight working benches etc.

Laminated board: This is plywood with a core not exceeding 7 mm thickness.

0611. Block board or laminated board: This is made up trim two or more outer
veneers or plies glued to a core of softwood or hardwood blocks not exceeding
one inch width the grain at right angles to the outside venders.

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CHAPTER-7

HAND TOOLS

0700. Hand Tool Identification:

Fig: Basic Hand Tools

0701. Care and Maintenance of Tools:

1. Wipe or clean after every use with a clean and soft cloth to remove dirt.
2. Keep all tools in a tool room or tool rack.
3. Tools should be applied with appropriate oil to prevent them from rusting.
4. Drill tools should be sharpened properly if they are dull.
5. Tooth cutting tools should be sharpened as often as necessary.
6. Never drop tools especially precision instruments or testing tools.
7. Except hammers never use tools as hammers.
8. Never use screwdrivers as wood chisel nor cold chisel.
9. If necessary never file the soldering tip of soldering copper Wipe the with a
neat soft cloth to remove dirt.
10. Do not overheat the electric soldering iron.
11. Never use dull tools, it will cause harm to your work or yourself.
12. Always issue or lend tools with receipt.
13. Tools borrowed should be returned in good condition, otherwise it should be
replace with a new and of the same kind.

0702. Measuring and marking tools : Measuring and marking tools are as follows.
1. Rule.
2. Straight edge.
3. Out of winding battens.
4. Square.
5. Sliding bevel.
6. Marking gauge.
7. Marking knife.
8. Mortise gauge.
9. Compasses.

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0703 . Cutting bevels for hand tools : Planes - grind at 200 to 250 sharpen at
300 to 400 paring chisels - grind at 150 sharpen at 200 former chisels - grind at 200
sharpen at 250 . Mortise chisels - grind at 250 sharpen at 30.

Rule: A wooden four fold rule, two feet in length, marked in inch, with graduation
in tenths, twelfth, eighth and sixteenths.

Note: A two fold steel rule is also supplied for working in metal.

Straight edge: Uncelebrated strip used for testing flats and edge for
straightness but wooden straight edge are available and are made from straight
grained wood that does not twist, preferably yellow pine or mahogany.

Marking Gauge: This is used to describe the line parallel to a face edge or
slide. It consists of a stock and an adjustable arm through which is pointed
marking pin. The arm is adjusted and secured to the stock at the required setting
by a threaded wooden screw. The maximum effective width for marking is
approximately six to seven inches. The tool is often made of beech although box
or ebony is sometimes used.

Marking Knife: This is a sharp-edge tool to mart required lengths or shoulder

line on timber across the grain. It is never used with grain. It has a single bevel
and is sharpened on an oilstone in similar fashion to a chisel. The angel of
approach when marking is such that only the point of the cutting edge does the
marking with the face of the knife. Kept vertical and enclosed contact with the
square or bevel. They are normally made for the right –handed use although in
some cases a double ended knife has the returned and sharpened for the left
hand. The marking knife gives a definite fixed line and actually cuts across the
fibres of the timber. This slight incision provides a groove for a chisel to be
accurately used and is therefore applicable to work in which the material will be
cut away at the mark e.g. dovetails, tenons, etc.

Mortise Gauge: Similar in appearance to the marking gauge accept that it has
in addition to the fixed pin and adjustable pin secured to a sliding brass strip set in
flash with the face of the arm. The stop and sliding strip are each logged in
positioned by threaded set screw. This tool is used to scribed two lines in one
operation. Parallel to face site or edge for mortise and tenon joints.

Compass: These are used for scribing circles, corners radius and associated
contour work.

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CHAPTER-8

SEASONING OF WOOD WORK

Seasoning Of Wood :

0800. Methods Employed:

A living tree when felled constrains a great deal of moisture. The wood is unfit for
use until it has been seasoned for the moisture remaining in the wood tends to
promote growths of the fungus (Rœ¡L) type and this starts decay, and shrinkage
(pwL¡Qe) takes place as the wood dries out.

There are various methods of seasoning the general principle being to

protect the wood from the weather and to allow the moisture to dry out in a
manner as near to the natural process as possible. Trees should therefore
generally be felled in the winter months when the sap is present in the smallest
quantity.

'Leaflet' (fÐQ¡lfœ) gives from 4 to 26 months for seasoning oak in sizes 4

in to 24 in square and for fir of the same dimensions 3 to 13 months. Planks
require 1/2 of the above time according to thickness. Timber after being cut should
be stacked (Ù¹¤¢fL«a) in layers each piece of layer being kept as far apart from
the others as convenient (p¤¢hd¡SeL) to allow free circulation (fÐQme) of air,
and stacks should rest on bearers at least 12 in from the ground. The distance
between the layers varies from in for board to 3 in for log. This seasoning should
take place in covered storage if possible. Large sized timber is generally
seasoned in the open.

Kiln dried timber is stacked in a tank and exposed to current of dry air about 150
to 160F. This is useful substitute to the natural process when the time available is
short.

Logs for which no use can be foreseen in a reasonable time are kept in a pond
and should be turned over daily. By this means the wood is protected against suns
hakes (cracking due to complete to suns rays) and forms of deterioration, which
would otherwise be caused by' exposure weather conditions.

Timber carried on board ship has already been seasoned. It must be stored to
give reasonable ventilation with division slivers and away from heat which would
tend to over dry the wood.

0801. Seasoning (Ga¥ pqLle): As fresh timber which is obtained from trees contains
about 30 to 40 % moisture or sap. This sap is very harmful for the life of timber.
There fore it is necessary to remove that sap by applying some special methods
all those methods which are used for removing the sap from timber are collectively
termed as seasoning of timber.

0802. Reasons for seasoning/Important of seasoning (Ga¥ pq Llel …l¦aÅ).

1. To prevent shrinkage, splitting, checking and warping.

2. To achieve greater stiffness and strength.
3. To allow penetration of preservations.
4. To obtain a surface that will accept paint polish or glue.
5. To protect against decay.

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0803. Advantage of seasoning Timber (hªa¥pqLle L¡Wl p¤¢hd¡).

1. It has reduced weight
2. It is strong and durable.
3. It has resistance to decay or rot.
4. It takes high polish.
5. It has easier to work
6. Its life is more.

0804. Type of timber seasoning (L¡Wl Ga¥ pq Llel dle): The main types of timber
seasoning are as under:
1. Natural seasoning.
2. Artificial seasoning/kiln seasoning
3. Water seasoning.

Natural seasoning (fСL«¢aL Ga¥ pqLle): Natural seasoning also known as

air seasoning, planks of green timber are laid down on batten and have a gap
between them to allow air to circular, stickers or skids (¤fR¢mu fl¡) are the small
pieces of wood that allow the air travel between the plank. It is normally placed in
a hut/building with two sides open to allow air to circulate, The circulation of the air
slowly dries the timbe.

Kiln (CV i¡V¡) seasoning: In this method the wooden pieces are kept on
huge trolleys (®Wm¡ N¡¢s) and then it is placed inside the hot chamber of a
furnace known as kiln, in this way wooden pieces are for two weeks, the time
depends upon the types of wood and initial (fСb¢jL) moisture content, Blowers
are also used. It is a quick drying method and the moisture is reduced to 10%.

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Fig:Kiln Seasoning

Water seasoning (f¡¢e Ga¥ pqLle): In this method the wooden pieces are
immersed (X¥h¡e¡) in flowing water for about one month, during this period the
flowing water removes the excess (h¡s¢a) of sap in the wood. Then the wooden
pieces are taken for complete seasoning. Sap is reduced from the wood. It is done
by water it self, after it air seasoning is done.

0805. Characteristic Of good timber. (im¡ L¡Wl …e¡h¢m)

1. Narrow (pl¤) Annual rings, closer the rings greater is the strength
2. Compact (¢e¢µRâ) medullar rays.
3. Dark colour.
4. Uniform texture (pjh¤ee).
5. Sweet smell and a shining fresh cut surface.
6. when struck (a¡¢la) sonorous (NjNj) sound is produced.
7. Free from the defects in timber.
8. Heavy weight
9. No woolliness (fnj) at fresh cut surface

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CHAPTER-9

REVISION & EXAMINATION

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