Module IV

Delta Modulation (DM), Limitations of DM,

Adaptive Delta Modulation, Noise in Delta
Modulation, Comparison between PCM and DM,
Delta or Differential PCM (DPCM), M-Ary
System.
Linear Delta Modulation(D.M)
In PCM system, N numbers of binary digits are transmitted per quantized sample.
Hence, the signaling rate and transmitted channel BW of the PCM system are very
large. These disadvantages can be overcome by using the Delta Modulation.

Principles of Operation
 Delta Modulation transmits only one bit per sample instead of N bits transmitted in
PCM. This reduces its signaling rate and BW requirement to a greater extend.
 In Delta Modulation, the present sample value x(t) is compared with the previous sample
value x‟(t) and the result of this comparison is transmitted.
 Thus we are sending the information of whether the present sample value is higher than
or lower than the previous sample value.
(A) Delta Modulator Transmitter (Tx)
Operation of the Circuit: -

1) x (t) is the analog input signal and x‟(t) is the quantized (approximated) version of x (t). Both these signals are
applied to the Comparator.
2) The Comparator output goes high if the x (t) > x‟ (t) and it goes low if x (t) < x‟ (t). Thus, the Comparator
Output is either 1 or 0.The Sample and Hold circuit will hold this level (0 or 1) for the entire clock cycle
period.
3) The output of sample and Hold circuit is transmitted as the output of the DM system.
4) The transmitted signal is also used to decide the mode of operation of an Up/Down Counter. The Counter
output increments by 1 if So(t) = 1 and it decrements by 1 if So (t) = 0, at the falling edge of each clock pulse.
5) The Counter output is converted into analog signal by D to A Convertor. Thus we get x‟ (t) at the output of the
D/A Convertor.
(B) Delta Modulator Receiver (Rx)

The chain of blocks producing the signal x’ (t) i.e., the approximated signal. The original modulating
signal can be recovered back by passing this signal through a Low Pass Filter (LPF).
Distortion in the DM System
The DM is subjected to two types of Error:-
(i) Slope Overload Error/Distortion
(ii) Granular Noise Error/Distortion

(i) Slope Overload Error/Distortion


Slope of x‟ (t) = δfs =
Ts
 Due to small step size (δ), the slope of approximated signal x‟ (t) will be small.
 If slope of analog signal x (t) is much higher than that of x‟ (t) over a long duration, then
x‟ (t) will not be able to follow x (t) at all.
 The difference between x (t) and x‟ (t) is called the “Slope Overload Distortion”.
 Thus Slope over Load Error occurs when the slope of x (t) is much larger than slope of x‟
(t) and it can be reduced by increasing slope of approximated signal x‟ (t).
 Slope of x‟ (t) can be increased and hence the slope over load error can be reduced by
either increasing the step size “δ” or by increasing the sampling frequency fs.
 However with increase in “δ” the granular noise increases and if fs are increased,
signaling rate and BW requirements will go Up.

(i) Granular Noise Error/Distortion

 When the input signal x(t) is relatively constant in amplitude, the approximated signal
x‟ (t) will move Up and Down of x (t) as shown in fig.
 The granular noise is similar to the quantization noise in PCM system.
 Granular Noise increases with increase in the step size (δ).
 To reduce the granular noise, the step size should be as small as possible, However this
will increase the slope overload error.
Advantages and Disadvantages of DM
Advantages: -
1) Low signaling and transmission BW, because in Delta Modulation only one bit is
transmitted per sample.
2) The Delta Modulator Tx and Rx are less complicated to implement as compared to
PCM.
Disadvantages: -
1) Slope Overload Error and Granular Noise are present.
2) Practically the signaling rate with no slope overload error will be much
higher than that of PCM.
 (1)Adaptive Delta Modulator
 The slope overload error can be reduced by using another type of delta Modulator known
as Adaptive Delta Modulator (ADM).
 In ADM system, the step size is not constant. Rather when the slope overload occurs the
step size becomes progressive larger and therefore, x‟ (t) will catch up with x (t) more
rapidly.
Adaptive Delta Modulator Transmitter (Tx)
In ADM Up/Down Counter of DM is replaced by the digital processor, the remaining blocks
are identical in both DM and ADM.
Operation: -
(i) In response to kth clock pulse trailing edge, the processor generates a step which is equal in
magnitude to the step generated in response to the previous i.e., (k-1)th clock edge.
(ii) If the direction of both steps is same, then the processor will increase the magnitude of the
present step by “δ”. If the directions are opposite then the processor will decrease the
magnitude of the present step by “δ”.
(iii) So (t) = +1 If x (t) > x‟ (t) just before kth clock edge.
So (t) = –1 If x (t) < x‟ (t) just before kth clock edge.
Then the sampling size at the sampling instant „k‟ is
δ (k) = [δ (k – 1)]So (k) + δ × So (k – 1)
(iv) Let k = 6, i.e. Consider the 6th Clock Edge
Therefore, k – 1 = 5
 δ (k – 1) = δ (5) = δ
 So (k) = So (6) = +1
 So (k – 1) = So (5) = +1
 δ (k) = [δ (k – 1)]So (k) + δ × So (k – 1)
= [δ (5)] So (6) + δ × So (5) = δ × (+1) + δ × (+1) = 2δ
The step size at the 6th clock edge is 2δ
Advantages: -
i) Reduction in Slope Overload distortion and Granular noise.
ii) Improvement of Signal to Noise ratio.
iii) Wide Dynamic Range due to variable Step Size.
iv) Better utilization of BW as compared to DM.
DPCM Transmitter
The DPCM Transmitter consists of Quantizer and Predictor with two summer circuits. Following is
the block diagram of DPCM transmitter.

The signals at each point are named as −

x(nTs) is the sampled input
𝑥 (nTs) is the predicted sample
e(nTs)is the difference of sampled input and predicted output, often called as prediction error
v(nTs) is the quantized output
u(nTs) is the predictor input which is actually the summer output of the predictor output and the
quantizer output
The predictor produces the assumed samples from the previous outputs of
the transmitter circuit. The input to this predictor is the quantized versions of
the input signal x(nTs).
Quantizer Output is represented as −
v(nTs) = Q[e(nTs)]
= e(nTs)+q(nTs)
Where q (nTs) is the quantization error
Predictor input is the sum of quantizer output and predictor output,
u(nTs)= 𝑥 (nTs) v(nTs)
u(nTs)= 𝑥 (nTs) +e(nTs)+q(nTs)
u(nTs)=x(nTs)+q(nTs)
The same predictor circuit is used in the decoder to reconstruct the original input.

DPCM Receiver
The block diagram of DPCM Receiver consists of a decoder, a predictor, and
a summer circuit. Following is the diagram of DPCM Receiver.
The notation of the signals is the same as the previous ones. In the absence of
noise, the encoded receiver input will be the same as the encoded transmitter
output.
As mentioned before, the predictor assumes a value, based on the previous
outputs. The input given to the decoder is processed and that output is
summed up with the output of the predictor, to obtain a better output.
Mathematical representation of BPSK Signal
Let the maximum amplitude of the carrier signal be Ac then the Normalized power content in the signal is
( Ac ) 2
Ps  , Ac  2Pc
2
Then the transmitted BPSK signal is given by
VBPSK (t) = 2 PsCosct when the binary „1‟ is being transmitted.
VBPSK (t) = 2 PsCos ct    when the binary „0‟ is being transmitted.
= 2 Ps CosctCos  SinctSin 
= 2 Ps Cosct  1  Sinct 0 =  2Ps Cosct
Combining the above two conditions we can write
VBPSK (t) = b(t )  2 Ps Cosct Where b(t ) =  1 corresponding to logic 1 & 0 levels respectively
Graphical Representation of BPSK Signal: -
Spectrum of BPSK
VBPSK (t) = b(t )  2 Ps Cosct Where b(t ) =  1 corresponding to logic 1 & 0 levels respectively
The wave form b (t) is an NRZ binary waveform where the rectangular pulses of amplitude  Vb and duration of each
Tb
pulse is  around the center. Then the FT of this type of Pulse is given by
2
{
Obtain the F.T. of a rectangular pulse of duration Tb Sec. and magnitude of Vb as shown in fig.

Solution: - x (t) = Vb; 0 ≤ t ≤ Tb

= 0; otherwise
 
 jt
X (ω) = FT [x (t)] = 
 x (t )e dt Tb
=  Vb  e
 jt dt
=
0
Vb   j  Tb
e  e  j  0 

 j  
  Tb   Tb  
  j   j  
Vb 
1 e  2  e  2  
Vb   jTb  jTb 
 1 
Vb  j  
=  j  e 
1  e
j 

 =  
 
  Tb   Tb  
  j   j    Tb    Tb   Tb  
 2   2   j    j   j  
Vb  e e 
 2  e  2  e  2  
  2Vbe
j   Tb    

 j  
  2j 
= e  2  =  
 
 
  Tb   Tb 
 j   Tb 
  j  Sin Tb   Tb 
 2   Tb  Sin   2     j 
2Vbe  2  VbTbe  2   2 
=   = = VbTbe  Tb 

  2   Tb   Tb  Sinc
     2 
 2   2 

fTb
 j X ( )  VbTb e  jfTb fTb 
fTb =
VbTbe Sinc
Sinc  VbTb
fTb
Sin
= fTb
(The above FT is same for  Vb &  Tb )

}
S (f) = FT [VBPSK (t)] = FT [ b(t )  2 Ps Cosct ] = 2 Ps FT b(t )Cosct 
 b(t )  jct
2 Ps FT  e  e  jct 

=  2  

FT b(t )e jct  b(t )e  jct 

Ps
=   ( FT (b (t)) = X (ω))
2  

=
Ps
 X (  c)  X (  c) (According to frequency shifting property of FT)
2
Geometrical Representation of BPSK
BPSK signal is mathematically represented as VBPSK (t) = b(t )  2 Ps Cosct .
Let us represent this signal in terms of one orthogonal signal u1 (t) which is defined as
 Tb 
 2  Cosct  u1(t )
u1 (t) = Tb  Cos  ct  

2 

 u1(t ) 
 2 


   Tb 
Substituting the above expression in BPSK signal, we get
 Tb 
VBPSK (t) = b (t )  2 Ps u1(t )    b(t ) PsTb .u1(t ) .
 2 
We know, b (t) =  1
 VBPSK (t) = b(t ) PsTb .u1(t ) =  PsTb .u1(t )
i.e VBPSK (t) =  PsTb .u1(t ) or  PsTb .u1(t )

d = PsTb – (– PsTb ) = 2 PsTb

Again, Eb = Energy of the Signal = PsTb
d =2 PsTb = Eb
The important of d, is that the error probability of BPSK is dependent on the value of d.
The error probability decreases with increase in the value of “d”.
The geometrical representation is also called as “Signal Space Representation”.
BW of BPSK
From the frequency spectrum of BPSK signal, the BW of BPSK signal is given by
BW = (Highest Frequency – Lowest Frequency) in main lobe
= (fc + fb) – (fc – fb)
= 2fb BW = 2fb Where fb = 1/Tb
Thus the minimum BW of BPSK Signal is equal to twice of frequency contained in the baseband signal.
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
QPSK is a multilevel phase modulation. In QPSK system two successive bits in a bit stream are combined together to form
a message is represented by a distinct value of phase shift of the carrier. As
Sl.No. Symbol Input Phase Shift
Successive in the carrier
Bit
A B

1 S1 1 0 π/4 radians
2 S2 0 0 3π/4 radians
3 S3 0 1 5π/4 radians
4 S4 1 1 7π/4 radians

Mathematical Representation of QPSK

A QPSK can be represented mathematically as
 
VQPSK (t) = 2 PsCos ct  ( 2m  1) , m  0,1,2,3
 4
 
VQPSK (t) = S1 = 2 PsCos ct  4 , for , m  0
 
 3 
VQPSK (t) = S2 = 2 PsCos  ct  4 , for , m  1
 
 5 
VQPSK (t) = S3 = 2 PsCos ct  4 , for , m  2
 
 7 
VQPSK (t) = S4 = 2 PsCos ct  4 , for , m  3
 
The QPSK system of modulation is also called as four state PSK (or simply 4PSK)
M – ary PSK

 In QPSK, we grouped together two bits to form messages. Depending on the two bit message (00, 01, 10, 11), a
sinusoidal signal of duration equal to 2Tb and having a particular phase shift is transmitted.
 The QPSK signal differs by 900 or π/2 radians in phase with respect to each other.
 The M – ary PSK signals are obtained as follows
(i) Group „N‟ bits together to form N – bit symbols
(ii) These symbols will extend over a period of NTb where Tb is the duration of one bit
(iii) Due to the grouping of N bits per symbol, we can have M = 2N possible symbols.
(iv) These N symbols are represented by sinusoidal signals of duration Ts = NT b which differ from one
another by a phase 2π/M radians. Thus, VM-ary PSK (t) = 2 Ps Cos (ωct + Φm) where m = 0,1,2,3,------
& Φm = Symbol Phase angle = (2m + 1) π/M
(v) The M – ary PSK waveforms corresponding the above equation are represented by dots in figure,
 u1 (t) =  2 Cos(ct )  & u2 (t) =  2 Sin(ct ) 
 Ts   Ts 
Signal Space diagram in which the co – ordinates axes are formed by the orthogonal waveforms u1 (t) & u2 (t).

(i) The distance of each M – ary PSK waveform from the origin is Es  2Ps .

Band Width(BW) of M-ary PSK

1  1 2
BW =      but Ts = NTb
Ts  Ts  Ts

2 2 2 fb
BW = = 
Ts NTb N
 Bandwidth of a BPSK system is 2fb.
The above expression tells us that with increase in number of bits per message, the BW reduces.
M – ary PSK Transmitter (Tx)

Operation: -

1) The bit stream b(t) is applied to a serial to parallel converter. This block can store the N bits of a symbol.
These N bits per symbol have been presented serially in time sequence one after the other.
2) The N – bits per symbol are first assembled by the serial to parallel converter block. Then all these bits are
presented at once on the N output lines of the converter. Thus the N – bit message appears in the parallel
form at the output.
3) The output of serial to parallel converter remains unchanged for duration of NT b of a symbol which is the
time required for the converter to assemble the new group of N – bits. After every NTb seconds, the
converter output is updated.
4) The N – bit output of the converter is then applied to a D/A converter. Depending on the N – bit digital
input, it produces an analog output VA. The N – bit digital input can have 2N = M number of possible
combinations. Therefore, the D/A converter output VA will have M number of distinct values, depending on
the symbols.
5) Finally, this analog voltage is applied to a sinusoidal generator, which produces a constant amplitude
sinusoidal output voltage, the phase Φm of which is determined by the D/A converter output VA.
6) Thus at the output of the transmitter, we get a fixed amplitude sinusoidal waveform, the phase of which has
a one to one correspondence to the N bit symbols. The phase will change only once per symbol time T s =
NTb.
Advantages of M – ary PSK

1) BW reduces with increase in the number of bits per system (N).

2) As the information is transmitted through signal phase and not through signal amplitude, this system operates
very well in the situations where the signal amplitude varies due to the characteristics of the transmission
medium.
Disadvantages of M – ary PSK

1) The probability error increase with increase in the number of bits N per symbol, as the distance „d‟ decreases
with increase in N.
2) The Tx an Rx of the M – ary PSK is very complex.