Lab: #1

Name: Deja Jarrett

Date: November 25.2025
Topic: Uncertainty (M&M/ A&I)

Aim: To measure the density A spherical object (marble)

Apparatus: Beam balanced, marbles, micrometre screw gauge and Styrofoam cup

Diagram:

Method:
1) The smallest division on the micrometre scale as Δd was recorded.

2) After the diameter of three marbles was found, then the average was then recorded
using the micrometre.

3) The diameter of the marble was recorded as D ± Δd.

4) The smallest division on the beam balance was recorded as Δm.

5) The mass of the empty Styrofoam cup was recorded as M1.

6) The mass was recorded as M2 after placing 10 marbles in the cup.

7) The mass of the 10 marbles were calculated as m=m2 – m1.

8) The mass of 10 marbles was recorded as m± Δm.

Results and Calculations:
Table for Micrometre Measurements:
Measurement Value Units
Smallest division (Δd) 0.01 mm
Diameter of marble 1 (d1) 15.18 mm
Diameter of marble 2 (d1) 15.15 mm
Diameter of marble 3 (d3) 15.10 mm
Average diameter (D) 15.14 mm
Diameter with uncertainty 15.14 mm
(D ±d)

Table for Beam Balance:

Measurement Value Units
Smallest division (Δm) 0.1 g
Mass of empty (m1) 6.7 g
Mass of cup with 10 marbles 59.4 g
(m2)
Mass of 10 marbles 52.7 g
(m=m2-m1)
Mass with (m±Δm) 52.7 ± 0.2 g

Analysis:
· Calculate the mass of one marble using the formula m = (m ± Δm)/10
M = m ± Δm/10 52.7/10 = 5.27
M= 52.7 ± 0.2/ 10 0.2/10 = 0.02
M= 52.7/10
=5.27g ± 0.002g

· What is the uncertainty in the mass of one (1) marbled?

 The uncertainty in the mass of one (1) marble a 0. 02g.

· Using the formulae density p = 6M/𝜋D3 calculate the density of the marble.
P=6 (5.27)/3.14 (1.514)3
P= 31.62/3.14(3.375)
P= 2.98gcm-3

· Calculate the uncertainty in the density of the marble.

6M/πD3
Δp/p = Δm/m + 3ΔD/D
Δp/2.98 = 0.02/5.27 + 3 × 0.01/15.14
Δp/2.98 = 2/527 + 3/1514
Δp/2.98 = 5.78 × 10-3
0.02 = Δp

Precautions:
1. Avoid Parallax Error
2. Consistent Measurement Conditions

Source of Error:
1. Parallax Error
2. Zero Error

Limitations:
The experiment assumes that all marbles are identical in size and mass. However, slight
variations in their shape, surface texture, or material density can lead to inconsistencies in the
measurements and effect the accuracy of the calculated average values.
Reflection:
By exploring the relationship between mass, volume and density, I have learned that exact
measurements are essential not only for obtaining reliable data but also for ensuring that
errors
are minimized.
When it comes to uncertainty it can be applied to real in a scenario like industries. Ensuring
precision in measurements is crucial in fields like manufacturing, where the accuracy of mass
and density directly affects the quality of products like machinery components or consumer
goods.

Conclusion:
This experiment highlights the importance of precision and the role of uncertainty in
scientific measurements. The mass of the marble was found to be 5.27 ± 0.02 g, and its
density was calculated as 2.98 ± 0.02gcm3By understanding how uncertainties in mass and
density affect related calculations, such as volume, we gain insight into the limitations of our
measurements and the need for accurate instruments and techniques.
Lab: 2
Name: Deja Jarrett
Date: November 25.2025
Topic: The Simple Pendulum

Aim: To find the acceleration, g, due to gravity

Apparatus: Pendulum, meter rule, stopwatch, clam and stand and pin in cork

Diagram:

Method:
1. The apparatus was arranged as shown above using an initial length of string of about
100cm long.

2. The string was pulled aside a very small angle and released it.

3. When the system was oscillating smoothly, the time, t1, was found for 20 oscillations,
starting your count from the centre.

4. The step above was repeated to find the time, t2, for another 20 oscillations using
some length and then t, the average of t1 and t2.

5. The time was found, using seven (7) different lengths of string between 110cm and
5cm, for 20 oscillations and the corresponding periods T.
 6. The table below was completed and the uncertainty, Δl, in the length l and the
uncertainty Δt, in the time t was included.

Results and Calculation

Length of Time for Period T Log l Log T
String 20
L / ±Δlcm oscillations
t1 ± Δt t 2 ± Δt t = (t1
+t2)/2
74 ± 0.1 34.05 ± 33.89 ± 33.97 1.7 1.9 1.5
0.01 0.01
50± 0.1 26.69±0.0 29.59 ± 29.64 1.5 1.7 1.5
1 0.01
35± 0.1 23.67± 23.97 ± 23.82 1.2 1.5 1.4
0.01 0.01
17± 0.1 16.43± 16.72 ± 16.58 0.8 1.2 1.2
0.01 0.01
8± 0.1 11.68± 12.05 ± 11.87 0.6 0.9 1.1
0.01 0.01
25± 0.1 20.30± 19.87 ± 20.09 1.0 1.4 1.3
0.01 0.01
32± 0.1 22.90± 22.70 ± 22.80 1.14 1.5 1.4
0.01 0.01

Analysis:
The relationship between the period T and the length, l, of the simple pendulum is said to be
related by the expression Tn = (4π2l)/g where g is the acceleration due to gravity. Transform
the given equation for period into a linear one and plot an appropriate straight-line graph.

Tn = (4π2l)/g
log Tn = log (4π2l)/g
n log T = log (4π2l) + log l
log T = 1/n log (4π2l) + 1/n log l
y =mx +c
 1. Find the gradient of the line drawn

Gradient = y2 -y1/x2 -x1

= 1.62 – 0.84/ 2.04 – 0.48

= 0.78/1.56
= 0.5 sm-1

2. Using the gradient calculate the value of n correct to one (1) significant digit.

log T = 1/n log l + 1/n log 4π2 - log g

1.1 = 1/n 0.9 +1/n log 4 (3.14)2 – log (10)
1.1 = 1/n 0.9 + 1/n log 4 (10) – log (10)
1.1 = 1/n 0.9 + 1/n 1.6 -1
1.1 = 1/n 0.9 + 1/n 0.6
1.1 = 0.9/n + 0.6/n
1.1/1 = 1.5/n
1.5/1.1 = 1.1n/1.1
1.4 = n

3. Write an appropriate non-linear equation to relate T and l.

(n√Tn) =n √ 4π2l/g
T = 1.4√4π2l/g

4. Using the y- intercept find a value for g justifying the number of significant digits used.
y-intercept = 0.6
Precautions:
1. Ensure the string of the Constant Length and Tension
2. Minimize Air Resistance and Friction

Limitation:
Measurement of the length of the pendulum, the length of the pendulum is crucial for
calculating the period. However, accurately measuring the length from the pivot point to the
centre of mass of the bob can challenging.

Reflection:
The experiment taught me the importance of accurate measurements, and the role of
controlled variables like air resistance and friction.
This experiment can be applied in real life when a child swings back and forth, the
length of the swing’s ropes and the gravitational pull affect how long it takes for them to
swing from one side to the other.

Conclusion:
In this experiment, g calculated was 0.5 sm-1. Human timing errors and imprecise
measurements of length were sources of error. To reduce these, we conducted multiple trials
and could improve accuracy by using more precise timing methods. In conclusion the
experiment demonstrated how gravitational acceleration affects the pendulum’s motion and
reinforced key concepts about oscillations.
Lab: 3
Name: Deja Jarrett
Date: February 25.2025
Topic: Plan and Design -Terminal velocity

Problem Statement:
Two students are debating how to determine the shape factor of paper cake-cases when they
fall freely under gravity and reach terminal velocity. One claims it can be measured using
drag and velocity, while the other is unsure how to link them experimentally.

Hypothesis:
If the square of terminal velocity is proportional to the number of stacked cake-cases (and
hence weight), then the shape factor f can be calculated from the gradient of a graph of
weight vs velocity.

Aim: To determine the shape factor (f) of paper cake-cases using the relationship between
drag force and terminal velocity.

Apparatus: Stopwatch, Meter ruler or measuring tape, paper cake-cases (identical in shape
and size), balance.

Diagram:
Variables
1. Independent Variable: Number of stacked cake-cases (affects mass)
2. Dependent Variable: Terminal velocity, v
3. Controlled Variables: Drop height, air density, shape and orientation of cake-cases
Method:
1. The mass of one paper cake-case was measured using a digital balance and recorded.

calculated using the formula 𝐴= 𝜋𝑟2

2. The diameter of a single cake-case was measured, and the cross-sectional area was

3. A single cake-case was held at a known height.

4. It was dropped, and the time taken to fall was measured using a stopwatch or

high-speed camera.

5. This procedure was repeated three times, and the average time was recorded.

6. Steps 3 to 5 were repeated for up to 10 stacked cake-cases.

7. It was assumed that each set reached terminal velocity within the fall distance, which
was verified by observing consistent fall times.

8. The terminal velocity was calculated using the formula 𝑣=ℎ/𝑡 for each set of cake-
cases.

9. The weight of each set was calculated using 𝑚𝑔, and a graph of weight vs 𝑣2 was
plotted.

to calculate the shape factor using: 𝑓= 𝑚𝑔/𝑝𝐴𝑣2

10. The gradient of the graph was determined, and the drag force equation was rearranged
Expected Results:
 As more cake-cases are stacked, the terminal velocity increases.
 A graph of weight vs v² should be a straight line through the origin.
 The slope of this line can be used to determine the shape factor f.

Treatment of Results:
Sample Table:
Trial Number of Mass Weight Time Velocity V2 (m2/s2)
Cake-Cases
- - - - - - -

- - - - - - -

- - - - - - -

- - - - - - -

- - - - - - -

Graph:
Plot a graph of Weight vs v²
The slope = f⋅p⋅A Then:
f=slope/pA

Assumptions:
1. The cake-case reaches terminal velocity before hitting the ground.
2. Air density remains constant during trials.
3. The drag force is the only significant upward force at terminal velocity.

Precautions:
1. Ensure cake-cases fall straight down, not tumbling.
2. Drop from sufficient height for terminal velocity to be reached.
3. Repeat trials to average out timing errors.
4. Use high-speed camera if stopwatch measurements are unreliable.
Limitations:
1. Human reaction time can affect timing.
2. Terminal velocity may not be fully reached if drop height is insufficient.
3. Air currents could influence fall behaviour.

Sources of Error:
1. Parallax error in reading time or height.
2. Wind drafts or air movement.
3. Inconsistent stacking or deformation of cake-cases.
4. Mass variation among individual cake-cases.
Lab: 4
Name: Deja Jarrett
Date: December 14. 2024
Topic: Simple Harmonic Motion

Aim: To investigate the oscillations of a spring when load is added to it.

Apparatus: Helical spring, clamp and stand, standard loads and load holder, stop watch.

Diagram:

Method:
1. One end of the spring was attached from the clamp and the load holder was attached
to the other end of the spring as shown above.

2. A 20g mass was placed on the holder and the system was pulled down and released.

3. The time taken for 20 oscillations was recorded and the period T was found.

4. This process was repeated at least 7 times, and the period T was found for the total
load and was added to the load holder.

5. The table below for at least 7 observations completed and include the uncertainty in
the time for 20 oscillations.

6. A graph of period T2 against mass, m, and the best fit line was drawn.
Results:
Mass/kg Load/N Time for 20 Period T/ s T2/ s
oscillation / s

T1 T2

0.05 0.49 3.42 3.45 0.17 0.03

0.1 0.98 3.82 3.87 0.19 0.04

0.15 1.47 4.55 4.12 0.21 0.04

0.2 1.96 5.00 4.72 0.24 0.06

0.25 2.45 5.20 5.21 0.26 0.07

0.3 2.94 5.86 5.53 0.29 0.08

0.35 3.43 5.63 5.76 0.29 0.08

1. Mass = 1000g 1kg

2. Load, F= m · g
 0.05 × 9.81
= 0.49

 0.1 × 9.81
= 0.98

 0.15 × 9.81
=1.47

 0.2 × 9.81
= 1.96

 0.25 × 9.81
= 2.45

 0.3 × 9.81
= 2.94
  0.35 × 9.81
= 3.43

3. Period = Avg /20

Analysis:
The period T, of oscillation of a helical spring is given by T2 = (4π2m) /k where k is
the spring constant and m is the mass of the load.

1. Using the gradient of the line drawn, find the spring constant k, for the spring.
T2 = (4π2m) /k
T2 = 4π2/k · m
y = mx

The equation to calculate k:

4π2/k = m
Km/m = 4π2/m
K = 4π2/m

Gradient:
m = y2 -y1/x2 -x1
m =0.081 – 0.028/0.305-0.04
m= 0.053/ 0.265
m= 0.2skg-1

Calculating for spring constant:

K = 4 × (3.14 )2
K = 39.4384/0.2
K = 197.20 Nm-1
2. Find the uncertainty in the spring constant

The uncertainty in the spring is ± 0.01

Precautions:
1. Ensure the motion is small and linear
2. Measuring the length or mass accurately

Source of Error:
1. Air resistance, can dampen the motion, causing the oscillations to gradually decrease in
height.
2. Reaction time during timing, human error in starting or stopping the stopwatch when
timing the oscillations can cause inconsistencies in measured periods.

Limitation:
1. Small height requirement

Reflection:
I’ve learned how oscillating systems, like springs and pendulums, behave in
predictable ways based on properties like mass and spring constant.
This understanding can be applied in real life, when you push a swing, it moves back
and forth in a predictable pattern.

Conclusion:
In conclusion, the experiment on simple harmonic motion demonstrated how the
period of oscillation is influenced by factors like mass and spring constant. The value of K
calculated is 197.20 Nm-1.
Lab: 5
Name: Deja Jarrett
Date: April 20.2025
Topic: Planning and Designing – Sound Waves

Problem Statement:
Does the frequency of a sound wave from a bell inside a vacuum jar decrease with decreasing
air pressure, and is it proportional to the square of the pressure?

Hypothesis:
If the frequency of sound waves is proportional to the square of air pressure, then a graph of f
vs p² will be a straight line passing through the origin.

Aim:
To determine whether the frequency of a bell’s sound varies with the square of the air
pressure inside a sealed jar.

Apparatus: Bell jar, electric bell, vacuum pump, pressure gauge (or manometer, cathode Ray
oscilloscope (CRO), microphone, power supply, stopwatch (optional, for timing), wires and
connectors

Variables:
1. Independent Variable: Air pressure inside the bell jar
2. Dependent Variable: Frequency of the bell’s sound
3. Controlled Variables:
- Power supply to the bell (constant voltage)
- Microphone placement (fixed position)
- Type and model of equipment used
Diagram:

Method:
1. The bell jar was set up on a stable surface, and the electric bell was securely placed
inside and connected to a constant power source.

2. A microphone was positioned close to the bell inside the jar and connected to the
CRO to measure sound frequency.

3. The pressure gauge was attached to monitor the internal air pressure accurately.

4. The bell jar was sealed tightly to prevent air leaks.

5. The bell was activated, and the CRO was adjusted until a clear, stable waveform
appeared on the screen.

6. The initial air pressure (atmospheric) was recorded, and the period (T) of the
waveform on the CRO was measured. The frequency was then calculated using:
𝑓=1/𝑇

7. The vacuum pump was used to slowly reduce the air pressure. At each chosen
interval, the stopcock was closed to stabilize the pressure.
 8. The waveform was observed again on the CRO. The period was measured, and
frequency was calculated as before.

9. This process was repeated for at least five different pressure readings.

10. For each pressure value, the corresponding p² and f were calculated and recorded.

11. A graph off vs p² was plotted to check for linearity.

12. The slope of the graph was used to estimate the constant k, and the results were
analysed to determine whether the relationship:
𝑓=𝑘𝑝2
holds.

Expected Results:
1. As pressure decreases, the intensity of the sound will clearly decrease, and the
frequency may also decrease.
2. If the hypothesis is correct, the frequency will decrease in a way that is proportional to
the square of the pressure.
3. The graph off vs p² will be a straight line if:
𝑓=𝑘𝑝
is valid.
Treatment of Results:
Sample Table:
Trial Pressure (p) in P2 (kPa2) Period Frequency
KPa
- - - - -

- - - - -

- - - - -

- - - - -

- - - - -

Graph:
Plot frequency (f) on the y-axis vs pressure squared (p²) on the x-axis.
Determine the slope 𝑘 using the gradient of the line.

Assumptions:
1. The air pressure is uniform throughout the bell jar.
2. The frequency displayed on the CRO is accurate and unaffected by external noise.
3. The bell produces a constant tone throughout the experiment.

Precautions:
1. Ensure the bell jar is tightly sealed to maintain pressure control.
2. Keep the microphone in a fixed position throughout the experiment.
3. Avoid vibrations or loud background noise during readings.
4. Calibrate the CRO and pressure gauge before starting.
Limitations:
1. At very low pressures, the sound may be too faint for accurate waveform analysis.
2. Mechanical parts of the bell may be affected by pressure changes.
3. Delay in stabilization after pressure change could affect timing.

Sources of Error:
1. Sound distortion or weak signals at low pressures.
2. CRO measurement inaccuracies due to waveform clarity.
3. Human error in reading the waveform period.
4. Minor air leaks altering internal pressure.
Lab: 6
Date: December 14. 2024
Topic: Heat Capacity-Method of Mixtures

Aim: To determine the specific heat capacity 𝐶s of dry sand by observing temperature
changes when warm sand is mixed with cooler water.

Apparatus: Plastic cup, dry sand, ice-water mixture, thermometer, measuring cylinder,
stirrer, balance, stopwatch, beaker, spoon/tongs

Diagram:

Method:
1. 0.120 kg of dry sand was placed into a clean, dry plastic cup.

2. The initial temperature of the sand 𝜃s = 30±2∘C was recorded.

3. The initial temperature of the water from the ice-water mixture 𝜃𝑤 = 6±2∘C was
recorded.

4. 60 cm³ of water (mass = 0.060 kg) was measured without transferring any ice.

5. The water was quickly poured into the sand, and the mixture was stirred.
 6. The lowest temperature of the mixture 𝜃𝑓 =16±2∘C was recorded.

7. The heat capacity formula was applied to determine 𝐶𝑠.

percentage uncertainty in 𝐶𝑠
8. Uncertainties in temperature differences were calculated and used to determine the

Calculations:
Given:
𝑚𝑤 = 0.060kg
𝐶𝑤= 4200 ± 20 J/kg·K


𝜃𝑤 = 6 ±2∘C


𝜃𝑠=30±2∘C


𝜃𝑓 =16 ±2∘C


𝑚𝑠 = 0.12± 0.0001 kg



Energy balance equation:

mw Cw (θf −θw)=msc(θs −θf )
0.060 × 4200 × (16−6) =0.120×c × (30−16)
2520=1.68×c
c=2520/1.68 =1500 J/kg·K

Uncertainty:
C= mw Cw Δ θw / ms Δ θs
Δ c/c = Δ mw/ mw + Δ Cw/ Cw + Δ θw/ θw + Δ ms/ ms + Δ θs/ θs
Δ c / 1500 = 0.0001/ 0.060 + 20 / 4200 + 2.8 /6 +0.0001/0.12 + 2.83/30
Δ c /1500 = 1.67 x 10 -3 + 4.76 x 10-3 + 0.467 + 8.33 x 10-4 + 0.094
Δ c/1500 = 0.568
Δ c = 852.4

C = 1500 ± 900
Absolute uncertainties:
Δ (𝜃𝑓−𝜃𝑤)/ (𝜃𝑓−𝜃𝑤) = Δ 𝜃𝑓/ 𝜃𝑓 + Δ 𝜃𝑤 / 𝜃𝑤
= 2/16 +2/6
= 0.458 x 10
= 4.58 ≈ 5

Δ (θ𝑠−𝜃𝑓)/ (θ𝑠−𝜃𝑓)= Δ 𝜃𝑓/ 𝜃𝑓 + Δ θ𝑠 / θ𝑠

= 2/16 + 2/30
= 0.192
= 0.192 x 14
= 2.688 ≈ 3

Percentage uncertainties:
For (𝜃𝑓−𝜃𝑤) = Δ (𝜃𝑓−𝜃𝑤)/ (𝜃𝑓−𝜃𝑤)% uncertainty = 5/10×100 ≈ 50%
For (𝜃𝑠−𝜃𝑓)= Δ (θ𝑠−𝜃𝑓)/ (θ𝑠−𝜃𝑓)% uncertainty = 3/14×100 ≈ 21.4%

Thermodynamic Symbols Analysis:

 𝑢 (internal energy): remains unchanged — no net energy added/removed from the full

𝑞 (heat): increases for water, decreases for sand.

system.

𝑊 (work): remains unchanged, as no mechanical work is done.




Sources of Error & Improvements:

Sources of Error:
Heat lost to the environment
Inaccurate temperature readings due to ±2°C error
Heat transfer delay due to slow mixing

Improvements:
Use a metal calorimeter to minimize heat loss
Wrap the cup with insulating material
Use digital thermometers with higher accuracy (e.g., ±0.1°C)
Conduct multiple trials and average the results

Precautions:
1. Use an insulated cup or container to reduce heat loss to the surroundings and improve
the accuracy of the final temperature reading.

2. Stir the mixture gently but thoroughly after adding water to ensure uniform
temperature distribution before taking the final reading.

Limitation:
High thermometer uncertainty: The ±2 °C uncertainty in temperature readings is relatively
large compared to the overall temperature changes, which significantly affects the accuracy
of the calculated specific heat capacity.

Reflection:
This experiment helped me understand how energy transfers between substances of different
temperatures and how assumptions, such as negligible heat loss, impact the reliability of
results. I also became more aware of how even small uncertainties in measurements can lead
to sizeable percentage uncertainties in the final calculation.

Conclusion:
The experiment provided a reasonable estimate of the specific heat capacity of sand using
energy balance principles. The heat capacity calculated was 1500 ± 900 J/kg·K.

Lab: 7
Date: December 14. 2024
Topic: Elastic Constant of a spring

Aim: To find the spring constant of a helical spring

Apparatus: Helical spring, mass holder, standard masses, metre rule, pointer, cork with pin
and clamp and stand.

Diagram:

Method:
1. The helical spring was suspended from the support provided by clamp as shown in the
diagram.

2. The mass holder and pointer were at the other end of the helical spring.

3. The metre rule was placed in a vertical position alongside the mas holder using a
second clamp stand.

4. After the system was settled the reading was recorded of the pointer at the metre rule
and this value was used as a reference.
 5. 20g of mass was added to the mass holder and the new length of the spring was
recorded and consequently the extension of the spring.

6. Step 5 was repeated, 40g,60g,80g,100g and a 120g alternatively and the

corresponding extensions that were found.

Results & Analysis:

Tabulate results using SI units and plot a graph of load against extension

Initial Length: 71.6 cm

Extension = length -initial
Load – mass x gravity

Mass:
1000g 1kg

Mass/kg Length of Spring/cm Extension/cm Load/N

0.02 71.9 0.3 0.2

0.04 72.2 0.6 0.4

0.05 72.4 0.8 0.5

0.07 73 1.4 0.7

0.09 73.3 1.7 0.9

0.1 73.5 1.9 1.0

0.12 74 2.4 1.2

 1. Determine the spring constant from the graph
F=kx
0.2/0.3 = k 0.3/0.3
2/3 Ncm-1 = k

2. Estimate the percentage error in the gradient and the error in the value of the spring
constant.

m = y2 -y1/x2 -x1
m = 1.18 – 0.11/ 2.25 -0.18
m = 1.07/2.07
m = 0.52 Ncm-1

uncertainty = 0.01
percentage error = Δg/g x 100%
= 0.01/0.52 x 100%
= 1.9%

Precautions:
1. Avoid Overstretching the spring
2. Minimize parallax error

Limitations:
The spring may exhibit non-linear behaviour if it is stretched beyond its elastic limit,
meaning it no longer follows Hooke’s Law.

Reflection:
This lab helped me understand how force and extension are related in a spring. I saw
that the spring stretches more as more weight is added, and this allowed me to calculate the
spring constant using Hooke’s Law.

Conclusion:
 Through the measurements and calculations, the spring constant 2/3 Nm-1 was found.
Lab: 8
Date: April 12. 2025
Topic: Young’s Modulus

Aim: To determine the Young’s modulud for a cantilever

Apparatus: Hacksaw blade, 100g mass, two small pieces of board, metre rule, stopwatch,
G-clamp, micrometer

Diagram:

Method:
1. The hacksaw blade was clamped to the workbench using a G-clamp and supported
with two small boards as shown in the diagram.

2. A 100 g mass (0.1 kg) was attached at the free end of the cantilever blade.

3. The length l was measured from the G-clamp to the center of the mass using a metre
rule.

4. The mass was slightly displaced downward and released to oscillate freely.

5. A stopwatch was used to time 20 complete oscillations. This was repeated twice for
accuracy.

6. Steps 3 to 5 were repeated for six different lengths.

7. The average time for 20 oscillations was calculated and used to find the period T and
T2.
 8. A graph of T2 vs. l3 was plotted.

9. The gradient of the graph was used to calculate Young’s modulus using the
rearranged formula.

E = 16 π2 M/ bd3 x 1/ gradient

Results and Calculations

Trial Lengths Lenghts Time for Average Period Period

(Cm) (Cm)3 20 Time (s) (s) Squared
oscillations (s2)
t1 t2

1 18 5.8 x10-3 9.6 9.9 9.8 0.49 0.24

2 16 4.1 x 10-3 9.2 8.7 8.95 0.45 0.20

3 14 2.7 x 10-3 8.5 8.2 8.4 0.42 0.18

4 12 1.7x 10-3 5.1 5.8 5.5 0.28 0.08

5 10 1.0 x 10-3 4.2 4.4 4.3 0.22 0.05

6 8 0.5 x 10-3 3.3 3.3 3.3 0.17 0.03

7 6 0.2 x 10-3 2.0 2.0 2.0 0.1 0.01

Analysis:
A graph of T2 (y-axis) vs: l3 (x-axis) should produce a straight line.
The gradient G of the graph can be used in:

E= 16 π2 M/ bd3 x 1/ gradient
m = y2 -y1/x2 -x1
m =(0.236-0.04)/(5.7-0.7)
m = 0.196/5
m = 0.04

E = 16 π2 (0.1)/ (0.013) (0.00078)3 x 1/ 0.04

E = 15.78/6.169x10-12x1/0.04
E = 2.56x10-12 x 25
E= 6.4x10-11

M = 0.1 kg
B = 0.013m
D = 0.00078

Precautions:
1. The stopwatch was started and stopped accuractely to avoid human error.
2. Oscillations were kept small to ensure simple harmonic motion

Limitations:
1. Human reaction time can introduce errors in timing
2. Slight damping may occur due to air resistance.
Reflection:
This lab helped me understand how materials stretch under force and how to calculate
Young’s modulus. Measuring the extension accurately was important, I saw how stress and
strain are related in determining a material’s stiffness.

Conclusion:
The experiment successfully demostrated how Young’s Modulus can be determined using a
cantilever and oscillation method. With the gradient and known dimensions, the modulus E
was calculated, 6.4x10-11.
Lab: 9
Name: Deja Jarrett
Date: February 25.2025
Topic: Implementation -Terminal velocity

Aim: To determine the shape factor (f) of paper cake-cases using the relationship between
drag force and terminal velocity.

Apparatus: Stopwatch, Meter ruler or measuring tape, paper cake-cases (identical in shape
and size), balance.

Diagram:
Method:

1. The mass of one paper cake-case was measured using a digital balance and recorded.

calculated using the formula 𝐴= 𝜋𝑟2

2. The diameter of a single cake-case was measured, and the cross-sectional area was

3. A single cake-case was held at a known height.

4. It was dropped, and the time taken to fall was measured using a stopwatch or
high-speed camera.

5. This procedure was repeated three times, and the average time was recorded.

6. Steps 3 to 5 were repeated for up to 10 stacked cake-cases.

7. It was assumed that each set reached terminal velocity within the fall distance, which
was verified by observing consistent fall times.

8. The terminal velocity was calculated using the formula 𝑣=ℎ/𝑡 for each set of cake-
cases.

9. The weight of each set was calculated using 𝑚𝑔, and a graph of weight vs 𝑣2 was
plotted.
 to calculate the shape factor using: 𝑓= 𝑚𝑔/𝑝𝐴𝑣2
10. The gradient of the graph was determined, and the drag force equation was rearranged

Results/Analysis:

Number of Weight/N T1 T2 Tavg VT ms-1 V2Tm2s-2

cases

1 0.03 1.30 1.27 1.29 1.11 1.23

2 0.06 0.90 0.95 0.93 1.54 2.37

3 0.09 0.80 0.80 0.80 1.74 3.20

4 0.12 0.76 0.72 0.74 1.94 3.76

5 0.15 0.70 0.64 0.67 2.14 4.58

6 0.18 0.59 0.60 0.60 2.39 5.71

7 0.21 0.52 0.54 0.53 2.71 7.34

Weight
Weight of paper case = 15 paper cases 5g
1 paper case = 0.3g

Average Period
1.30 + 1.27 = 2.57/2
 = 1.29

Distance
143.5cm = 1.435m

Diameter
D1 = 5.19 Final Diameter = 5.18m
D2 = 5.16
D3 = 5.17
D4 = 5.19

Terminal Velocity
Calculations:
VT ms-1 1.435/1.29 = 1.11ms-1

Terminal Velocity Squared

Calculations:
V2Tm2s-2 (1.11)2 = 1.23m2s-2

Graph:
Plot a graph of Weight vs v²
The slope = f⋅p⋅A Then:
f=slope/pA

m = y2 -y1/x2 -x1
 m = (0.198-0.014)/(6.9-0.6)
m = 0.03

f = 0.03/(1.2)(2.1x10-3 )
f = 11.9

Precautions:
1. Ensure cake-cases fall straight down, not tumbling.
2. Drop from sufficient height for terminal velocity to be reached.

Limitations:
1. Human reaction time can affect timing.
2. Terminal velocity may not be fully reached if drop height is insufficient.

Sources of Error:
1. Parallax error in reading time or height.
2. Wind drafts or air movement.

Reflection:
This lab helped me understand how objcts reach terminal velocity when falling. I learned that
air resistance increases with speed until it balances the objects weight. Timing was a bit
tricky, but repeating the experiment made the results more reliable.

Conclusion:
The shape factor (f) of paper cake-cases is 11.9 using the relationship between drag force and
terminal velocity.