CE 200

INTRO TO SURVEYING
New Jersey Institute of Technology
Professor Allison Lapatka, PE, PLS

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 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
• A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a system of hardware, software, data, and
organizational structure for collecting, storing, manipulating, and spatially analyzing “geo-
referenced” data, and displaying information resulting from those processes.
• It is any information management system that can:
• Collect, store, and retrieve information based on its spatial location;
• Identify locations within a targeted environment that meets specific criteria;
• Explore relationships among data sets within that environment;
• Analyze the related data spatially as an aid to making decisions about that environment;
• Facilitate selecting and passing data to application-specific analytical models capable of
assessing the impact of alternatives on the chosen environment; and
• Display the selected environment both graphically and numerically either before or after
analysis.
• In a GIS, decisions are made based on spatial analyses performed on data sets that are
referenced in a common geographical system.

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 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
Note that each different layer has control points to
allow for spatial location of all data in a common
reference system
Figure 28.1 Concept of layers in a geographic
information system. Map layers shown are
(A) parcels;
(B) zoning;
(C) floodplains;
(D) wetlands;
(E) land cover;
(F) soils;
(G) reference framework; and
(H) composite overlay.
(Courtesy Land Information and Computer
Graphics facility, College of Agricultural and Life
Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison.)

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 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
• A GIS merges conventional database management software with software for
manipulating spatial data, allowing for simultaneous storage, retrieval, overlay, and
display of many different spatially related data sets.
• GISs have been applied in virtually every imaginable field of activity, from engineering to
agriculture, and medical science to wildlife management.
• Example: GIS can be used in flood forecasting over large areas by inputting information
on the topography, soil, land cover, storm drainage systems, stream networks,
streamgaging records, bridges culverts, dams, rainfall intensity records and duration.
Stormwater runoff can be estimated from computer modeling and the above data, to
predict potential floods and their severity. The data can also be manipulated to assess the
effects and impacts of disaster level flooding.
• FEMA:
https://fema.maps.arcgis.com/home/webmap/viewer.html?webmap=cbe088e7c8704464aa
0fc34eb99e7f30

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 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
• Surveying plays the most important part in contributing to a GIS, and personnel in the
fields of computer science, geography, soil science, forestry, landscape architecture, and
many others are important as well. Surveying is used as the basis of map development,
from locating features to setting the control points to properly locate layers spatially.

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 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
• Land Information Systems (LIS) primarily focus towards land records data. Information
stored within a LIS for a given locality would include a spatial database of land parcel
information derived from property descriptions in the US Public Land system, legal
descriptions, including metes and bounds and property tax lot and blocks, and other
cadastral (boundary related) data. Actual deeds and construction permits can be linked to
specific properties, as well as tax assessments, mortgages, etc.
• GIS and LIS can share data sources such as control networks, parcel ownership
information, and municipal boundaries. However, a GIS will usually incorporate data over
a broader range and might include layers such as topography, soil types, land cover,
hydrography, depth to ground water, and so on. Since LIS have a narrower focus than
GIS, they are considered to be a subset of a GIS.

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 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
• Data from a GIS come from many sources and may be of varying quality. A GIS requires
substantial information for its database, and can be obtained by gathering new data or
using maps, engineering plans, aerial photos, satellite images, and other documents and
files that were developed for other purposes.
• Building the GIS database is one of the most expensive and challenging aspects of
developing a GIS.

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 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
• There are two basic data classifications used in GIS – spatial and non-spatial.
• Spatial – also called graphic data, it consists in general of natural and cultural features that can be shown with
lines or symbols on maps. In a GIS, these data must be represented and spatially located, in digital form,
using a combination of fundamental elements called “simple spatial objects” – vector or raster. Relative spatial
relationships are given by their topology.
• Simple spatial objects – used to spatially located data
• Points – define single geometric locations, such as houses, wells, mines, bridges, using their spatial
coordinates in a specific plane.
• Lines and strings – obtained by connecting points. A line connects to points, and a string is a sequence
of two or more connected lines, used to represent and locate roads, streams, fences, property lines,
etc.
• Interior areas – continuous space within three or more connected lines or strings that form a closed
loop, such a towns, individual parcels, etc.
• Pixels – usually tiny square that represent the smallest elements into which a digital image is divided.
Continuous arrays of pixels are arranged in rows and columns in order to enter data from aerial photos,
orthophotos, satellite images, etc. Pixel size can be varied, but is usually specified as dots per inch, or
dpi.
• Grid Cells – single elements, usually square, within a continuous geographic variable. Their sizes can
be varied, with smaller cells yielding improved resolution. They can represent slopes, soil types, land
cover, water table depths, land values, population density, etc.

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 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS

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 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
• Simple spatial objects come in two different formats for storing and manipulating spatial
data in a GIS
• Vector – data depicted as a combination of points, lines, strings, and interior areas.
Points are used to specify locations of objects such as survey control monuments,
utility poles, etc. Lines and strings represent roads, boundaries, etc. Interior areas
represent specific land areas. Vector representation of data can be achieved by
creating a set of tables, which list these points, lines and areas. Data within the
tables are linked using identifiers, and related spatially through point coordinates.
• Raster – pixels and cell grids. Each equal sized cell or pixel is uniquely located by its
row and column numbers, and is coded with a numerical value or code that
corresponds to the properties of the specific area it covers. A point would be a single
cell, a line would be a linear array of adjacent grid cells, and an area would be shown
as a group of identically coded contiguous cells. The size of the individual cells or
pixels defines the resolution or precision of the data. The raster method creates a
coarser level of accuracy compared to vector. Note that as grid resolution increases,
so does the volume of data (number of grid cells) required to enter the data.

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 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
• Vector representation of a simple graphic record

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 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
• Figure 28.4 Land cover maps
of a region.
• (a) The region using standard
topographic symbols.
• (b) Vector representation of the
same region.
• (c) Raster representation of the
region using a coarse-resolution
grid cell.
• (d) Raster representation using a
finer-resolution grid cell.

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 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
• Topology is a branch of mathematics that describes how spatial objects are related to each
other. The unique sizes, dimensions, and shapes of the individual objects are not addressed by
topology. Only their relative relationships are specified.
• Nodes, chains, and polygons are used for specifying the topological relationships of information
entered into a GIS database. Nodes define the beginnings and endings of chains, or identify
junction points of intersecting chains. Chains are similar to lines or strings, and are used to
define the limits of certain areas or delineate specific boundaries. Polygons are closed loops
similar to areas, and are defined by a series of connected chains.
• In GIS, the most important topological relationships are:
• Connectivity: specifying which chains are connected at which nodes
• Direction: defining a “from node” and a “to node” of a chain.
• Adjacency: Indicating which polygons are adjacent on the left and right sides of a chain.
• Nestedness: identifying what simple spatial objects are within a polygon, including nodes,
chains, or other smaller polygons.

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 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
The relationships expressed through the identifiers for
points, lines and areas conceptually yield a “map”, which
can be used for the analysis and query processes of a GIS.

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 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
• Non-spatial data, also called attribute or descriptive data, describe geographic regions or
define characteristics of spatial features within geographic regions. Non-spatial data are
usually alphanumeric and provide information such as color, texture, quantity, quality, and
value of features. An example would be classifying land as forest, marsh, grassland, or
water. Other examples could include a street name, address, zoning data, tax assessment
values, etc.
• Generally, spatial data will have related non-spatial attributes, and thus some form of
linkage must be established between these two different types of both the graphic and the
nongraphic data.

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 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
• When manipulating information within a GIS database, sometimes it is necessary to either
integrate vector and raster data, or convert from one form to the other. This is usually
accomplished by overlaying vector data over a raster image back-ground.

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 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
• Vector to raster conversion is also known as coding, and can be accomplished in several
ways – predominant type, precedence, and center-point coding.
• Figure 28.6 Methods for converting data from vector to raster format. (a) Vector
representation of Figure 28.4(b) overlaid on a coarse raster format. (b), (c), and (d)
vector-to-raster conversion by predominant type, precedence, and center-point
method, respectively.

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 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
• Predominant type coding – each grid cell is assigned the value corresponding to the
predominant characteristic of the area it covers. Example: if a cell overlaps two polygons, one
is forest, one is marsh, and the majority of the cell overlaps forest, it is assigned a value of
“forest”, the predominant type.
• Precedence coding – each category in the vector data is ranked according to its important or
precedence with respect to the other categories. Each cell is assigned the value of the highest
ranked category present in the corresponding area of the vector data. For example, a stream
channel may only cover a portion of a cell, but since it is important to show the stream, the cell
is assigned a value for water. Also, since breaking up the stream should be avoided, water
would be given the highest precedence to allow for connectivity for the traveled path of the
stream through the grid cells.
• Center-point coding – a cell is simply assigned the category value at the vector location
corresponding to its center point.
• The precisions of these vector to raster conversions depend on the size of the grid used –
larger cells result in relatively inaccurate representations of the original vector data, and small
cells result in higher resolution, but take up more computer memory. The choice of grid
resolution becomes a tradeoff between computing efficiency and spatial precision.

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 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
• Raster to vector conversions – this involves extracting lines from raster data, which
represent linear features such as roads, streams, or boundaries of common data types.
This results in jagged or “staircase” type outlines which are not indicative of the true lines,
so a line has to be fitted to these jagged forms. This resulting line may not agree well with
the original feature, so it becomes a decision on choosing between accuracy of the
representation and cost of computation.
• Errors are introduced during either process, and some information from the original data
may be lost.

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 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
• When developing a GIS database, you must consider what types of data need to be
obtained, optimum formats for these data, the reference coordinate system that will be
used for spatially relating all data, and the necessary accuracy of each data type, as well
as provisions for updating the database.
• Data sources must be located, and can include existing data. The cost/benefit of using
existing data and gathering new data must also be analyzed.
• Metadata (data about data) should be included with each data file to document the
source, instruments, and procedures used to collect the data, as well as its reference
coordinate system, elevation datum, and accuracy. Metadata describes the content,
quality, condition and other characteristics about geospatial data and provides a record of
changes or modifications that have been made to that data, when it was generated, etc.
The Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) has developed metadata standards that
provide a common set of terms and definitions for describing geospatial data, and outline
a consistent and systematic approach to documenting data characteristics.

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 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
• Spatially related information needed to support a GIS is often generated by conducting
new field surveys expressly for that purpose. Any of the equipment and procedures
described in previous lectures are capable of locating objects in space can be utilized to
collect data for a GIS. Total Station instruments and GPS are particularly convenient
because they can rapidly and efficiently provide coordinates of points directly in a
reference coordinate system that is suitable for the GIS, and necessary identification
codes can be entered at the time of data collection.

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 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
• GIS Analytical functions enable the data to be manipulated, analyzed, and queried, which
supplies information that aids in planning, management, and decision-making.
• Proximity analysis: this function creates new polygons that are geographically related
to nodes, lines or existing polygons, and usually involves processes called buffering.
Buffering involves the creation of a buffer zone of a specific radius around a specific
node, line, or polygon.

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 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
• GIS Analytical functions
• Boundary operations
• Adjacency: identifies the abutting properties
• Connectivity: analyzes the intersections or connections of linear features.
• Spatial joins (overlaying): GIS graphic data is usually divided into individual layers, with
each containing data in a single category of closely related features. Non-spatial data or
attributes are often associated with each category. The individual layers are spatially
registered to each other through a common reference network or coordinate system. Any
number of layers can be entered into a GIS database, and could include parcels,
municipal boundaries, soils, etc.
• Logical Operations: the GIS database can be used to query information – for example, a
layer can be added containing new street poles, and the rated life of the bulbs. The GIS
can be used to determine when to purchase and install new bulbs.
• GIS can also be used for computing distances, areas, centroid locations, number of times
an attribute appears, volumes, etc.

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 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
• GIS is being used by the government, businesses, industries, public utilities, and engineering
and surveying offices for
• Land use planning
• Natural resource mapping and management
• Environmental impact assessment
• Census, population distribution, and related demographic analyses
• Route selection for highways, trains, pipelines, etc.
• Displaying geographic distributions of car accidents, fires, crimes, etc.
• Routing buses or trucks in a fleet
• Tax mapping, engineering and surveying purposes
• Subdivision design
• Infrastructure and utility mapping and management
• Urban and regional planning, and other uses

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 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
• Users of GIS must realize that the information obtained from a GIS can be no better than
the quality of the data from which it was derived.
• For surveyors, GIS relies on accurate position determination and mapping. Surveyors play
a key role in the development, design, implementation, and managing of GIS systems,
especially when it comes to establishing the necessary basic control frameworks,
conducting ground and aerial surveys to locate features and their attributes, compiling
maps, and assembling the digital data files needed for these systems.

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 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
• Data sources
• Digital Raster Graphics (DRGs)
• Digital Elevation Models (DEMs)
• Digital Line Graphs (DLGs)
• Digital Ortho Quarter Quadrangles (DOQQs)
• LiDAR data (point clouds)
• Land Use and Land Cover (LULC)
• Soil Survey Geographic (SSURGO)
• National Wetlands Inventory (NWI)
• Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
• In New Jersey, we can use the NJDEP Geoweb

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