Waves_Part 1

The famous Mexican Wave is one of the examples that describe how mechanical waves are
created and propagated.
When a mechanical wave moves through an elastic medium, the particles oscillate.
The bonding between particles helps them, while oscillating, to transfer the motion to the
next ones. The wave travels through the medium with no particle moving through this
medium. It just oscillates about its equilibrium point.
What is a wave?
We can consider a wave to be the propagation (the motion) of a disturbance in space.
A wave is a method by which information is transferred without a material object making a
journey. All waves carry energy.
Types of waves according to their nature:
(1) Mechanical waves:
• They require a material medium to propagate through (air, water, string, ….)
• Originate in the disturbance of an elastic medium. The disturbance and energy
are transmitted due to the elastic property of the medium.
• Examples: Sound waves, waves on a string, …….
(2) Electromagnetic waves EMWs:
• EMWs do not require a medium to propagate.
• Energy is transmitted through the electric and magnetic fields.
• Examples: visible light, x rays
Types of waves according to the relation between the direction of oscillation and
the direction of propagation as:
(1) Transverse waves:
The direction of oscillation is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave.
• Examples: Waves on a string, EMWs, …..
(2) Longitudinal waves:
The direction of oscillation is back and forth along the direction of propagation of the wave.
• Examples: Sound waves, waves along a spring, …..
Types of waves according to the number of dimensions in which energy is
propagated:
(1) 1-D one dimensional waves like waves along a string or a spring.
(2) 2-D two dimensional waves like surface water waves due to dropping a stone into water.
(3) 3-D three dimensional waves like sound and light waves emitted from small sources.

One-Dimensional wave function:

When we described the displacement of a particle moving with SHM we found that
the displacement, y, is a function of time, t. However, to describe the motion of the wave,
we need to know the time, t, and the position, x.
1
That is y = f ( x, t). (Assuming transverse wave)
To mathematically describe the wave, assume a pulse obtained at one end of a horizontal
rope under tension while its other end is fixed. The wave is assumed to maintain its shape as
it moves with speed v in the +ve x-direction.
Note that the speed v, for any wave depends on the properties of the medium being disturbed.
At t =0 the displacement, y, is y = f(x). During an interval “t”, the pulse moves a distance
equals “v t” in the positive x- direction. By using new coordinates the displacement of the
wave pulse at a later time takes the form:
y = f ( x – v t) equation of wave propagating in the +ve x-direction.
And similarly, we can find that y = f ( x + v t) is the equation of wave propagating in the -ve
x-direction. That is usually written as: y = f (x ! v t )

y v

t = 0
f(x) x
0

vt

y
t = t

f(x-v t) x
0

The wave equation

We want to produce a differential equation that governs the motion of the 1-D wave as
we did for SHM (𝒚 = −𝝎𝟐 𝒚).
Assume a wave moving in the +ve x-direction: y = f ( x – v t)
∂y
= (− v ) f ' ( x − v t ) f‘: differentiation with respect to the argument of the function.
∂t
∂2y
=v 2
f '' ( x − v t )
∂t 2
∂y ∂2y ∂2y 2 ∂ y
2
= f ' (x − v t) = f '' ( x − v t ) = v 1-D wave equation
∂x ∂x 2
∂t 2 ∂x 2
The same equation can be produced using a wave moving in the –ve x-direction.
∂ 2ψ
The 3-D wave equation takes the general form: = v 2 ∇ 2ψ
∂t 2

2 ∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ
∇ ψ= 2 + 2 + 2 Ψ is the displacement of the wave in this case.
∂x ∂y ∂z

2
The harmonic (sinusoidal) traveling wave:
It is the most important example of waves as, by Fourir series, one can represent any
complicated wave by the superposition of harmonic waves of different amplitudes and
frequencies. The 1-D wave can be represented as:
Propagating in the + ve x direction
y = yo sin ( k ( x ! v t) + α)
Propagating in the - ve x direction
Where, α is the phase constant, k is the wave number (the propagation constant) in rad/m
and it is the wave vector k that has the same direction of the wave propagation. (k ( x ! v t)
+ α) is the phase of the wave.
λ is the wavelength and it is the shortest distance after which the wave repeats itself. Thus,
at a fixed time, the traveling wave repeats itself in space every distance λ.
2π
y( x + λ , t ) = y (x, t) from which k must equal: k=
λ
At a fixed position, the traveling wave repeats itself in space every duration of time T ( the
2π
periodic time). y( x , t + T ) = y ( x , t ) from which ω must equal: ω= = 2πf
T
ω
v =λf =
The speed of the wave v is given by: k
Thus the equation of the wave can be written as: y = yo sin ( k x ! ω t + α)

t=0 x=0
y y

α
yo α
yo
ysin
o x ysin
o t
0 0

λ Τ

Note that:
y = yo sin ( k x - ω t + α) y = yo sin (-( ω t - k x - α))
sin(- θ) = - sin (θ) Thus, y = - yo sin ( ω t - k x - α)
–sin(ψ ) = sin ( ψ + π) Thus, y =yo sin ( ω t - k x - α + π)
Thus for a wave traveling in the +ve x-direction y can be written as:
y = yo sin ( k x - ω t + α) or y =yo sin ( ω t - k x + α’ )

3
The wave fronts
The wave fronts are the artificial surfaces (planes, cylinders or spheres), over which
the wave disturbance has the same phase, or they are the locus of points which have the same
phase. As the time passes, the wave fronts propagate with the speed of the wave.
For the 1-D wave, propagating along the x-direction, the phase, (k x - ωt + α), depends on x
only not on y or z. Thus the phase has a constant value on the plane perpendicular to the x-
axis and the wave is a plane wave.
If the source of the wave is a point source, and the medium is isotropic, (its properties do not
depend on direction), the wave fronts are spheres and the wave is called a spherical wave. If
the source is a line the wave fronts are cylinders and the wave is called cylindrical wave.
The displacement of the wave can be written as:
For plane wave: y = y o sin (ω t ! k x + α)

For spherical wave:

A
ψ= sin (ω t − k r + α)
r
For cylindrical wave:
B
ψ= sin (ω t − k r + α)
r
Where, A and B are constants.
Note that, we can have plane waves propagating parallel to the +ve x-direction or –ve x-
direction. However, for spherical waves and cylindrical waves we consider only waves
propagating from the origin outwards in the r direction only, so we have just the –ve sign
between the kr and ωt terms. The reason for writing the amplitudes of the spherical and
cylindrical waves as shown will be discussed later.

(a)

(b)

(c)

4
Huygens’ principle: It is a geometrical method for finding the shape of a wave front at a
certain time from the known shape of the wave front at a previous instant. Huygens assumed
that all points on a wave front serve as point sources of spherical secondary wavelets,
propagating in all directions, with a speed equal to that of the wave. After a time t, the new
wave front will be that of a surface tangent to these secondary wavelets (envelope of the
wavelets).

New position of wave front at time t v

vt
vt
o o o o o o o o
Wave front at time t = 0
Huygens’ principle is important in deriving the laws of reflection, refraction and diffraction
of light
Wave intensity:
The wave intensity, I is the average energy crossing unit perpendicular area per unit time.
Assume an elastic medium of mass density ρ is subjected to a mechanical wave
propagating with speed v and having an angular frequency ω and amplitude yo. The wave
intensity takes the form:
1
I = ρ v ω2 y o2
2
Note that:
* I is proportional to v ( I α v) that is as long as the wave travels it has an intensity and it
transfers energy.
* ρ and v depend on the medium that the wave propagates through while ω and yo depend
on the process that generates the wave (the source).
* I is proportional to the square of the amplitude ( I α (amplitude)2).

For a lossless (non absorbent) medium, the intensity I does not change with position for
plane waves, thus the amplitude is constant. However, for spherical waves, Iα 12 and for
r
cylindrical waves Iα 1 . Thus, the (amplitude) is α 1 for spherical wave and the
r r
(amplitude) is α 1 for cylindrical wave.
r
Absorption of waves:
The previous analysis for a lossless medium was an ideal case. In fact, a wave loses
some of its energy gradually as it propagates through a medium.

5
Consider a plane wave propagating in the +ve x-direction, having intensity Io at x =0,

I=I e
o
−δx

Where, δ is the absorption coefficient and it depends on the medium and for some materials
(dispersive) on the frequency of the wave.
I is proportional to the square of the amplitude ( I α (amplitude)2).
δ
− x
Thus, (amplitude) α Iα e 2 for this plane wave.

Thus, for a plane wave the displacement can be represented by:

δ
− x
y = yo e 2
sin (ω t − k x + α )
δ
x
y = yo e 2 sin (ω t + k x + α )
For spherical wave:
A − δ2 r
ψ = e sin (ω t − k r + α)
r
For cylindrical wave
B − δ2 r
ψ= e sin (ω t − k r + α )
r
Plane waves in three-dimensional problems
ψ (r , t ) = A sin (ω t − k ⋅ r + α )
2π
k=
λ k 2 = k x2 + k y2 + k z2