Waves

Wave: A wave is a disturbance that propagates through space and time, usually with transference of
energy.

Types of Waves:

1. Mechanical waves

2. Electromagnetic waves

3. Matter waves

1) Mechanical waves: In mechanical waves, Medium is needed for propagation of the wave.
• The mechanical waves are governed by all the Newton’s laws of motion.

For Example: - Water Waves, Sound Waves

2) Electromagnetic waves: An electromagnetic wave, does not need a medium to propagate, it carries
no mass, does carry energy.

• Electromagnetic waves are related to electric and magnetic fields.

Examples: - Satellite system, mobile phones, radio, music player, x-rays and microwave.

3) Matter waves: Matter waves are associated with moving electrons, protons, neutrons & other
fundamental particles etc.

• It is an abstract concept.

Examples: - pencil, sun, moon, earth, ball, atoms.

Transverse Waves: Transverse waves are those waves which propagates perpendicular to the
direction of the disturbance.

• Direction of disturbance is the direction of motion of

particles of the medium.

• A sinusoidal wave is sent along the string. A typical element

of the string moves up and down continuously as the wave
passes.

Longitudinal Waves: In longitudinal waves direction of disturbance or displacement in the medium is

along the propagation of the wave.

• In a Longitudinal wave there are regions where

particles are very close to each other. These
regions are known as compressions.

• In some regions the particles are far apart.

Those regions are known as rarefactions.
Displacement in a progressive wave: Amplitude and phase together describe the complete
displacement of the wave.

• Displacement function is a periodic in space and time.

• In case of transverse wave displacement is given as:

• Wave travelling along +X-axis:

y(x, t) = a sin (kx – ωt + φ).

y=asin(kx – ωt + φ) => y/a=sin(kx – ωt + φ)

sin-1(y/a) = kx-ωt =>kx=sin-1(y/a) +ωt

x=(1/k)sin-1(y/a)+ (ωt/k)

Wave travelling along –X-axis: x=(1/k)sin-1(y/a)-(ωt/k)

• As time t increases the value of x increases. This implies the x moves along x-axis.

• As time t decreases the value of x decrease. This implies the x moves along (-)ive x-axis.

Amplitude and phase-

Amplitude: Amplitude is the maximum displacement of the elements of the medium from their equilibrium
positions as wave passes through them.

• It is denoted by A.

• In case of transverse wave, The maximum displacement

of the particles is known as amplitude.

• In case of longitudinal wave, the Amplitude is

represented by the centre of the rarefaction region
where the particle is most free to oscillate to its
maximum displacement.

Phase: Phase of a wave describes the state of motion as the wave sweeps through an element at a
particular position.

y(x,t)= asin(kx – ωt + φ) where

a= amplitude, (kx – ωt + φ)=phase

In-phase: Two points are said to be in-phase with each other when these two points are at the same
position and they both are doing the same thing i.e. both the two points are exhibiting the same behaviour.

Out-of-phase: Two points are said to be out of phase even though they are at the same points but they
are doing opposite thing i.e. both the points are exhibiting the different behaviour.
Wavelength and wave number-

Wavelength: Wavelength is defined as the minimum distance between two consecutive points in the same
phase of wave motion.

• It is denoted by λ.

Wave Number: Wave number describes the number of wavelengths per unit distance.

• Denoted by ‘k’ also known as propagation constant.

K = 2π/λ

Time Period, Frequency and Angular frequency-

Time Period: Time Period of a wave is the time taken through one complete oscillation. It is denoted by ’T’.

Frequency: Frequency of a wave is defined as number of oscillations per unit time.It is denoted by ν.

ν = 1/T = ω/2π

Angular frequency: Angular frequency is defined as the frequency of the wave in terms of a circular
motion. It is denoted by ‘ω’.

ω = 2πν = 2π/T.

Travelling Waves: Travelling waves are those waves which travel from one medium to another.
• They are also known as progressive wave.

The speed of a travelling wave:

• It is denoted by v.

• Consider transverse wave moving along (+) ive x axis.

wave speed v = dx/dt = ω/k

By definition of ω= (2 π)/T Also k=(2 π)/λ .

Therefore v=(2 π/T)/(2 π/λ) =λ/T

v = λ/T

• As wavelength of a wave increases as a result frequency of the wave decreases as a result speed of
wave is constant.
Speed of a transverse wave in a stretched string:

• Transverse wave speed determined by:

1. Mass per unit length- As mass gives rise to Kinetic energy. If no mass then no kinetic energy. Then
there will be no velocity.

• It is denoted by μ.

2. Tension-Tension is the key factor which makes the disturbance propagates along the string. Because of
tension the disturbance travels throughout the wave.

• It is denoted by T.

μ = [M]/[L] = [ML-1] …(i)

T=F=ma =[M][LT-2] = [MLT-2] …(ii)

Dividing equation (i) by (ii) :- [ML-1]/[MLT-2] = [T2L-2] =1/v2

Therefore μ/T = 1/v2

𝑻
v = 𝑪√ where C=dimensionless constant
μ

• Conclusion: v depends on properties of the medium and not on frequency of the wave.

Speed of a longitudinal wave in a stretched string:

Longitudinal wave speed determined by:

1. Density – Longitudinal wave is formed due to compressions and rarefactions.

• It is denoted by ρ.

2. Bulk modulus– Bulk modulus tells how does the volume of a medium changes when the pressure on it
changes.

• It is denoted by B.

Dimensional Analysis

ρ =mass/volume= [ML-3]

B = - (Change in pressure (ΔP))/Change in volume(ΔV/V))

ΔV/V is a dimensionless quantity.

ΔP =F/A = ma/A =[M][LT-2]/[L2] = [ML-1T-2]

• Dividing ρ/B= [ML-3]/[ML-1T-2] = [L-2T2]=[TL-1]2 =1/v2

ρ/B = 1/v2 or v2=B/ ρ

𝑩
v = 𝑪√ where C=dimensionless constant
ρ
The principle of superposition of waves: It describes how the individual waveforms can be
algebraically added to determine the net waveform.

• Waveform tells about the overall motion of the wave. It does not tell about individual particles of
the wave.

Case1:-Consider 2waves which are in phase with each other. They have the same amplitude, same angular
frequency, and same angular wave number.

• If wave 1 is represented by y1(x, t) =a sin (kx – ωt).

• Wave 2 is also represented by y2(x, t) =a sin (kx – ωt).

• By the principle of superposition the resultant wave (2a sin (kx – ωt)) will also be in phase with both
the individual waves but the amplitude of the resultant wave will be more.

Case2:-Consider when the two waves are completely out of phase .i.e. φ = π

• If wave 1 is represented by y1(x, t) =a sin (kx – ωt).

• Wave 2 is represented by y2(x, t) =a sin (kx – ωt+ π).

 y2=asin(π-(-kx+ ωt) => y2=-a sin(kx- ωt)

• Therefore by superposition principle y=y1+y2=0

Case 3:-Consider when the two waves partially out of phase φ>0 ; φ<π

• If wave 1 is represented by y1(x, t) =a sin (kx – ωt).

• Wave 2 is represented by y2(x, t) =a sin (kx – ωt+ φ).

• Therefore by the principle of superposition of waves ,y = y1+ y2

=a[sin(kx-ωt)+sin(kx – ωt+ φ]

y=2a cos (φ/2) sin (kx – ωt + (φ/2))

• Amplitude = 2a cos (φ/2) and Phase will be determined by (φ/2).

Reflection of waves: When a wave strikes any interface between any two mediums the bouncing back
of wave is termed as reflection of waves.

Interface can be categorised into 2 types:

• Open boundary: - When a wave strikes an interface in case of open boundary it will get reflected as
well as refracted.

• Closed boundary or a rigid boundary: - When a wave is incident on an interface it will completely
get reflected. Example:-Wave striking wall(echo)
Reflection at rigid boundary

• the amplitude at the boundary is 0 & phase φ=π.

Therefore, yi(x, t) = a sin (kx – ωt),

yr(x, t) = a sin (kx + ωt + π) = – a sin (kx + ωt)

By superposition principle y= yi + yr =0

• Conclusion: -The reflection at the rigid body will take place with a phase reversal of π or 180.

Reflection at open boundary

• amplitude at the boundary is maximum & phase difference φ=0.

Therefore, yi(x, t) = a sin (kx – ωt),

yr(x, t) = a sin (kx – ωt).

By superposition principle y= yi + yr = 2a sin (kx – ωt)

Standing(stationary) Waves: A stationary wave is a wave which is not moving.

• When two waves with the same frequency, wavelength and amplitude travelling in opposite
directions will interfere they produce a standing wave.

Mathematically:

Wave travelling towards left yl(x,t) =a sin(kx– ωt) and

towards right yr(x,t) =a sin (kx + ωt)

y (x, t) = yl(x, t) + yr(x, t)= a sin (kx – ωt) + a sin (kx + ωt)

y(x,t)= (2a sin kx) cos ωt

• The above equation represents the standing wave expression.

• Amplitude = 2a sin kx.

o The amplitude is dependent on the position of the particle.

o The cos ωt represents the time dependent variation or the phase of the standing wave.

Nodes and Antinodes of Standing Wave

• The amplitude of a standing wave doesn’t remain the same throughout the wave.

Nodes:- Nodes represent the positions of zero amplitude.

• In case of the standing wave amplitude is given as :- 2asinkx

=> 2asinkx = 0 => sinkx = 0 => sinkx =sin n π => kx=n π

 x = (n π)/k …equation(i)

From the definition of k=(2π)/λ ... equation(ii)

• The position of nodes is represented by: x=(n λ)/2

from(i) and (ii),where n=1, 2, 3…

• Note: Half a wavelength (λ/2) separates two consecutive

nodes.

Antinodes:- - Antinodes represent the positions of maximum amplitude

• In case of the standing wave amplitude is given as :- 2asinkx

=> 2asinkx = maximum. This value is maximum only when sinkx=1.

=> sinkx = sin(n+(1/2)) => kx = (n+(1/2)) => ((2 π)/ λ) x= (n+(1/2)) π

• The position of nodes is represented by:- x= (n+(1/2))( λ/2) ; n=0,1,2,3,4 …

Nodes and Antinodes: system closed at both ends

• System closed at both ends means both the ends are rigid boundaries.

• This implies at boundary amplitude is always 0.

• Standing waves on a string of length L fixed at both ends have restricted wavelength.

When x=L, L=(nλ)/2

=>λ=(2L)/n ; n=1,2,3,4,…..

Modes of Oscillations:-

• ν= (vn)/2L where v=speed of the travelling wave,

L=length of the string, n=any natural number.

First Harmonic:-For n=1, mode of oscillation is

known as Fundamental mode.

• Therefore ν1=v/(2L).This is the lowest

possible value of frequency.

• 2 nodes at the ends and 1 antinode.

Second Harmonic:-For n=2, ν2=(2v)/ (2L) =v/L

• 3 nodes at the ends and 2 antinodes.

ThirdHarmonic:-For n=3,ν3 = (3v)/ (2L).

• 4 nodes and 3 antinodes.

Nodes and Antinodes: system closed at one end
• For a system which is closed at one end, only one node is formed at the closed end.

• At x=L, antinodes will be formed. This means amplitude will be maximum at this end.

• Condition for formation of antinodes is x= (n + (1/2)) (λ/2)

=> L = (n+ (1/2)) (λ/2)

=> λ =(2L)/(n+(1/2)).

This expression shows that the values of wavelength is restricted. n=0, 1, 2, 3…

• Corresponding frequencies will be ν= v/(2L)(n+1/2) (By using ν=v/λ);n=0,1,2,3, …

Modes of oscillations:-

• Fundamental frequency:- Also known as First Harmonic. It corresponds to lowest possible value for
n. That is n=0.

• The expression for fundamental frequency is ν0 = v/(2L)x(1/2) = v/(4L)

• Odd Harmonics

o n=1 ; ν =v/(2L)(1+(1/2)) = (3v)/(4L) =3ν0

o n=2; ν =v/(2L)(2+(1/2))= (5v)/(4L)=5ν0

o n=3;ν =v/(2L)(3+(1/2))=(7v)/(4L)=7ν0

• For a system which is closed at one end and open at another end will get
one fundamental frequency and all other odd harmonics.

Beats: Beats is the phenomenon caused by two sound waves of nearly same frequencies and amplitudes
travelling in the same direction.

• Consider only the time dependent and not the position dependent part of the wave.

s1=a cos ω1t and s2=a cos ω2t; where amplitude and phase of the waves are same, but the
frequencies are varying. Also considering ω1 > ω2.

s= s1+ s2=a[cos ω1t + cos ω2t]

= 2a (cos(ω1 - ω2)/2)t cos(ω1 + ω2)/2)t)

=>ω1 - ω2 is very small as ω1> ω2. Let (ω1 - ω2 ) = ωb

=>ω1 + ω2 is very large. Let (ω1 + ω2 ) = ωa

Therefore, s= 2a cos ωbt cos ωat

• cosωat will vary rapidly with time and 2acosωbt will change slowly with time.

• Therefore we can say 2acosωbt = constant. As a result 2acosωbt = amplitude as it has small angular
variation.
Beat Frequency: Beat frequency can be defined as the difference in the frequencies of two waves.
• It is denoted by ω

• Also ω = 2πν

Therefore νbeat = ν1 – ν2

Doppler’s Effect: Doppler Effect is the phenomenon of motion-related frequency change.

• When the observer and source come nearer to each other as a result waves get compressed.
Therefore wavelength decreases and frequency increases.

Case 1:- stationary observer and moving source

• Let the source is located at a distance L from the observer. At any time t1, the source is at position
P1. Time taken by the wave to reach observer is L/v where v=speed of the sound wave.

• After some time source moves to position P0 in time T0. Distance between P1 and P0 is vsTo where
vs is the velocity of the source.

• Let t2 be the time taken by the second wave to reach the observer

Total time taken by the for the second wave to be sent to the observer = To +( L+vsTo)/v

Total time taken by the for the third wave to be sent to the observer=2To +( L+2vsTo)/v

Therefore for nth point tn+1 =nTo +( L+nvsTo)/v

=>In time tn+1 the observer captures n waves.

• Total time taken by the waves to travel Time period T= (tn+1 - t1)/n

=To +(vsTo)/v

= To(1+vs/v)

Or v= 1/T =>v = v0(1+vs/v)-1

By using binomial Theorem, v= v0 (1- vs/v)

• If the source is moving towards the observer the expression will become v= v0 (1+ vs/v)

Case 2:- moving observer and stationary source

• As the source is not moving therefore vs is replaced by -v0.

• Therefore v= v0 (1+ v0/v)

Case 3:-The observer and the source both moving

v=vo(v+vo)/(v+vs)

KHATAM