JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

B.SC. COMPUTER SCIENCE: FIRST YEAR FIRST SEMESTER.

ICS 2100: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEMS
NB: Additional notes may be given if/when found to be necessary.
Course Outline
Chapte Chapter Name Chapter Contents
r
1 Introduction
to Definitions, advantages and limitations of computers,
computers applications of computers, evolution of computers,
classification of computers, the anatomy of a computer
2 Computer Definition of hardware and software, types of computer
hardware and software, system software, application software, examples of
software each category of software
3 Input and output Definitions of input and output devices, types of input and
devices output devices
4 Computer Definition of computer memory, classification of computer
memory memory, primary memory, RAM, ROM, PROM, EPROM,
EAPROM, registers, cache, secondary memory (hard disks,
flash drives, DVDs, etc)
5 Number systems Categories of number systems, octal, decimal, binary and
hexadecimal number systems
CAT 1 & ASSIGNMENT
6 Word Processing Definition of terms, features of word processors, examples of
word processing applications, advantages and disadvantages of
word processors, parts of the Microsoft Word 2013 application
window/screen, using Microsoft Word 2013 to create
documents
7 Spreadsheets Definition of terms, features of Spreadsheets, examples of
spreadsheet applications, advantages and disadvantages of
spreadsheets, parts of the Microsoft Excel 2013 application
window/screen, using Microsoft Excel 2013 to create and
manipulate data, performing calculations in Microsoft excel
8 Introduction to Definitions, advantages and disadvantages of the internet, web
the internet browser, various uses of the internet.
CAT 2 Then End of Semester Exams

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Definition: A Computer is an electronic device that can perform activities that involve
Mathematical, Logical and graphical manipulations. Generally, the term is used to describe a
collection of devices that function together as a system.
It performs the following three operations in sequence.

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 1. It receives data & instructions from the input device.
2. Processes the data as per instructions.
3. Provides the result (output) in a desired form.
The figure below shows a graphical representation of a computer comprised of a monitor
(display unit), keyboard, mouse and system unit.

Other Definitions
Data: It is the collection of raw facts, figures & symbols.
Examples: Names of students and their marks in different subjects listed in random
order.
Information: It is the data that is processed & presented in an organized manner.
Example: When the names of students are arranged in alphabetical order, total and
average marks are calculated & presented in a tabular form, it is information.
Program: Set of instructions that enables a computer to perform a given task.

Advantages of computers:

1. High speed: Computers have the ability to perform routine tasks at a greater speed than
human beings. They can perform millions of calculations in seconds.
2. Accuracy: Computers are used to perform tasks in a way that ensures accuracy.
3. Storage of Large volumes of information: Computers can store large amount of
information. Any item of data or any instruction stored in the memory can be retrieved
by the computer at lightning speeds.
4. Automation: Computers can be instructed to perform complex tasks automatically
(which increases the productivity).

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 5. Diligence: Computers can perform the same task repeatedly & with the same accuracy
without getting tired.
6. Versatility: Computers are flexible to perform both simple and complex tasks.
7. Cost effectiveness: Computers reduce the amount of paper work and human effort,
thereby reducing costs.

Limitations of computers:
1. Computers need clear & complete instructions to perform a task accurately. If
the instructions are not clear & complete, the computer will not produce the required
result.
2. Computers are not as creative as human beings.

Applications of Computers

Today computers find widespread applications in all activities of the modern world. Some of
the major application areas include:

1. Scientific, Engineering and Research

This is the major area where computers find vast applications. They are used in areas which
require lot of experiments, mathematical calculations, weather forecasting, and complex
mathematical and engineering applications. Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Computer
Aided Manufacturing (CAM) help in designing robotics, automobile manufacturing, automatic
process control devices etc.

2. Business
Record keeping, budgets, reports, inventory, payroll, invoicing and accounts are all the areas of
business and industry where computers are used to a great extent. Database management is one
of the major area where computers are used on a large scale. The areas of application here
include banking, airline reservations, etc. where large amounts of data need to be updated,
edited, sorted, and searched from large databases.

3. Medicine
Computerized systems are now in widespread use in monitoring patient data like, pulse rate,
blood pressure etc. resulting in faster and accurate diagnosis. Modern day medical equipment
are highly computerized. Computers are also widely used in medical research.

4. Information/Media Industry
This is the age of information. Television, Satellite communication, Internet, networks are all
based on computers.

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 5. Education:
The use of computers in education is increasing day by day. The students develop the habit of
thinking more logically and are able to formulate problem solving techniques. CDs on a variety
of subjects are available to impart education. On line training programs for students are also
becoming popular day by day. All the major encyclopedias, dictionaries and books are now
available in the digital form and therefore are easily accessible to the student of today. Creativity
in drawing, painting, designing, decoration, music etc. can be well developed with computers.
6. Games and Entertainment:
Computer games are popular with children and adults alike. Computers are nowadays also used
in entertainment areas like movies, sports, advertising etc.

Evolution of Computers
The computers of today are vastly different in appearance and performance as
compared to the computers of earlier days. But where did this technology come
from and where is it heading? To fully understand the impact of computers on
today’s world and the promises they hold for the future, it is important to
understand the evolution of computers.

1. The First Generation Computers

The first generation computers made use of:
• Vacuum tube technology,
• Punched cards for data input,
• Punched cards and paper tape for output,
• Machine Language for writing programs,
• Magnetic tapes and drums for external storage.

The computers of the first generation were very bulky and emitted large amount of
heat which required air conditioning. They were large in size and cumbersome to
handle. They had to be manually assembled and had limited commercial use. The
concept of operating systems was not known at that time. Each computer had a
different binary coded program called a machine language that told it how to
operate.

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Punched cards Paper tape Vacuum tube

The Abacus, which emerged about 5000 years ago in Asia Minor and is still in use
today, allows users to make computations using a system of sliding beads arranged
on a rack. Early merchants used Abacus to keep trading transactions.

Abacus Pascaline

Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician invented the first mechanical machine, a

rectangular brass box, called Pascaline which could perform addition and
subtraction on whole numbers. This was in the seventeenth century. Colmar, a
Frenchman invented a machine that could perform the four basic arithmetic
functions of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Colmar’s
mechanical calculator, “Arithmometer”, presented a more practical approach to
computing. With its enhanced versatility, the “Arithmometer” was widely used
until the First World War, although later inventors refined Colmar’s calculator,
together with fellow inventors, Pascal and Leibniz, he helped define the age of
mechanical computation.
Charles Babbage, a British mathematician at Cambridge University invented the
first analytical engine or difference engine. This machine could be programmed
by instructions coded on punch cards and had mechanical memory to store the
results. For his contributions in this field Charles Babbage is known as ‘the
father of modern digital computer.

Some of the early computers included:

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 i. Mark I
This was the first fully automatic calculating machine. It was designed by Howard Aiken of
Harvard University in collaboration with IBM. This machine was an electronic relay computer.
Electromagnetic signals were used for the movement of mechanical parts. Mark I could perform
the basic arithmetic and complex equations. Although this machine was extremely reliable, it
was very slow (it took about 3-5 seconds per calculation) and was complex in design and large
in size.

ii. Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC)

This computer developed by John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry was the world’s first general
purpose electronic digital computer. It made use of vacuum tubes for internal logic and
capacitors for storage.
iii. ENIAC (Electronic Numeric Integrator and Calculator)
The first all-electronic computer was produced by a partnership between the US
Government and the University of Pennsylvania. It was built using 18,000 vacuum tubes,
70,000 resistors and 1,500 relays and consumed 160 kilowatts of electrical power. The ENIAC
computed at speed about thousand times faster than Mark I. However, it could store and
manipulate only a limited amount of data. Program modifications and detecting errors were also
difficult.

ENIAC
iv. EDVAC
In the mid 1940’s, Dr. John von Neumann designed the Electronic Discrete Variable
Automatic Computer with a memory to store both program and data. This was the first
machine which used the stored program concept. It had five distinct units: arithmetic, central
control, memory, input and output. The key element was the central control. All the functions of
the computer were coordinated through this single source, the central control. The programming
of the computers was done in machine language.
v. UNIVAC • I
Remington Rand designed this computer specifically for business data processing applications.
The Universal Automatic Computer was the first general purpose commercially available
computer.

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 . UNIVAC

2. The Second Generation:

In the second generation computers:
• Vacuum tube technology was replaced by transistorized technology,
• Size of the computers started reducing,
• Assembly language started being used in place of machine language,
• Concept of stored program emerged,
• High level languages were invented.

This was the generation of Transistorized Computers. Vacuum tubes were replaced by
transistors. As a result, the size of the machines started shrinking. These computers were
smaller, faster, more reliable and more energy efficient. The first transistorized computer was
TX-0. The first large scale machines that took advantage of the transistor technology were the
early supercomputers, Stretch by IBM and LARC by Sperry Rand. These machines were mainly
developed for atomic energy laboratories. Typical computers of the second generation were the
IBM 1400 and 7000 series, Honeywell 200 and General Electric.

Transistors

IBM 1401 was universally accepted throughout the industry and most large businesses routinely
processed financial information using second generation computers. The machine language was

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replaced by assembly language. Thus the long and difficult binary code was replaced with
abbreviated programming code which was relatively easy to understand.
The stored program concept and programming languages gave the computers flexibility to
finally be cost effective and productive for business use. The stored program concept implied
that the instructions to run a computer for a specific task were held inside the computer’s
memory and could quickly be modified or replaced by a different set of instructions for a
different function. High level languages like COBOL, FORTRAN and AL-GOL were
developed. Computers started finding vast and varied applications. The entire software industry
began with the second generation computers.

3. The Third Generation:

The third generation computers were characterized by:

• Use of Integrated circuits,
• Phenomenal increase in computation speed,
• Substantial reduction in size and power consumption of the machines,
• Use of magnetic tapes and drums for external storage,
• Design-of Operating systems and new higher level languages,
• Commercial production of computers.

This generation was characterized by the invention of Integrated Circuits (ICs).

The 1C combined electronic components onto a small chip which was made from quartz.

i) Integrated Circuit ii) Integrated Circuit

Later, even more components were fitted onto a single chip, called a semiconductor. This
reduced the size even further. The weight and power consumption of computers decreased and
the speed increased tremendously. Heavy emphasis was given to the development of software.
Operating systems were designed which allowed the machine to run many different programs at
once. A central program monitored and co-ordinated the computer’s memory.
Multiprogramming was made possible, whereby the machine could perform several jobs at the
same time. Computers achieved speeds of executing millions of instructions per second.
Commercial production became easier and cheaper. Higher level languages like Pascal and

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Report Program Generator (RPG) were introduced and applications oriented languages like
FORTRAN, COBOL, and PL/1 were developed.

4. The Fourth Generation:

The general features of the fourth generation computers were:
• Use of Very Large Scale Integration,
• Invention of microcomputers,
• Introduction of Personal Computers,
• Networking,
• Fourth Generation Languages.

VLSI

The third generation computers made use of Integrated Circuits that had 1020 components on
each chip, this was Small Scale Integration (SSI).
The Fourth Generation realized Large Scale Integration (LSI) which could fit hundreds of
components on one chip and Very Large Scale integration (VLSI) which squeezed thousands
of components on one chip. The Intel 4004 chip, located all the components of a computer
(central processing unit, memory, input and output controls) on a single chip and
microcomputers were introduced. Higher capacity storage media like magnetic disks were
developed. Fourth generation languages emerged and applications software started becoming
popular.
Computer production became inexpensive and the era of Personal Computers (PCs)
commenced. In 1981, IBM introduced its personal computer for use in office, home and schools.
In direct competition, the Macintosh was introduced by Apple in 1984. Shared interactive
systems and user friendly environments were the features of these computers.
As the computers started becoming more and more powerful, they could be linked together or
networked to share not only data but also memory space and software. The networks could

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reach enormous proportions with local area networks. A global web of computer circuitry, the
Internet, links the computers worldwide into a single network of information.

5. The Fifth Generation:

Defining the fifth generation computers is somewhat difficult because the field is still in its
infancy. The computers of tomorrow would be characterized by Artificial Intelligence (AI). An
example of Al is Expert Systems. Computers could be developed which could think and reason
in much the same way as humans. Computers would be able to accept spoken words as input
(voice recognition).

Many advances in the science of computer design and technology are coming together to enable
the creation of fifth generation computers. Two such advances are parallel processing where
many CPUs work as one and advance in superconductor technology which allows the flow of
electricity with little or no resistance, greatly improving the speed of information flow.

Classification of Computers
Computers are classified into various types depending on their purpose, operation and
size.

1. Classification based on the purpose of the computer

i. General purpose computers.
ii. Special purpose computer.

i. General Purpose Computers

These computers are theoretically used for any type of applications. They can be used in
solving a business problem and also used to solve mathematical equations with same
accuracy and consistency. Most of the computer now are general purpose digital
computers. All the PCs which have become a household affair fall in this category.

ii. Special Purpose Computers

These digital computer are designed, made and used for a specific job. Usually used for
those purposes which are critical and need great accuracy and response time like
Satellite launching, weather forecasting, in the health sector, etc.

2. Classification as per the operation of computer.

According to the operational principle of computers, they are categorized as analog,

digital or hybrid computers.

i. Analog Computers

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These are almost extinct today. They are different from a digital computer because an
analog computer can perform several mathematical operations simultaneously. It uses
continuous variables for mathematical operations and utilizes mechanical or electrical
energy.

ii. Digital Computers

They use digital circuits and are designed to operate on two states, namely bits 0 and 1.
They are analogous to states ON and OFF. Data on these computers is represented as a
series of 0s and 1s. Digital computers are suitable for complex computation and have
higher processing speeds. They are programmable.
They are either general purpose computers or special purpose ones. Special purpose
computers, as their name suggests, are designed for specific types of data processing
while general purpose computers are meant for general use.

iii. Hybrid Computers

These computers are a combination of both digital and analog computers. In this type of
computers, the digital segments perform process control by conversion of analog signals
to digital ones.

3. Classification of Computers Based on Size

According to the sizes of the computers, the computers are classified as follows:
i. Supercomputers
The highly calculation-intensive tasks can be effectively performed by means of
supercomputers. Quantum physics, mechanics, weather forecasting, molecular theory
are best studied by means of supercomputers. Their ability of parallel processing and
their well-designed memory hierarchy give the supercomputers large transaction
processing powers. An example of these computers is the PARAM developed in India.

ii. Servers:
They are computers designed to provide services to client machines in a computer
network. They have larger storage capacities and powerful processors. Running on them
are programs that serve client requests and allocate resources like memory and time to
client machines. Usually they are very large in size, as they have large processors and
many hard drives. They are designed to be fail-safe and resistant to crash.

iii. Mainframe Computers:

Large organizations use mainframes for highly critical applications such as bulk data
processing and ERP. Most of the mainframe computers have capacities to host multiple
operating systems and operate as a number of virtual machines. They can substitute for
several small servers.

iv. Wearable Computers:

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A record-setting step in the evolution of computers was the creation of wearable
computers. These computers can be worn on the body and are often used in the study of
behavior modeling and human health. Military and health professionals have
incorporated wearable computers into their daily routine, as a part of such studies. When
the users’ hands and sensory organs are engaged in other activities, wearable computers
are of great help in tracking human actions. Wearable computers do not have to be
turned on and off and remain in operation without user intervention.

v. Minicomputers:
In terms of size and processing capacity, minicomputers lie in between mainframes and
microcomputers. Minicomputers are also called mid-range systems or workstations. The
term began to be popularly used in the 1960s to refer to relatively smaller third
generation computers. They took up the space that would be needed for a refrigerator or
two and used transistor and core memory technologies. The 12-bit PDP-8 minicomputer
of the Digital Equipment Corporation was the first successful minicomputer.

vi. Microcomputers:
A computer with a microprocessor and its central processing unit is known as a
microcomputer. They do not occupy space as much as mainframes do.
When supplemented with a keyboard and a mouse, microcomputers can be called
personal computers. A monitor, a keyboard and other similar input-output devices,
computer memory in the form of RAM and a power supply unit come packaged in a
microcomputer. These computers can fit on desks or tables and prove to be the best
choice for single-user tasks.

vii. Desktops:
A desktop is intended to be used on a single location. The spare parts of a desktop
computer are readily available at relatively lower costs. Power consumption is not as
critical as that in laptops. Desktops are widely popular for daily use in the workplace and
households.

viii. Laptops:
Similar in operation to desktops, laptop computers are miniaturized and optimized for
mobile use. Laptops run on a single battery or an external adapter that charges the
computer batteries. They are enabled with an inbuilt keyboard, touch pad acting as a
mouse and a liquid crystal display. Their portability and capacity to operate on battery
power have proven to be of great help to mobile users.

ix. Notebooks:
They fall in the category of laptops, but are inexpensive and relatively smaller in size.
They had a smaller feature set and lesser capacities in comparison to regular laptops, at
the time they came into the market. But with passing time, notebooks too began

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featuring almost everything that laptops had. By the end of 2008, notebooks had begun
to overtake laptops in terms of market share and sales.

x. Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs):

It is a handheld computer and popularly known as a palmtop. It has a touch screen and a
memory card for storage of data. PDAs can also be used as portable audio players, web
browsers and smart phones. Most of them can access the Internet by means of Bluetooth
or Wi-Fi communication.

xi. Tablet Computers:

Tablets are mobile computers that are very handy to use. They use the touch screen
technology. Tablets come with an onscreen keyboard or use a stylus or a digital pen.
Apple‘s iPad redefined the class of tablet computers.

The Anatomy of Computers

A computer mainly performs four functions: input, process, output and storage. These
functions are described in the manner of a diagram as below. The block diagram of a
computer consists mainly of:
· Input unit
· CPU(Control unit, Memory unit and ALU)
· Output unit,
· Secondary Storage unit

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 1. Input:
This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system.
Reads information from input media and enters to the
computer in a coded form through an input device such as keyboard and the mouse.

2. Main Memory/ internal memory:

It is very fast in operation. It is used to store data and instructions. Data has to be fed
into the system before the actual processing starts. It contains a part of the operating
system Software, one or more execution programs being executed, the data being
processed and required by the programs for execution, and processed data awaiting
output.

3. Output:
This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful information.
Similarly the output produced by the computer after processing must also be kept
somewhere inside the computer before being given to you in human readable form
through the screen or printer. The output can also be stored inside the computer for
further processing.

4. Control Unit (CU) :

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 - Acts like the supervisor seeing that things are done in proper fashion.
- Control Unit is responsible for coordinating various operations using time
signals.
- It determines the sequence in which computer programs and instructions
are executed. Things like processing of programs stored in the main
memory, interpretation of the instructions and issuing of signals for other
units of the computer to execute them.
- It also acts as a switch board operator when several users access the
computer simultaneously.
- Thereby it coordinates the activities of computer‘s peripheral equipment
as they perform the input and output.

5. Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU) :

- After you enter data through the input device it is stored in the primary
storage.
- The actual processing of the data and instruction are performed by
Arithmetic and Logical Unit.
- The major operations performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, logic and comparison.
- Data is transferred to ALU from the storage unit when required.
- After processing the output is either returned back to storage unit for
further processing or given to the user in the form of output.
6. Secondary storage:
- It is also known as auxiliary memory.
- It is closely linked with the main memory.
- Since main memory can‘t be flooded with unwanted data at particular
moment, same is stored in auxiliary memory from which desired data is
fed to main memory as and when required by it.
- Thus secondary storage is used to hold a mass of information i.e., system
software, application programs, cinemas, games and data files.
- The capacity of secondary storage is very high compared to main
memory.

Auxiliary memory is usually in the form of Magnetic disks, Magnetic tapes, CD‘s, Memory
cards, Pen drives Etc.

CHAPTER 2: COMPUTER HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

Hardware: The physical components of the computer. It refers to the computer parts that we can
actually see and touch e.g. the keyboard, mouse, system unit, computer monitors, etc.

Software: Software is a program or set of instructions that causes the Hardware to function in a
desired way.

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There are two basic types of Computer software:
1. System software
2. Application software

The relationship between the user, application software, operating system and computer
hardware

1. System software
It consists of the programs that control or maintain the operations of a computer and its devices.
Two types of system software are the operating system, which coordinates activities among
computer hardware devices, and utility programs, which perform maintenance- type tasks
usually related to managing a computer, its devices, or its programs.
a) Operating System (OS)

The software that manages the resources of a computer system and schedules its operation is
called the operating system. The operating system acts as interface between the hardware and the
user programs and facilitates the execution of programs. Generally the OS acts as an interface
between the user and the hardware of the computer. That is, it is a bridge between the user and
the Hardware. The user interface provided by the OS can be character based or graphical.

CUI (Character User Interface) It is operated with keyboard only e.g MS-DOS, UNIX.

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GUI (Graphical User Interface). The system can be operated with mouse and keyboard e.g.
Windows XP and Windows 7.

Functions of the Operating System

i. Processor management: It manages the assignment of processor to different tasks being
performed by the computer system.
ii. Memory management: It manages the allocation of main memory and other storage
areas to the system programs as well as user programs and data.
iii. Input / Output management: It manages the co-ordination and assignment of different
Input and Output devices while one or more programs are executing.
iv. Establishment and enforcement of a priority system: The OS determines and
maintains the order in which jobs are to be executed in the computer system.
v. Interpretation of commands and instructions.
vi. Facilitates easy communication between the computer system and the computer operator.
vii. Supports file management.

b) Utility Programs

These are pre-written programs specifically designed for maintaining the day to day activities of
computer system e.g an antivirus software and device drivers.

2. Application software
It consists of programs designed to make users more productive in achieving a particular task.
Popular application software includes Web browsers, word processing software, spreadsheet
software, database software, and presentation software.
Types of Application Software
i. Generic software products.
These are stand-alone systems that are produced by a development organization and sold on the
open market to any customer who is able to buy them. E.g. databases, word processors, drawing
packages and project management tools.

ii. Customized (or bespoke) software products.

These are products which are commissioned by a particular customer. A software contractor
develops the software especially for that customer. E.g. control systems for electronic devices,
systems written to support a particular business process and air traffic control systems.

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Customized Software Products Vs Generic Software Products
An important difference between these types of software is that, in generic products, the
organization that develops the software controls the software specification.
For custom products, the specification is usually developed and controlled by the organization
that is buying the software. The software developers must work to that specification. However,
the line between these types of products is becoming increasingly blurred. More and more
software companies are starting with a generic system and customizing it to the needs of a
particular customer. Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems, such as the SAP system, are
the best examples of this approach. Here, a large and complex system is adapted for a company
by incorporating information about business rules and processes, reports, e.t.c

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