• The instantaneous frequency ‘f’ of the frequency modulated signal is given

❖ FREQUENCY MODUALTION :
SAI SUDHIR DEGREE & PG COLLEGE • If the frequency of the carrier is changed in accordance with the message signal
as,

ECIL X ROADS
keeping amplitude and phase constant is known as Frequency Modulation.

BSC(MECS) II YEAR - IV SEMESTER

• The maximum & minimum values of the instantaneous frequency is given
PAPER IV-LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS & as,

BASICS OF COMMUNICATION

UNIT IV: FREQUENCY MODULATION

Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College

❖ ANALYSIS OF FM /SPECTRUM OF FM
• The maximum change in frequency from the mean value ‘fc’ is known as • Deviation ratio is defined as the ratio of maximum allowed frequency
frequency deviation (Δf). deviation (Δf)max to the maximum allowed modulating frequency (fm)max

• The modulation index of FM (mf )is defined as the ratio of frequency

deviation to the modulation frequency.
• % Modulation : In FM % modulation is defined as the ratio of actual
frequency deviation to the maximum allowed frequency deviation.

ω = ωc + kf Am cos ωmt
where kf =frequency sensitivity,of the modulating signal
phase

Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College
 • This feature eliminates ❖ ADVANTAGES OF FM / COMPARE AM & FM
• The side frequency pair differ from carrier
frequency ‘fc’ by ‘fm’ is known as first order the variations in the FM AM FM
side frequencies & that differing by 2fm as signal thus providing
2nd order side frequencies & so on …. amplitude limiting.
• The number of side frequency pairs is • The sudden changes in
limited in number because the amplitude the input signal amplitude
• From the above equ. the frequency modulated wave consists of a component are suppressed by large capacitor .
of the frequency components depends on
at a carrier frequency fc=(ωc/2π) & an infinite number of side frequency • The voltage ‘Es’ i.e. voltage across ‘C3’ is given as , Es=e1+e2 ; where e1 is the
components. modualtion index ‘mf’.
voltage across capacitor ‘C1’ & e2 is the voltage across capacitor C2.
• The side frequency components extend above & below the carrier by an • The bandwidth of FM is given as ,
• The output voltage e0 is given as , e0=(Es/2)-e2
amount equal to fm,2fm,3fm …. e0 = ((e1+e2)/2)-e2 == > e0= (e1-e2)/2 S(t) = (Ac + Am cos ωmt)cos ωct
• Thus the side frequency are , • When the modulated signal frequency fin is equal to fc (fin=fc)then the 2
diodes D1 & D2 conduct equally which inturn makes e1 equal to e2 & hence the
desired o/p voltage ‘e0’ will be zero.
• Thus each pair of side frequencies is spaced • When fin >fc then the diode D1 conducts more than diode D2 .So, e1>e2 &
by an amount equal to the modulating signal hence o/p voltage will be positive.
frequency and its integral multiples. • When fin < fc then the diode ‘D2’ conducts more than the diode ‘D1’.
So,e1<e2 & hence the o/p voltage will be negative.

Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College

❖ VARACTOR DIODE MODULATOR / SIMPLE FM MODUALTOR

• Varactor diode modulator is the direct • The modulating signal voltage adds to / subtracts from the DC bias ‘Vo’. 9
method of FM generation where the • As the amplitude of the modulating signal increases the RB on the varactor 9
carrier frequency is directly varied by the diode also increases which decreases its capacitance & thus increases the
message signal or modulating signal. frequency of oscillation.
• Varactor diode is a specially fabricated • As the amplitude of the modulating signal decreases ,the RB on the varactor 10 10
PN junction diode whose junction diode also decreases which increases the capacitance & thus decreases the
capacitance varies by applying a RB. frequency of oscillation.
• As the RB increases the capacitance • They are widely accepted because they are simple to use & reliable.It is 7
decreases & vice-versa. mostly used in the automatic frequency control & remote tuning. 11 11
7
• The varactor diode is connected across the oscillator tank circuit through a
❖ DETECTION OF FM WAVES / RATIO DETECTOR
coupling capacitor of large value which isolates the diode from oscillator for
DC but provides a s/c at operating frequencies. • A Ratio detector is a circuit which demodulates the FM signal. 8
• ‘Vo’ is the voltage applied to maintain a RB across the varactor diode. • The ratio detector is a circuit designed to respond only to the frequency 8
• Varactor diode is arranged in RB to offer junction capacitance effect. changes of the input signal.
• The modulating signal which is in series with the ‘Vo’ will vary the RB voltage • Amplitude changes in the input have no effect on the output.
of the varactor diode & hence varies junction capacitance resuting the • The capacitor C3 across R1 & R2 maintains a constant voltage i.e. equal to the
oscillator frequency accordingly. peak voltage across the diode input.

Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College
❖ AM TRANSMITTER : vi)AUDIO AMPLIFIER : The audio signal obtained at the o/p of the detector
ii) BUFFER AMPLIFIER : The buffer amplifier is used to isolate the master i) RF TUNER : The FM signals are in the frequency range of 88 to 108 MHz.The
• The function of a transmitter is to convert audible sound waves into electrical will be amplified to provide additional amplification.
oscillator from the influence of modulation done at later stages. RF tuner consists of RF amplifier ,Mixer & local oscillator .
signal which are amplified & modulated & sent out into the space by the • It also amplifies the oscillator o/p & it is generally operated as Class A amplifier. vii)LOUD SPEAKER : Through an impedance matching transformer ,the • The RF amplifier amplifies the selected FM signal.The o/p of RF amplifier is
transmitting
transmittingantenna
antenna.. amplified is fed to the loud speaker which converts the audio signals into sound fed to the mixer stage where it is combined with the local oscillator o/p.
iii)AUDIO AMPLIFIER : The microphone converts the audio signals into
waves. • The two frequencies are mixed together to produce an intermediate frequency
equivalent electrical signals.
• The level of audio signals so produced is raised by Audio frequency amplifier ❖ FM RECEIVER : (IF).
which is always operated as Class A amplifier . • The FM receiver is more complicated & expensive than the AM receiver. It also • The IF is equal to the difference between oscillator frequency & RF frequency.It
iv) MODULATING AMPLIFIER : It is a Class B Push Pull amplifier & it is used uses the superheterodyne principle . is 10.7MHz for FM .
to increase the audio power to a level suitable for modulation. ii)IF AMPLIFIER : The o/p from mixer having a frequency of 10.7 MHz is fed to
• Its output power is generally comparable to the power amplifier . IF amplifier for amplification.
v)POWER AMPLIFIER : The o/p of the buffer amplifier & modulating amplifier iii)LIMITER :The o/p of IF amplifier is fed to a limiter.It keeps the o/p level
are given to the power amplifier where the carrier gets amplitude modulated. constant for different input levels.
• It is a Class C power amplifier . The modulated signal so produced has iv)FM DETECTOR : The o/p of the limiter is given to the FM detector.It
1) RF OSCILLATOR : It generates the carrier signal which lies in the radio sufficient energy to drive the antenna. converts the frequency variations to amplitude variations.
frequency (RF)range . vi) TRANSMITTING ANTENNA : The modulated carrier o/p from the power •It is also called discriminator as it distinguishes different frequencies in the i/p
• A crystal controlled master oscillator is used to generate the carrier signal amplifier is given to the transmitting antenna which converts RF signals into to provide different o/p voltages.The o/p is then rectified & amplified & then
of desired frequency. electromagnetic energy & radiates into the space. finally given to the speaker.

Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College
❖ AM RECEIVER /SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER :
i)RECEIVING ANTENNA : The receiving antenna intercepts the electromagnetic ❖ PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (PAM)
• A receiver is a device which picks up desired radio frequency signal transmitted • As the amplitude of the message signal is increased the amplitude of the
waves & converts them into RF voltage . • If the amplitude of the pulse is varied in accordance with the message signal
by the transmitter & converts it into an audible sound wave . carrier also increases whereas if the amplitude of the message signal is
• The voltage is fed as input to the RF amplifier stage . keeping the position and width of the pulse constant then it is known as pulse
• Most of the radio receivers are superheterodyne type.The term heterodyne decreased the amplitude of the carrier also decreases.
ii) RF AMPLIFIER STAGE : The voltage given as i/p to the RF amplifier stage amplitude modulation (PAM).
means mixing . Superheterodyne stands for Supersonic heterodyne which means
must be amplified to detect the weak signal before it is fed to the mixer.
the production of beat frequency above the range of hearing.
• It also improves the S/N ratio.
• Superhetrodyne are often referred as Superhet as the incoming carrier
frequencies are converted into lower fixed value called the Intermediate iii)MIXER(FREQUENCY CONVERTER STAGE) : It is required to convert the
frequency (IF) . frequency of the incoming carrier to intermediate frequency (IF) which is
• The heterodying process involves mixing the incoming RF signal with 455 KHz in most of the cases.
oscillations produced by a local oscillator to obtain a signal of new frequency • The radio frequency signal of frequency ‘fs’ & a local oscillator voltage of
which is generally the difference of the two signal frequencies. frequency ‘f0’ are mixed in the mixer stage.
•The o/p of the mixer has frequency components f0 , fs , f0+fs , f0-fs . •Modulation signal or message signal is fed to a low pass filter which allows only
• The difference frequency (IF) will be in audible RF range.
low frequency signals.
iv)IF AMPLIFIER : IF signals produced by the mixer stage are amplified by the
• Carrier signal consisting of train of pulses is generated using pulse generator.
IF amplifier which have one or more stages of amplification & are designed to
•The output of the low pass filter and Pulse generator are fed to the sampling • Reconstruction of original analog information
amplify only a narrow band of frequencies around a fixed central frequency.
circuit. signal can be achieved by passing the PAM signal MSG
v)DETECTOR & AGC : The o/p of the IF amplifier is fed to the detector to •Pulse amplitude modulated(PAM) signal is produced by the multiplication of PAM RECONSTRUCTION SIGNAL
over the reconstruction filter. FILTER
separate the modulating signal from carrier wave. the message signal or modulating signal and the carrier signal.
• It also provides automatic gain control (AGC) to the preceding stages .

Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College
❖PULSE WIDTH MODULATION (PWM): i)Low pass filter :
•When the amplitude of the modulating signal is greater than the sawtooth ❖ PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM) • The message signal is first passed through low pass filter of cutoff frequency
•If the width of the pulse is changed in accordance with the message signal keeping
signal then the output of the comparator will be positive. • PCM is a method that is used to convert analog signal into digital signal so ‘fc’.So this low pass filter blocks all the frequency components above ‘fc’ Hz.
amplitude and position constant then it is known as pulse width modulation.
•When the amplitude of the modulating signal is lesser than the sawtooth that it can be transmitted through the digital communication network.We • The Output of low pass filter is given to a sampler.
•PWM signal can be generated using a comparator and a sawtooth generator which
signal then the output of the comparator will be negative. get back the analog signal by demodulation. ii) Sampler:
generates sawtooth signal at carrier frequency.
•The rising edge of the pwm signal coincides with the falling edge of the • The pulse code modulation is done in 3 steps • This technique helps to collect the sample data so as to reconstruct the
sawtooth signal. i)Sampling ii) Quantization iii)Encoding original signal.The sampling rate fs ≥ 2fm where fm is the message signal
Comparator
MODULATING •The input modulating signal amplitude determine the comparator output • In pulse code modulation the message signal is represented by a sequence frequency.
SIGNAL + which then decide the pulse width generated in the output.Thus the width of of code pulses. • This is known as sampling theorem.
-
the pulse generated is directly iii) Quantizer :
proportional to the amplitude • Quantization is a process of reducing the excessive bits and confining the
of the modulating signal. data.The sampled output when given to the quantizer reduces the redundant
SAW TOOTH
GENERATOR
•In pwm the width of the bits and compress the value.
pulse increases as the • It will assign a fixed quantization level for a given sample.The output of a
amplitude of the message quantizer is given to the encoder
•The modulating signal is applied to the non inverting terminal and sawtooth
signal increases and its width iv)Encoder :
generator is applied to the inverting terminal of an op-amp.
decreases as the amplitude of •The digitisation of the quantized signal is done by the encoder.It designates
•The amplitude of the sawtooth signal must be greater than the amplitude of
the message signal decreases. each quantized level by the binary code.
the modulating signal.
•The comparator compares the two signals to generate the PWM signal. •Encoding minimises the bandwidth used .The three sections LPF,sample and
quantizer will act as analog to digital converter.
Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College

• This voltage remains high for a fixed period determined by the R &C values vi)Repeater : ❖ DELTA MODULATION :
❖ PULSE POSITION MODULATION (PPM): • The repeater increases the signal strength .
used in the monostable multivibrator and then it goes low.Thus the position of
• If the position of the pulse changes in accordance with the message signal •The output of the channel also has one repeater to compensate the signal • PCM transmits all the bits which are used to code the sample.Hence the
the pulse varies with the amplitude of the modulating signal.
keeping amplitude and width constant is known as pulse position modulation. loss and also to increase its strength. signalling rate and transmission channel bandwidth are large in PCM.
• The position of the pulse moves towards right as the amplitude of the message
• To generate pulse position modulation, PWM signal is used as a trigger to the vii)Regeneration circuit: • To overcome this problem Delta modulation is used.
signal increases and its position moves towards left as the amplitude of the
Monostable multivibrator. •It will eliminate the noise present in the received PCM output. • Delta modulation transmits only one bit per sample.
message decreases.
• The Monostable output remains zero until it is triggered. viii)Decoder: • The present sample value is compared with the previous sample value and the
• The Decoder circuit decodes the pulse coded waveform to reproduce the indication whether the amplitude is increased or decreased is sent.
original signal. • The input signal x(t)is approximated to the step signal by the Delta modulator.
MODULATING
SIGNAL •This circuit acts as a demodulator . This step size is fixed.
ix)Reconstruction filter : • The difference between input signal x(t) & staircase approximated signal is
•After the digital to analog conversion is done by the regeneration circuit and confined to two levels i.e. +δ & -δ .
decoder,LPF is employed also called as reconstruction filter to get back the • If the difference is positive then the approximated is signal is increase by one
original signal. step i.e. +δ
• If the difference is negative then the approximated signal is reduced by one
•The Monostable multivibrator is triggered on the falling( trailing ) edge of the Hence pulse code modulation circuit will digitise the analog signal and step i.e. -δ
PWM. The output of the Monostable then switches to the positive saturation transmits through the digital transmission circuit • When the step is reduced then bit ‘0’ is transmitted.
level. • When the step size is increased then bit ‘1’ is transmitted.

Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College
• Thus for each sample only one binary bit is transmitted .

Sai Sudhir Degree & PG College