Electrical Machine

EEK260

By
Assoc. Prof. Ir. Dr. Mohamad Kamarol Mohd Jamil C.Eng
e-mail: eekamarol@usm.my
Room: 2.32
Ext: 6064
 Electrical Machine We l e a d

An electrical machine is a device that can convert either

mechanical energy to electrical energy or electrical
energy to mechanical energy

• Generator- is used to convert mechanical energy to

electrical energy
• Motor – is used to convert electrical energy to
mechanical energy
• Transformer – Convert AC electrical energy at one
voltage level to AC electrical energy at another voltage
level
The Magnetic field We l e a d

Basic principals describe how magnetic

field are used in these devices?
1) A current-carrying wire produces a magnetic
field in the area around it
2) A time-changing magnetic field induces a
voltage in a coil of wire if it passes through that
coil. – (The basis of transformer action)
3) A current-carrying wire in the presence of
magnetic field has a force induced on it. – (The
basis of motor action)
4) A moving wire in the presence of magnetic
field has a voltage induced in it. – (The basis of
generator action)
Production of Magnetic Field We l e a d

Basic law governing the production of magnetic field

∫ H⋅dl = I net (ampere' s law)
H (ampere-turns/m) : magnetic field intensity produced by the current Inet
Hlc = Ni H : magnitude of the magnetic field intensity vector H

Ni
H=
lc
The relationship between the magnetic field intensity H and the
resulting magnetic flux density B produced within a material is given
by
B = µH

H : magnetic field intensity (A-turns/m)

µ ; magnetic permeability of material (H/m)
B : resulting magnetic flux density produced (Wb/m2)=(T)
Production of Magnetic Field We l e a d

Where,
µ = µ r µ0
Relatively permeability is used to compare the
magnetizability of the materials.
Example,
Steels used in modern machines have relative
permeability of 2000 to 6000 or even more. Therefore for
a given amount of current, the flux established in a piece
of steel is 2000 to 6000 times more than in air.
Obviously, show that the material or metals in
electrical m/c play an extremely important part in
increasing and concentrating the magnetic flux in the
device
Production of Magnetic Field We l e a d

Magnitude of the flux density

µNi
B = µH =
lc

Total flux in given area

φ = ∫ B ⋅ dA
A

where, dA : differential unit of area

If the flux density vector is perpendicular to a plane of area
A, and if constant throughout the area
µNiA
φ = BA =
lc

where, A : is the cross-sectional area of the core

 Magnetic Circuits We l e a d

Magnetic circuit model of magnetic behavior is

often used in design of electrical machines.

I φ

F =Ni
V
+ R + R
- -
V 𝜙=​ℱ/ℜ
I=
R
a) A simple electric circuit b) A magnetic circuit analog to
transformer core
 Magnetic Circuits We l e a d

F =Ni
+ R
-

b) A magnetic circuit analog to

transformer core
F=φR

F : magnetomotive force of circuit (A. turns)

Φ : flux of circuit (Wb)
R : Reluctance of circuit (A.turns/Wb)
Magnetic Circuits We l e a d

What is the reluctance of this core ?

µNiA
φ = BA =
lc
⎛ µA ⎞
= Ni ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ lc ⎠

⎛ µA ⎞
φ = F ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ F=φR
⎝ lc ⎠

lc
R =
µA
Reluctances in a magnetic circuit obey the same rules
as resistances in an electric circuit.
Magnetic Circuits We l e a d

The equivalent reluctance of a number of

reluctances in series is just the sum of the
individual reluctances
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + .....

Similarly, reluctances in parallel

1 1 1 1
= + + + .........
Req R1 R2 R3
 Magnetic Circuit -Example 1-1 We l e a d

A ferromagnetic core is shown in Fig. 1-1. Three sides of this core are of uniform
width, while the fourth side is somewhat thinner. The depth of the core (into the
page) is 10 cm, and the other dimension are shown in figure. There is a 200 turn coil
wrapped around the left side of the core. Assuming relative permeability µr of 2500,
how much flux will be produced by 1 A input current?

Fig. 1-1
 Solution for Example 1-1
We l e a d

The mean path length of region 1 is 45 cm

2
Cross-sectional area is 10 x1 0 cm = 100 cm

Reluctance in the first region

l1 l1
R1 = =
µ A1 µ r µ0 A1
0.45 m
=
(2500)(4π ×10 −7 )(0.01 m 2 )
= 14,300 A ⋅ turns / Wb
Solution for Example 1-1
--Continue We l e a d

The mean path length of region 2 is 130 cm

2
Cross-sectional area is 15x1 0 cm = 150 cm
l2 l2
R 2 = =
µ A2 µ r µ 0 A2
1.3 m
=
(2500)(4π ×10 −7 )(0.015 m 2 )
= 27,600 A ⋅ turns / Wb
Therefore the total reluctance in the
core is
R eq = R 1 + R 2
= 14,300 + 27,600
= 41,900 A ⋅ turns / Wb
Solution for Example 1-1
--Continue We l e a d

The total magnetomotive force is

F = Ni = (200 turns)(1.0 A)
= 200 A⋅ turns

The total flux in the core is given by

F 200 A ⋅ turns
φ= =
R 41,900 A ⋅ turns / Wb
= 0.0048 Wb
Example 1- 2 We l e a d

Figure 1-2 shows a ferromagnetic core whose mean

path length is 40 cm. There is a small gap of 0.05 cm
in the structure of the otherwise whole core. The
cross-sectional area of the core is 12 cm2, the relative
permeability of the core is 4000 and the coil of wire on
the core has 400 turns. Assume that fringing in the air
gap increases the effective cross-sectional area of the
air gap by 5 percent. Given this information, find
a) the total reluctance of the flux path (iron plus air
gap)
b) The current required to produced a flux density of
0.5 T in the air gap.
Solution for example 1-2 -
Continue We l e a d

The magnetic circuit corresponding to this core

lc lc
Rc = =
µ Ac µr µ0 Ac
0.4 m
=
(4000)(4π ×10 −7 )(0.002m 2 )
= 66,300 A ⋅ turns / Wb

la
Ra =
µ 0 Aa
0.0005 m
=
(4π ×10 −7 )(0.00126 m 2 )
= 316,000 A ⋅ turns / Wb

Fig. 1-2
Solution for example 1-2 -
Continue We l e a d

a)The total reluctance of the flux path is

R eq = R c + R a
= 66,300 + 316,000
= 382,300 A ⋅ turns / Wb
Air gap contributes most of the reluctance even though it
is 800 times shorter than the core

b) F = φ R Ni = BAR
BAR
Since flux φ = BA i=
N
F = Ni (0.5T )(0.00126 m 2 )(383,200 A ⋅ turns / Wb)
=
400 turns
= 0.602 A
Example 1-3 We l e a d

Fig 1-3 shows a simplified rotor and stator for a dc motor. The
mean path length of the stator is 50 cm, and its cross-sectional
area is 12 cm2. The mean path length of the rotor is 5 cm, and its
cross-sectional area also may be assumed to be 12 cm2. Each air
gap (including fringing) is 14 cm2. The iron of the core has a
relative permeability of 2000, and there are 200 turns of wire on
the core. If the current in the wire is adjusted to be 1 A, what will
the resulting flux density in the air gaps be?

Fig 1-3
Solution for Example 1-3
We l e a d

It is necessary to first calculate the magnetomotive force applied

to the core and the total reluctance of the flux path. With this
information, the total flux in the core can be found. Then knowing
the cross-sectional area of the air gaps enables the flux density to
be calculated
The reluctance of the stator
ls 0.5 m
R s= =
µ r µ0 As (2000)(4π ×10 −7 )(0.0012 m 2 )
= 166,000 A ⋅ turns / Wb
The reluctance of the rotor
lr 0.05 m
Rr = =
µ r µ 0 Ar (2000)(4π ×10 −7 )(0.0012 m 2 )
= 16,600 A ⋅ turns / Wb
The reluctance of the air gaps
la 0.0005 m
Ra = = −7 2
= 284,000 A ⋅ turns / Wb
µ r µ0 Aa (1)(4π ×10 )(0.0014 m )
Solution for Example 1-3
- continue We l e a d

Total reluctance of the flux path

R eq = R s + R a1 + R r + R a 2
= 166,000 + 284,000 + 16,600 + 284,000 A ⋅ turns / Wb
= 751,000 A ⋅ turns / Wb
Net magnetomotive force applied to the core
F = Ni = (200 turns )(1.0 A)
= 200 A ⋅ turns
Therefore, the total flux in the core is
F 200 A ⋅ turns
φ= =
Req 751,000 A ⋅ turns / Wb
= 0.00266 Wb
Since flux φ = BA
Therefore, the magnetic flux density in the motor gap is
φ 0.00266 Wb
B= = 2
= 0.19 T
A 0.0014 m
Example 1-4 We l e a d

Fig. 1-4.

A ferromagnetic core with a relative permeability of 1500 is shown in Fig. 1-4.

The dimension are as shown in the diagram, and the depth of the core is 7 cm.
The air gaps on the left and right sides of the core are 0.070 and 0.050 cm,
respectively. Due to the fringing effect, the effective area of the air gaps is 5
percent larger than their physical size. If there are 400 turns in the coil wrapped
around the center leg of the core and if the current in the coil is 1.0 A.
1) Draw the magnetic circuit corresponding to Fig 1-4.
2) Determine the flux in each of the left, center, and right legs of the core.
3) Find the flux density in each air gap.
Solution for example 1-4 We l e a d
Solution for example 1-4 We l e a d
Solution for example 1-4 We l e a d
Solution for example 1-4 We l e a d
Solution for example 1-4 We l e a d
Solution for example 1-4 We l e a d
Magnetic Behavior of Ferromagnetic
Materials We l e a d

Unsaturated region
Saturation region

Knee of the
curve

Flux produced in the core is plotted versus the magnetomotive

force.This type of plot is called “saturation curve” or
“megnetization curve”.
Small increase in the magnetomotive force yield to the huge
increase of flux. After a certain point, further increase in the
magnetomotive force produces relatively gradually increases in
the flux. Finally, an increase on mmf produces almost no change
of flux value.
Magnetic Behavior of Ferromagnetic
Materials We l e a d

A plot of magnetic flux density

versus magnetizing intensity

Ni F
H= =
lc lc
φ = BA

Magnetizing intensity proportional to mmf and magnetic

flux density is proportional to flux for any given core
Since real generator and motors depend on magnetic flux to
produce voltage and torque, they are designed to produce as
much flux as possible. As a result most machine operate near
the knee of the magnetization curve.
Magnetic Behavior of Ferromagnetic
Materials We l e a d
Magnetic Behavior of Ferromagnetic
Materials We l e a d

B
Since permeability of material is given by µ =
H
µ
And relative permeability is given by µ r =
µ0
 We l e a d

7000

6000

5000

4000
µr

3000

2000

1000

0 2 3 4 5 6 789 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 2
10 100 1000
H (A.t urns/m)
Example 1-6 We l e a d

A square magnetic core has a mean path length of 55 cm and a

cross-sectional area of 150 cm2. A 200 turn coil of wire is wrapped
around one leg of the core. The core is made of a material having
the magnetization curve shown in previous figure
a) How much current is required to produce 0.012 Wb of flux in
the core?
b) What is the core’s relative permeability at that current level?
c) What is its reluctance?

Solution
a) Required flux density in the core is
0.012 Wb
φ
B= =
A 0.015 m 2
= 0 .8 T
From previous figure, the required magnetizing intensity
H = 115 A ⋅ turns / m
Solution for Example 1-6
We l e a d

F = Ni = Hlc = (115 A⋅ turns / m)(0.55 m) = 63.25 A⋅ turns

F 63.25 A ⋅ turns
i= = = 0.316 A
N 200 turns
B 0.8 T
µ= = = 0.00696 H / m
H 115 A ⋅ turns / m

Therefore, the relative permeability is

µ 0.00696 H / m
µr = = −7
= 5540
µ0 4π ×10 H / m
c) The reluctance of the core is
F 63.25 A ⋅ turns
R = = = 5270 A ⋅ turns / Wb
φ 0.012 Wb
Energy losses in a Ferromagnetic Core
We l e a d

i(t)

b
Ф (or B)

a
F (or H)
Amount of flux present in the core depends not
e only on the amount of current applied to the
d winding core, but also on previous history of the
flux in the core.
Resulting failure to retrace flux paths is called hysteresis
Energy losses in a Ferromagnetic Core
We l e a d

Flux in the core does not

go to zero.
Large F
Instead, magnetic field is left
in the core.
This is called , residual flux in the core
This is how permanent magnets are produced

b
Ф (or B)

a
F (or H)

To force the flux to zero;

coercive magnetomotive force Fc must
be applied in the opposite direction
Energy losses in a Ferromagnetic Core –
Why does hysteresis occur? We l e a d

i(t)
The area enclosed in the hysteresis
loop formed by applying an
alternating current to the core is
t directly proportional to the energy
lost in a given ac cycle.
b
Ф (or B) Area ∞ hysteresis loss
c

a
F (or H)
The smaller the applied mmf on the
e core, the smaller the area of
d
resulting hysteresis loop.; smaller
the losses.
Energy losses in a Ferromagnetic Core –
Why does hysteresis occur? We l e a d

The atom of iron and similar metal (cobalt, nickel and

some of their alloy) tend to have their magnetic fields
closely aligned with each other. Within the metal there
are small region called domains.
In each domain, al the
atoms are aligned with
their magnetic fields
pointing in the same
direction, so each domain
within the material acts as
a small permanent
magnet.
Energy losses in a Ferromagnetic Core –
Why does hysteresis occur? We l e a d

The whole block of iron can

appear to have no flux when
this numerous tiny domains
are oriented randomly within
the material.

When an external magnetic

field is applied to this block of
iron, it causes domains that
happen to point in the direction
of the filed to grow at the
expense of domains pointed in
other directions.
Energy losses in a Ferromagnetic Core –
Why does hysteresis occur? We l e a d

Domain pointing in the direction of the magnetic field grow

because the atoms at their boundaries physically switch
orientation to align themselves with the applied magnetic field.
The extra atoms aligned with the field increase the magnetic flux
in the iron, which causes more atoms to switch orientation, further
increasing the strength of the magnetic field. This feedback effect
causes iron to have a permeability much higher than air.

As the strength of external

electric field continues to
increase, whole domains that
aligned in the wrong direction
eventually reorient
themselves as a unit to line
up with the field
Energy losses in a Ferromagnetic Core –
Why does hysteresis occur? We l e a d

Finally, when nearly all the atoms and domains in the iron are
lined up with the external field, any further increase in the
magnetomotive force can cause only the same flux increase that
it would in free space. When everything is aligned, no more
feedback effect occur to strengthen the field. At this point, the
iron is saturated with flux.

The hysteresis is when the external magnetic field is removed,

the domains do not completely randomize again.
Why the domains remain lined up although the external magnetic field
is removed?.
Because turning the atoms in them requires energy

The piece of iron now a permanent magnet

Energy losses in a Ferromagnetic Core –
Why does hysteresis occur? We l e a d

Thus the energy such magnetomotive force( in opposite direction),

mechanical shock and heating are required to randomize the domains
again/ change the alignment of domains.

It is the reason that the permanent magnet can lose its magnetism if
it is dropped, hit with hammer or heated.

Therefore, the energy require to change the domain in the iron

yield to a common type of energy loss in all machine and
transformers.

The hysteresis loss = energy required to accomplish the

in an iron core reorientation of domains during each cycle of
the alternating current applied to the core
Energy losses in a Ferromagnetic Core –
Eddy current loss We l e a d

Another type of loss due to varying of magnetic field in an

iron core is the eddy current loss.

Hysteresis loss + eddy current loss = heating in the core material

Core losses.

What is the eddy current loss?

According to Faraday’s law, a time –changing flux induces
voltage within a ferromagnetic core in just the same manner as
it would in a wire wrapped around the core. These voltage
cause swirls of current to flow within the core.
Energy losses in a Ferromagnetic Core –
Eddy current loss We l e a d

Consider an ac flux that If the conductor is short- circuited a

links a rectangular –shaped substantial alternating current I1 will
conductor. According to flow, causing the conductor to heat
Faraday’s law, an ac up. If the second conductor is
voltage E1 is induced placed inside the first, a smaller
across its terminals voltage is induced because it links
a smaller flux.
Energy losses in a Ferromagnetic Core –
Eddy current loss We l e a d

The amount of energy loss due to eddy current depends on size of

current swirls and the resistivity of the material . The larger the size of
swirl, the greater the resulting induced voltage, the larger the current flow
and greater the I2R losses.

Eddy current can be very large due to the low resistance of the plate.
Consequently, a metal plate that is penetrated by an ac flux can become
very hot.
How the eddy current losses can be reduced?
•The ferromagnetic core is broken up to many strips or laminations
•Increase the resistivity of the core material by adding some silicone
Faraday’s law- Induced voltage from a
time changing MF We l e a d

Faraday’s law is the fundamental property of magnetic fields

involve in transformer operation. Faraday’s law states that:
If a flux passes through a turn of a coil of wire, a voltage will be
induced in the turn of wire that is directly proportional to the rate of
change in the flux with respect to time
dφ
eind =
dt
If the coil has N turns and the same flux passes through all
of then the induced voltage across the whole coil can be
written as follows
dφ
eind =N
dt
eind : the voltage induced in the turn of the coil
Φ : the flux passing through the turn
N : number of turns of wire coil
Production of induced force on a wire
We l e a d

Second major effect of MF of it

surrounding is that it induces a force
on a current carrying wire within the
field.
The force induced on the conductor
is given by
F = i (l × B )
i : magnitude of current in wire
l : length of wire, with direction of l defined to
be in the direction of current flow Figure : A current carrying wire in the
B: magnetic flux density vector presence of a magnetic field

The magnitude of the force is given by

F = ilB sin θ i : angle between wire and flux density vector

The induction of a force in a wire by a current in a presence of a magnetic field

is the basis of motor action
Induced voltage on a conductor moving
in a magnetic field We l e a d

Third major effect of MF interact with it surrounding. If a wire

with the proper orientation moves through a magnetic field, a
voltage is induced in it.
The voltage induced in the wire is given by
eind = ( v × B) • l
l : length of conductor in the magnetic field
v : velocity of the wire
B: magnetic flux density vector

Vector l points along the direction of the

wire toward the end making the smallest
angle with respect to the vector v x B. The
voltage in the wire will so that the positive
end is in the direction of the vector v x B. Figure : A conductor moving in the
presence of a magnetic field

The induction of voltage in a wire moving in a magnetic field is fundamental to

the operation of generators
Induced voltage on a conductor moving
in a magnetic field -Example We l e a d

Figure above shows a conductor moving with a velocity of 10m/s to the

right in a magnetic field. The flux density is 0.5T, out of the page, and
the wire is 1.0 m in length, oriented as shown. What are the magnitude
end polarity of the resulting induced voltage?
The Linear DC Machine- A Simple
Example We l e a d

Figure above shows a simple example of DC MC. The behavior of this

MC can be determined from an application of four basic equations.
•Force on a wire in the presence of MF F = i (l × B )
•Voltage induced on a wire moving in the eind = ( v × B) • l
MF

•Kirchhoff’s voltage law for this MC VB − iR − eind = 0

VB = eind + iR = 0
•Newton’s law for the bar across the tracks Fnet = ma
Starting The Linear DC
We l e a d

To start the MC, simply

close the switch
Current flows in the bar
given by Kirchhoff’s
voltage law
VB − eind
i=
R
VB
Initially the bar is at rest, eind =0 , therefore i =
R
Current flows down through the bar across the track where the current
flowing through the wire in the presence of MF induce a force on the
wire as follows
Find = ilB to the right
The bar will accelerate to the right. When the velocity of the bar begin to
increase, a voltage appears across the bar.
eind = vlB positive upward
Starting The Linear DC
We l e a d

The induced voltage reduces the current

flowing in the bar
VB − eind ↑
i↓ =
R

Eventually the bar will reach constant

steady-state speed where the net force on
the bar is zero. This occur when induced
voltage eind risen up to equal to voltage VB

VB = eind = vss Bl
VB
vss =
Bl
Starting The Linear DC
We l e a d

To summarize, at starting, the linear DC MC behaves as

follows;
•Closing the switch produces a current flow i=VB/R

•The current flow produces a force on the bar given by

F=ilB

•The bar accelerates to the right, producing an induced

voltage eind as it speeds up

•The induced voltage reduces the current flow

•The induced force is decreased until eventually zero. At

the point where eind =VB, i=0, the bar moves at constant
no load speed
The Linear DC Machine as a Motor
We l e a d

Assume that the linear MC is initially running at no load

steady-state conditions. What will happen to this MC if an
external load is applied to it?

The application of the Force Fload will result in a net force

on the bar in the direction opposite the direction of
motion (Fnet = Fload – Find).

The effect of this force slow down the bar. The induced
voltage on the bar drops soon as the bar begin to slow.
The decreasing of induced voltage would rises the current
flow in the bar.
 The End
Thank you

Presented by
Dr Mohamad Kamarol Mohd Jamil| School of Electrical & Electronic Engineering, USM