Actuators

Magnetic Circuits
➢Magnetomotive Force (MMF).

➢Magnetic Field Strength (H).

➢Magnetic Permeability.

➢Reluctance (R).

➢Analogy between Electric and Magnetic Circuits.

➢Composite Magnetic Circuit.

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Introduction
➢Unlike electric field lines, the lines of magnetic flux form closed
loops.

➢A magnetic circuit is a closed path followed by lines of magnetic

flux.

➢A copper wire, because of its high conductivity, confines the

electric current within itself.

➢Similarly, a ferromagnetic material (such as iron or steel), due to

its high permeability, confines magnetic flux within itself.

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 Magnetomotive Force (MMF)
Actuators

➢The electric current is due to the existence of an electromotive force

(emf).

➢By analogy, we may say that in a magnetic circuit, the magnetic flux is
due to the existence of a magnetomotive force (mmf).

➢mmf is caused by a current flowing through one or more turns.

➢The value of the mmf is proportional to the current and the number of
turns.

➢It is expressed in ampere turns (At).

➢But for the purpose of dimensional analysis, it is expressed in amperes.

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Magnetic Field Strength (H)

• The mmf per meter length of the magnetic circuit is termed as the magnetic field
strength, magnetic field intensity, or magnetizing force.

• Its units are ampere-turns per meter (At/m) .

• Its value is independent of the medium .

F IN
H= =
l l

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Magnetic Permeability (μ)

➢If the core of the toroid is vacuum or air, the magnetic flux
density B in the core bears a definite ratio to the magnetic
field strength H.
➢This ratio is called permeability of free space.
➢Thus, for vacuum or air,

B
= 0 = 4 10 Tm/A
−7

H
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➢The flux produced by the given mmf is greatly increased, if iron

replaces the air in the core.

➢As a result, the flux density B also increases many times.

➢In general, we can write B = μH.

➢μ is called the permeability of the material.

➢Normally, we write μ = μr μ0.

➢μr is called relative permeability (just a number).

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Reluctance (R) and Permeance (G)

➢The current in an electric circuit is limited by the presence of
resistance of the electric circuit.

➢Similarly, the flux Φ in a magnetic circuit is limited by the presence

of the reluctance of the magnetic circuit,

1 l 1 l
R = =
 A r 0 A
The reciprocal of reluctance is known as permeance (G).

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Magnetic Circuit Theory
➢For a toroid, mmf, F = NI ampere-turns.

➢Because of this mmf, a magnetic field of strength H is set up throughout

the length l.

➢Therefore, F = Hl

➢If, B is the flux density, total flux is given as

Φ=BA

➢Dividing, we get

Φ BA B A A A F
= = =  = r 0  Φ=
F Hl H l l l l /( r 0 A)
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E
Comparing this with I=
R
We get R = 1 l
 r 0 A

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Analogy between Electric and Magnetic Circuits

Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit

Quantity Unit Quantity Unit

EMF, E Volt [V] MMF Ampere. Turn [A.t]

Current, I Ampere [A] Flux, ф Weber [Wb]

Resistance, R=L/σ.A Ohm [Ω] Reluctance,𝑅 =

𝑙
Ampere/Weber
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 ∙𝐴

Tesla. meter/
Conductivity, σ Siemen/meter Permeability
Weber

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Example 1
➢ Calculate the magnetomotive force (mmf) required to produce
a flux of 0.015 Wb across an air gap of 2.5 mm long, having
an effective area of 200 cm2.
Solution :
Φ 0.015
B= = −4
= 0.75T
A 20010
B 0.75
H= = = 597 000 A/m
0 4π 10 -7

−3
F = Hl = 597000 2.510 = 1492At
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Composite Magnetic Circuit

Case 1 :
l1
R1 =
1 A1
l2
R2 =
2 A2

l1 l2
 Total Reluctance,R = R 1 + R 2 = +
1 A1 2 A2
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mmf of coil
 Total flux,  =
total reluctance
F NI
= =
R l1 l2
+
1 A1  2 A2

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Case 2 : (with air gap)

Total reluctance,
l1 l2
R = +
1 A 0 A
1  l1 
=  + l2 
 0 A  ( 1 /  0 ) 
1  l1 
=  + l2 
0 A  r 

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➢Since the relative permeability μr (= μ1/ μ0) of steel is very large

(of the order of thousand), the major contribution in the total
reluctance R is by the air-gap, though its length l2 may be quite
small (say, a few millimetres).

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Kirchhoff’s Laws
➢Kirchhoff’s Flux Law (KFL) : The total magnetic flux towards a
junction is equal to the total magnetic flux away from that junction.

➢Kirchhoff’s Magnetomotive Force Law (KML) : In a closed

magnetic circuit, the algebraic sum of the product of the magnetic
field strength and the length of each part of the circuit is equal to the
resultant magnetomotive force.

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Steps to solve a problem on magnetic circuit

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Fringing Effect and Leakage Flux

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Example on Fringing Effect

➢The Figure below shows a ferromagnetic core whose mean path length is 40
cm. There is a small gap of 0.05 cm in the structure of the otherwise whole
core. The cross-sectional area of the core is 12 cm2, the relative
permeability of the core is 4000, and the coil of wire on the core has 400
turns. Assume that fringing in the air gap increases the effective cross-
sectional area of the air gap by 5 percent. Given this information, find

➢(a) the total reluctance of the flux path (iron plus air gap) and

➢ (b) the current required to produce a flux density of 0.5 T in the air gap.

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Example on Fringing Effect

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Solution of the Example

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Solution of the Example

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Review
➢Magnetomotive Force (MMF).

➢Magnetic Field Strength (H).

➢Magnetic Permeability.

➢Reluctance (R).

➢Analogy between Electric and Magnetic Circuits.

➢Composite Magnetic Circuit.

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 Magnetic Behaviour of Ferromagnetic Actuators
Materials
B-H Characteristic
The B-H characteristic demonstrates the magnetic behaviour of a
ferromagnetic material. Permeability  is defined by the following
equation:
B=H
 is constant in free space but not true for iron or other ferromagnetic
materials as magnetomotive force (mmf) is applied.

=Ni 

=BA

Fig. 7. Coil wounded on a ferromagnetic core.

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B-H Characteristic (cont’d)

Start with 0 DC current and slowly raise the current to a possible maximum
value. When flux produced in the core is plotted versus the mmf producing it,
the resulting plot looks like the one shown in Fig. 8.
 (Wb)

Transition: knee of the curve

 (AT)
Unsaturated
region
Saturated
region

Fig. 8. Saturation or magnetization curve

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Non-Constant Permeability
B̅ = µ H̅.

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Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core

➢ Hysteresis loss

➢ Eddy’s current loss

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Hysteresis Loss

➢ Apply a magnetic field intensity, H, to a sample iron.

➢ Magnetic fields of the atoms in small domains are aligned with the applied field.

➢ If the applied field is reduced to zero, the domains return to their original orientations.

➢ If H is increased in the reverse direction, the domains align in the reverse orientations.

+
e

Fig. 10a. Iron sample and coil for applying H Fig. 10b. Magnetic domains
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Hysteresis Loss (cont’d)

➢For an ac system, if the applied field is varied through a cycle, during
some interval of time energy flows from the source to the coil-core
assembly and during some other interval of time energy returns to the
source. However, the energy flowing in is greater than the energy
returned. Therefore, during a cycle of variation of the applied field, there is
a net energy flow from the source to the coil-core assembly. This energy
loss goes to heat the core. The loss of power in the core due to the
hysteresis effect is called hysteresis loss.

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Eddy Current Loss
➢ This current leads to core loss for AC operation. The solid iron core itself is an electrical
conductor, acting much like shorted turns. As the magnetic field changes, voltages are
induced in the core, causing currents, known as eddy currents, to circulate in the core
material. As a result, power is dissipated in the core according to P = v2/R.

➢ The eddy current loss can be reduced in two ways:

▪ A high-resistivity core material can be used.
▪ A laminated core can be used. The core can be laminated with thin sheets of iron
that are electrically insulated from one another. The orientation of the sheets is
selected to interrupt the flow of current. Thus, the resistance is higher for eddy
currents, and the loss is greatly reduced. Another approach is to make the core
with powdered iron held together by an insulated binder.
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