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Class: Cambridge 08 [O Level – Biology (5090)]

Student Name: …………………………………….

Unit 01
Cells
1.1 Cell
All organisms are made of cells. Cells are very small units. So, large organisms
contain millions of cells in their structure. Some organisms are unicellular, which means
that they are made of just a single cell. Bacteria and yeast are examples of single-celled
organisms.
A cell can be thought of as a bag of chemicals that is capable of surviving and
replication itself. All living cells are surrounded by a membrane. It is known as a cell
surface membrane.
We can identify different small structures inside a cell known as cell organelles. An
organelle is a specialized subunit, usually within a cell, that has a specific function. In
cells, we can identify the following cell organelles.

• Cell membrane • Cytoplasm • Nucleus

• Mitochondria • Ribosomes • Chloroplasts
• Sap vacuole • Cellulose cell

Cell Membrane
• All cells (Plant or Animal) have a cell membrane.
• It controls substances in and out of the cell.
• The exchange of substances takes place between a cell and its surrounding
environment.
• The cell membrane is a very thin layer (about 0.00001 mm) of protein and fat and
forms the outer boundary of the cell.
• The cell membrane allows certain materials/chemicals to pass in and out of the
cell, but prevents the passage of others. Hence, cell membranes are said to be
selectively permeable or partially permeable.

Cytoplasm
• The term cytoplasm refers to all living substances of a cell except the nucleus.
• The cytoplasm is a jelly-like material containing a large number of important
substances.
• Many different metabolic reactions take place in the cytoplasm.
• The cytoplasm contains many different substances such as enzymes concerned
with metabolism, oil droplets, glycogen granules or starch granules.
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The Nucleus

• At least one nucleus is found in the cells of all organisms.

• The nucleus is considered the control center of a cell.
• The nucleus of a cell contains chromosomes that contain genetic information.
This helps the cell to make the right sorts of proteins.
• The information is kept on the chromosomes, which are inherited from the
organism’s parents.
• The chromosomes are made out of DNA molecules.

Nucleus of a cell
Structure of mitochondria
Mitochondria
• Mitochondria (singular - Mitochondrion) are found in almost all cells.
• They are responsible for produce energy in the process called aerobic respiration.
Mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell.
• Cells that use a lot of energy have a lot of mitochondria. Ex: muscle cells, sperms
neurons.

Ribosomes
• Ribosomes are very small structures located in both plant and animal cells.
• These look like tiny dots. They may attach to special cell organelles called rough
endoplasmic reticulum or may scatter freely in the cytoplasm.
• Ribosomes have a very important function in a cell. They are the places where
proteins are made, by joining amino acids together in a long chain.

Chloroplasts
• Chloroplasts are present only in plant cells.
• Chloroplasts can be found in the cells of photosynthetic tissues of a plant.
• Chloroplasts occur in large numbers in the palisade cells.
• These are disc-shaped structures and appear green due to the presence of green
colour pigments called chlorophyll.
• Chlorophyll absorbs energy from sunlight and this energy is then used for making
food by the process of photosynthesis.
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Structure of a Chloroplast
Structure of Ribosome

Cell Wall
• Cell walls surround the living content of cells but can be seen only in plant cells.
• The Cell wall is a relatively rigid structure. It provides support and protection for
the cell.
• Normally plant cell walls are made up of a chemical substance called cellulose.
• The cell wall is a fully permeable structure.

Vacuole
• Vacuoles are normally present in plant cells. These are fluid-filled spaces enclosed
by a membrane.
• The membrane that surrounds the vacuole is known as tonoplast.
• In plant cells, there is usually a large central vacuole. Cell sap is the fluid in vacuole
which contains sugars, minerals, and amino acids.
• A full vacuole presses outwards on the rest of the cell and helps to keep it in
shape.
• In animal cells, these are present in numerous small once and these are usually
not permanent.
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Plant and Animal Cells

The liver cell and the palisade cell are examples of cells specialized for different
functions, but they have several features in common, as well as features that distinguish
plant cells from animal cells.

Features common to both types of cells are;

• a nucleus, which contains the genetic materials in the form of chromosomes
• the cytoplasm, containing a solution of ions and organic compounds
• the membrane, which forms a selective barrier between the cells and it’s external
environment

Plant cells have a non-living cellulose cell wall and often contain large fluid-filled
vacuoles in the cytoplasm. In addition, plant cells that carry out photosynthesis possess
green disc-shaped structures in the cytoplasm called chloroplasts. Animal cells do not
possess cell walls or chloroplasts and rarely have large vacuoles.

Comparison between plant cell and animal cell

Animal cell Plant cell

Cell wall × √
Cell membrane √ √
Chloroplasts × √
Mitochondria √ √
Golgi body √ √
Shape Irregular Fixed
Vacuoles Many small One large central
Granules Glycogen Starch

Structure of a bacterial cell

• Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are very small organisms consisting of single cells
rarely more than 0.01 mm in length. They can be seen only with the higher powers
of the microscope.
• Their cell walls are made, not of cellulose, but a complex mixture of proteins,
sugars, and lipids called peptidoglycan (PG).
• Some bacteria have a slime capsule outside their cell wall.
• Inside the cell wall is the cytoplasm, which may contain granules of glycogen,
lipid, and other food reserves.
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• Each bacterial cell contains a single chromosome, consisting of a circular strand of

DNA that contains all of its genetic information.
• The chromosome is not enclosed in a nuclear membrane but is coiled up to
occupy part of the cell.

Structure of a bacterial cell

• A plasmid is a small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that is distinct from a

cell's chromosomal DNA.
• Plasmids naturally exist in bacterial cells. Often, the genes carried in plasmids
provide bacteria with genetic advantages, such as antibiotic resistance.

1.2 Specialised cells, tissues, and organs

Every cell in an animal or plant has a certain function. According to their function,
they have special adaptations or special structures. Some examples are given below

Root hair cells

• These cells are present in the root. They have long and elongated extensions.
• They are responsible for increase the surface area for the absorption of materials.
• They absorb water and minerals from the soil
• Root hair cells increased the surface area of the root. It greatly increases the rate
of absorption.
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Structure of a Root hair cell

Xylem Vessel
• Narrow and cylindrical continues tube.
• Absence of cross walls.
• Water column can move easily up the lumen of xylem vessel.
• Lignified cells wall, strengthens the walls, which prevents the collapse of xylem
vessels.
• Conduction of water in plants as well as to offer mechanical support.

Red blood cells

• Transport of oxygen from lungs to the rest

of the body.
• Contains haemoglobin, the oxygen carrier.
• Flat, bi-concave shape, no nucleus.
• This serves to increase the surface area to
volume ratio.
• Oxygen can diffuse into and out of the cell
at a faster rate.
• The absence of a nucleus also allows the
red blood cell to squeeze through the
narrow capillaries.

Muscle Cells/Fibres
• Muscle cells are long and have many protein
fibres in the cytoplasm.
. • These firbers can shorten the cell when
energy is available.
• These cells contracts so, that structures can
be brought close together.
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How do cells combine to improve their efficiency?

One cell working on its own would achieve very little in an individual or animal, so
we usually find many similar cells lying side and working together, performing the same
function.

Tissue – definition
• Many similar cells working together and performing the same functions are
called tissue.
e.g. 1. Xylem tissue in the vascular bundles of a plant
2. Muscular tissue in the intestinal wall of an animal

Different types of tissues often work together to achieve a combined function.

Organ – definition
• Several tissues working together to produce a particular function form an organ.
ex.
1. The leaf of a plant – an organ for the manufacture of carbohydrates during
photosynthesis.
2. Eye of an animal – the organ of sight
Several different organs may be necessary to carry out a particular function.

Organ system – definition

• A collection of different organs working together to perform a particular
function is called an organ system.
ex.
1. The sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels (i.e. the flower) of a plant – sexual
reproduction.
2. The heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries of an animal, (i.e. the circulatory
system) for transport materials.

Organisms – definition
• An organism is a collection of organ systems working together.

The increasing order of cell organization found with living organisms is:

Organ
Cells Tissues Organs Systems Organism
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Magnification
• Microscopes are used to study cells. Modern light microscopes can magnify
images about 1500 times, while electron microscopes can magnify images about
two million times.
• The magnification of a biological specimen is calculated using this equation

Ex:
A plant cell in a photograph measures 15 mm across. If the actual size of the cell is 0.015
mm, what is the magnification in the photograph?

• There are no units for the magnification.

Calculating actual size

• The actual size of a biological specimen is calculated using this equation.

Ex:
The nucleus in a photograph of a cell measures 3 mm across. If the magnification in the
photograph is × 500, what is the actual size of the nucleus?

• Make sure that measured and actual lengths are given in the same units.