MICROWAVE COMPONENTS

WAVEGUIDE ATTENUATORS :

In order to control power levels in a microwave system by partially absorbing the transmitted
microwave signal, attenuators are employed. Resistive films (dielectric glass slab coated with
aquadag) are used in the design of both fixed and variable attenuators.
A co-axial fixed attenuator uses the dielectric lossy material inside the centre conductor of the
co-axial line to absorb some of the centre conductor microwave power propagating through it
dielectric rod decides the amount of attenuation introduced. The microwave power absorbed
by the lossy material is dissipated as heat.

In waveguides, the dielectric slab coated with aquadag is placed at the centre of the
waveguide parallel to the maximum E-field for dominant TEIO mode. Induced current on the
lossy material due to incoming microwave signal, results in power dissipation, leading to
attenuation of the signal. The dielectric slab is tapered at both ends upto a length of more than
half wavelength to reduce reflections as shown in Figure 5.7. The dielectric slab may be
made movable along the breadth of the waveguide by supporting it with two dielectric rods
separated by an odd multiple of quarter guide wavelength and perpendicular to electric field.
When the slab is at the centre, then the attenuation is maximum (since the electric field is
concentrated at the centre for TEIO mode) and when it is moved towards one sidewall, the
attenuation goes on decreasing thereby controlling the microwave power corning out of the
other port.

There are two types of attenuators

 • Fixed Type attenuators
• Variable Type attenuators

Fixed Type attenuators:

Fixed types of attenuators are commonly used where a fixed amount of power is to be
provided. If such type of attenuator absorbs all the energy entering into it, we call it as
waveguide terminator. This normally consists of a short section of waveguide with a tapered
plug of absorbing material at the end. The tapering is done for providing a gradual transition
from the wave guide medium to the absorbing medium thus reducing the reflection occurring
at the media interface. Dielectric used is glass coated aquadog. It consists of dissipative
element called pad. Pad is placed in a waveguide. Pad is placed in such a way that its plane is
parallel to the electric field. For this two thin metal rods are used. The pad is tapered, which
provides a gradual transition from waveguide medium to absorbing medium of pad. It also
reduces reflection. The amount of power that a fixed attenuator can absorb depends on
Strength of dielectric field, Location of pad within waveguide, Frequency of operation, Area
of pad and pad material used for power absorption. Terminators are used in waveguides to
absorb the incident power without appreciable reflection and radiation A termination is a
one-port device which absorbs all the incident power, never radiate and reflect. Its only
purpose is to ABSORB all the incident energy without causing standing waves. It
provides termination and absorbs all the incident power. It is also equivalent in
terminating the line by its characteristic impedance. A simple form of matched load in a
waveguide is a piece of resistive card placed in guide parallel to the dielectric field. The
card must be long enough to absorb all the power. The front end of the card is
tapered, so that it presents no sudden discontinuity to the signal.

Variable Type attenuators:

Variable attenuators provide continuous or step wise variable attenuation. For rectangular
waveguides, these attenuators can be flap type or vanetype. For circular waveguide rotary
type is used. It provides continuous attenuation. The amount of attenuation is controlled by
depth of insertion of absorbing plate inside the waveguide. For this a knob and gear assembly
is used Knob can be calibrated suitably. The maximum attenuation will be offered when the
pad extends all the way across the guide.
Flap type variable attenuator: Flap type attenuator consists of a resistive element or disc
inserted into a longitudinal slot cut along the center of the wider dimension of the guide.
Which is responsible for attenuation. Flap is mounted on the hinged arm allowing it to
descent into the center of waveguide. Degree of attenuation can be determined by depth if
assertion.

Variable Vane Type Attenuator: The vane positioned at center of guide can be moved
laterally from center, where it provides maximum attenuation to the edges where the
attenuation is considerably reduced since E lines are always concentrated at the center
of waveguide.

Precision Resistive rotary vane attenuator: A precision type variable attenuator consists of a
rectangular to circular transition (ReT), a piece of circular waveguide (CW) and a circular-to-
rectangular transition (CRT) as shown in figure 5.9. Resistive cards R , Rand R are placed inside
these sections as shown. The centre circular section containing the resistive card Rb can be
precisely rotated by 36 00 with respect to the two fixed resistive cards. The induced current on
the resistive card R due to the incident signal is dissipated as heat producing attenuation of the
transmitted signal. TE mode in RCT is converted into TE in circular waveguide. The resistive cards
R and R a kept perpendicular to the electric field of TEIO mode so that it does not absorb the
 the attenuation of the incident wave is E/Sin2theta

energy. But any component parallel to its plane will be readily absorbed. Hence, pure TE mode is
excited in circular waveguide section. II. If the resistive card in the centre section is kept at an
angle θ relative to the E-field direction of the TE11 mode, the component E cos θ parallel to the
card get absorbed while the component E sin θ is transmitted without attenuation. This
component finally comes out as E sin2θ as shown in following figure.

WAVEGUIDE PHASE SHIFTERS: A microwave phase shifter is a two port device which
produces a variable shift in phase of the incoming microwave signal. A lossless dielectric
slab when placed inside the rectangular waveguide produces a phase shift. The rotary type of
precision phase shifter is shown in figure 5.12 which consists of a circular waveguide
containing a lossless dielectric plate of length 2l called "half- wave section", a section of
rectangular-to-circular transition containing a lossless dielectric plate of length l, called
"quarter-wave section", oriented at an angle of 45° to the broader wall of the rectangular
waveguide and a circular-to-rectangular transition again containing a lossless dielectric plate
of same length 1 (quarter wave section) oriented at an angle 45°. The incident TEIO mode
becomes TE11 mode in circular waveguide section. The half-wave section produces a phase
shift equal to twice that produced by the quarter wave section. The dielectric plates are
tapered at both ends to reduce reflections due to discontinuity.

When TEIO mode is propagated through the input rectangular waveguide of the rectangular
to circular transition, then it is converted into TEll in the circular waveguide section. Let E;
be the maximum electric field strength of this mode which is resolved into components, EI
parallel to the plate and E2 perpendicular to El as shown in figure 5.12 (b). After propagation
through the plate these components are given by

The length I is adjusted such that these two components E1 and E2 have equal amplitude but
differing in phase by = 90°.

The quarter wave sections convert a linearly polarized TE11 wave into a circularly polarized
wave and vice-versa. After emerging out of the half-wave section, the electric field
components parallel and perpendicular to the half-wave plate are given by
After emerging out of the half-wave section, the field components E3 and E4 as given by
equations (5.19) and (5.20), may again be resolved into two TE11 modes, polarized parallel
and perpendicular to the output quarterwave plate. At the output end of this quarterwave
plate, the field components parallel and perpendicular to the quarter wave plate, by referring
to figure 5.12 (d), can be expressed as

Comparison of equation (5.21) and (5.22) yields that the components Es and E6 are identical
in both magnitude and phase and the resultant electric field strength at the output is given by
MICROWAVE HYBRID CIRCUITS : A microwave circuit is formed when several
microwave components and devices such as microwave generators , microwave amplifiers,
variable attenuators, cavity resonators, microwave filters, directional couplers, isolators are
coupled together without any mismatch for proper transmission of a microwave signal.
Connection of two or more microwave devices and components to a single point results in a
microwave junction. In a low frequency network, the input and output variables are voltage
and current which can be related in terms of impedance Z-parameters, or admittance Y-
parameters or hybrid h-parameters or ABCD parameters. These relationships for a two-port
network can be represented by

These parameters, Z, Y,h and ABCD parameters can be easily measured at low frequencies
under short or open circuit conditions and can be used for analyzing the circuit. The physical
length of the device or the line at microwave frequencies, is comparable to or much larger
than the wavelength. Due to this, the voltage and current are difficult to measure as also the
above mentioned parameters. The reasons for this are listed as below

(a) Equipment is not available to measure the total voltage and total current at any point.

(b) Over a wide range of frequencies, short and open circuits are difficult to realize.

(c) Active devices such as power transistors, tunnel diodes etc, will become unstable under
short or open circuit conditions.
 Coupling Mechanism

Three types of Coupling Mechanisms

Probe Coupling
Loop Coupling
Slot/Aperture Coupling
Probe coupling & Loop coupling: Probes & Loops are metallic wires used to couple coaxial
line to a waveguide to feed or extract microwave signal. Coupling loops and probes are
common techniques for coupling microwave signal to the waveguides. Probes couple electric
field where as loops couple magnetic field. When a short antenna in the form of a probe or a
loop inserted into a waveguide, it will radiate and if it is placed correctly, the wanted mode
will be set up. The correct positioning of the coupling probes for launching dominant mode.

Coupling Probes:

When a small probe is inserted into a waveguide and supplied with microwave energy, it acts
as a quarter –wave antenna. The probe is placed at a distance from the shorted end of the
waveguide and the centre of broader dimension of the waveguide because at that point
electric field is maximum. This probe will now act as an antenna which is polarized in the
plane parallel to that of electric field.

Current flows in the probe and sets up an E field

Coupling Loops:

Coupling loops inject or extract magnetic field or H field from the waveguide. This can be
accomplished by inserting a small loop which carries a high current into the waveguide. A
magnetic field builds up around the loop and expands to fit the waveguide.

The coupling loop placed at the centre of shorted end plate of the waveguide can also be used
to launch mode i.e, coupling is achieved by means of a loop antenna located in a plane
perpendicular to the electric field and loops to a magnetic field.

Slot/Aperture coupling:

Slots or apertures are used when very loose coupling is desired. In this method energy enters
through a small slot in the waveguide and the E field expands into the waveguide. The E
lines expand first across the slot and then across the interior of the waveguide. Minimum
reflections occur when energy is injected or removed if the size of the slot is properly
proportioned to the frequency of the microwave signal.
Waveguide Discontinuities

Waveguide irises:

In any waveguide system, when there is a mismatch there will be reflections. In transmission
lines, in order to overcome this mismatch lumped impedances or stubs of required value are
placed at pre calculated points. In waveguides too, some discontinuities are made use for
matching purposes. Any susceptances appearing across the guide, causing mismatch (
production of standing waves) needs to be cancelled by introducing another susceptance of
the same magnitude but of opposite nature. Irises (also called windows, apertures or
diaphragms) are made use for this purpose.

An inductive iris allows a current to flow where none flowed before. The iris is placed in a
position where the magnetic field is strong (or where electric field is relatively weak). Since
the plane of polarization of electric field is parallel to the plane of iris, the current flow due to
iris causes a magnetic field to be set up.

In capacitive iris, it is seen that the potential which existed between the top and bottom walls
of the waveguide now exists between surfaces which are closer. The capacitive iris is placed
in a position where the electric field is strong.

In parallel resonant iris, the inductive and capacitive irises are combined. A series resonant
iris which supported by a non-metallic material and it is transparent to the flow of microwave
energy.
 Tuning Screws & Posts:

When a metallic cylindrical post is introduced into the broader side of waveguide, it produces
the same effect as an iris in providing lumped reactance at that point. If the post extends only
a short distance (< λg/4) into the waveguide, it behaves capacitively. When the depth is equal
to λg/4 , the post acts as a series resonant circuit, if it is greater than (>λg/4), the post behaves
inductively.

Posts and screws made from conductive material can be used for impedance-changing
devices in waveguides. A post or screw can also serve as a reactive element. The only
significant difference between posts and screws is that posts are fixed and screws are
adjustable. A post (or screw) that only penetrates partially into the waveguide acts as a shunt
capacitive reactance. When a post extends completely through the waveguide, making
contact with the top and bottom walls, it acts as an inductive reactance. The screw acts
similar to an LC-tuned circuit in such cases.

Screws
A screw is generally inserted into the top or bottom walls of the waveguide, parallel to the
electric-field lines. It can give a variable amount of susceptance depending on the depth of
penetration. A screw with an insertion distance (screw depth) less than λ/4 produces
capacitive susceptance. When the distance is equal to λ/4, we have series resonance. When
the distance is greater than λ/4, it produces inductive susceptance, as shown in figure below.
The adjustable waveguide screw is shown in Figure below. The capacitive setting shown in
first figure and the inductive setting is shown in second figure.

Posts
A cylindrical post is introduced into the broader side of the waveguide; it produces a similar
effect as an iris in providing lumped capacitive/inductive reactance at that point. When a
metalpost extends completely across the waveguide, parallel to an electric field, it adds an
inductive susceptance that is parallel to the waveguide. A post extending across the
waveguide at right angles to the electric field produces an effective capacitive susceptance
that is in shunt with the waveguide at the position of the post. The waveguide post is shown
in figure below. The advantage of such posts over irises is the flexibility they provide, which
results in ease of matching.
MICROWAVE HYBRID CIRCUITS : A microwave circuit is formed when several
microwave components and devices such as microwave generators , microwave amplifiers,
variable attenuators, cavity resonators, microwave filters, directional couplers, isolators are
coupled together without any mismatch for proper transmission of a microwave signal.
Connection of two or more microwave devices and components to a single point results in a
microwave junction. In a low frequency network, the input and output variables are voltage
and current which can be related in terms of impedance Z-parameters, or admittance Y-
parameters or hybrid h-parameters or ABCD parameters. These relationships for a two-port
network can be represented by

These parameters, Z, Y,h and ABCD parameters can be easily measured at low frequencies
under short or open circuit conditions and can be used for analyzing the circuit. The physical
length of the device or the line at microwave frequencies, is comparable to or much larger
than the wavelength. Due to this, the voltage and current are difficult to measure as also the
above mentioned parameters. The reasons for this are listed as below

(a) Equipment is not available to measure the total voltage and total current at any point.

(b) Over a wide range of frequencies, short and open circuits are difficult to realize.

(c) Active devices such as power transistors, tunnel diodes etc, will become unstable under
short or open circuit conditions.
Therefore, a new representation is needed to overcome these problems at microwave
frequencies. The logical variables are traveling waves with associated powers rather than
voltages and currents and these variables are labeled as "Scattering or S- parameters".

So in microwave analysis, the power relationship between the various ports of microwave
junction is defined in terms of parameters, called as S-parameters or scattering
parameters. As the microwave junction is a multiport junction, the power relationship between
the various ports are defined in terms of matrix form, and called as S matrix, which a square
matrix giving all the power combinations between the input port and output ports.

SCATTERING MATRIX OF A TWO PORT NETWORK :

These S-parameters can be represented in an equation form related to the traveling waves
a1,a2 and b1 b2 through

S-MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF MULTIPORT NETWORK:

Let us now consider a junction of "n" number of rectangular waveguides as shown in figure
4.4. In this case, all "a' s" represent the incident waves at respective ports and all "b 's" the
reflected waves from the microwave junction coming out of the respective ports.

a = Input
b = Output

an is the amplitude of voltage wave incident on port n, while bn is the amplitude of the
reflected voltage wave from port n. If the ports are not properly matched with the junction,
there will be reflection from junction, back towards the ports.

The scattering matrix or [S] matrix is defined in relation to these incident and reflected
voltage waves as
The specific element of S-matrix is Sij = bi / aj i.e. scattering coefficient due to input at j
th port and output taken from i th port.

Thus, Sii is reflection coefficient at the port i, when the same port (i th port) is excited
with incident waves, and rests of the ports are terminated in matched loads.

Properties of S-matrix S11 S12 S13

S21 S22 S23
S31 S32 S33
1. Scattering matrix is always a square matrix of order n x n.

2. For a lossless network S matrix is Unitary i.e. [S][S]*=[I], I=identity matrix of same order as
that of S, [S]*= Complex conjugate of [S]

3. For a reciprocal network scattering matrix posses property of symmetry, i.e. Sij = Sji

4. Zero Propert of S matrix, Sum of products of each term of any row (column) multiplied by the
complex conjugate of the corresponding terms of any other row (column) is zero.

5. Unity Property of S matrix, Sum of products of each term of any row (column) multiplied by
its complex conjugate of the corresponding terms is unity.

∑𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒊=𝟏𝟏 𝑺𝑺𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝑺𝑺𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 ∗ = 𝟏𝟏, for j=1,2,3,….,n

6. If any port, moved away from the junction by a distance of 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽, then the coefficients of Sij
involving that particular port will be multiplied by the factor 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 .

WAVEGUIDE TEES : Waveguide Tees and couplers are junctions or networks having three or
more ports. Waveguide Tees are used for the purpose of connecting a branch section of
waveguide in series or parallel with the main waveguide.

E-Plane TEE JUNCTION (Series Tee):

An E-plane tee is a waveguide tee in which the axis of its side arm is parallel to
the E field of the main guide . if the collinear arms are symmetric about the side arm.If the E-
plane tee is perfectly matched with the aid of screw tuners at the junction, the diagonal
components of the scattering matrix are zero because there will be no reflection . When the waves
are fed into side arm, the waves appearing at port 1 and port 2 of the collinear arm will be in
opposite phase and in same magnitude.
S13=-S23

sij=o/p at i th port/i/p at Jth port

E arm

E-plane Tee is a voltage or series junction – symmetrical about the central arm so that the
signal to be split up (or signals to be combined are taken from it) is fed from it.
When the dominant TE10 mode is made to propagated through port 3, the outputs from port 1 and
2 will be at the same amplitude but phase shifted by 180 degrees with respect to each other. This
180 degrees phase shift is occurring between port 1 and 2 is due to the change in electric field
lines.
Since it is a three port junction the scattering matrix can be derived as follows:
1. [S] Matrix of order 3 x 3.

2. The Scattering coefficients are

As the waves coming out of the port 1 and 2 of the collinear arm will be opposite phase and
in same magnitude. Negative sign indicates phase difference.

3. If the port 3 is perfectly matched to the junction

4. For symmetric property

with the above properties, [S] becomes,

5. From unitary property,

H Plane Tee Junction (Shunt Junction):

H-plane Tee junction is formed by cutting a rectangular slot along the width of a main
waveguide and attaching another waveguide – the side arm – called as H-arm. An H-plane tee
is a waveguide tee in which the axis of its side arm is shunting the E field or parallel to the H-
field of the main guide. If two input waves are fed into port 1 and port 2 of the collinear arm,
the output wave at port 3 will be in phase and additive. If the input is fed into port 3, the wave
will split equally into port 1 and port 2 in phase and in same magnitude.

As all three arms of H-plane tee lie in the plane of magnetic field, the magnetic field divides
itself into the arms; this is thus a current junction.

Since it is a three port junction the scattering matrix can be derived as follows:

1. [S] Matrix of order 3 x 3.

2. Because of plane of symmetry of the junction, the Scattering coefficients are

3. If the port 3 is perfectly matched to the junction

4. For symmetric property

With the above properties, [S] becomes,

5. From unitary property,

From equations (29), and (30), we get

From equation (31),

From equation (32),

-S12*

------------- 35

Using these values from equation 33, 34 and 35 in equation 29,

Substituting the values of , the [S] matrix of equation 29 becomes

Input is given at port 3 and no inputs at port 1 and 2, .

Hence the power coming out of the port 1 or port 2 is 3 dB down with respect to input power
at port 3; hence the H-plane Tee is called as 3-dB splitter.

E-H Plane TEE OR MAGIC TEE:

A magic tee is a combination of E-plane and H-plane tee. The characteristics of magic tee
are:
The magic Tee has several characteristics:

1. If two waves of equal magnitude and same phase are fed into port 1 and port 2, then the
output will be zero at port 3 and additive at port 4.

2. If a wave is fed into port 4 (H arm) it will be divided equally between port 1 and port 2 of
the collinear arms and will not appear at port 3.

3. If a wave is fed into port 3 (E arm) , it will produce an output of equal magnitude and
opposite phase at port 1 and port 2. The output at port 4 is zero. That is, S43=S34=0.

4. If a wave is fed into one of the collinear arms at port 1 and port 2, it will not appear in the
other collinear arm at port 2 or 1 because the E-arm causes a phase delay while H arm causes
a phase advance. That is S12=S21=0.

Using the properties of E and H-plane tee, its scattering matrix can be obtained as follows:

1. [S] Matrix is a 4 x 4 matrix since there are 4 ports.

2. Because of H-plane Tee junction, S24 = S14 ………… (44)

3. Because of E-plane Tee junction , S23 = -S13 ………(45)

4. Because of the geometry, an input to port 3 cannot come out of port 4 and vice versa. Hence
they are called as isolated ports.

7. From unitary property,

From equation 51 and 52,

Using the values of equation 53 into equation 49, we get,

Comparing equations 49 and 50, we found that S11 = S22 ……(55)

This shows that port 1 and 2 are perfectly matched to the junction. Hence in any four
port junction, if any tow ports are perfectly matched to the junction, then the remaining
two ports are automatically matched to the junction. Such a junction where in all the
four ports are perfectly matched to the junction is called as MAGIC TEE.

Thus by substituting the values we get,

8. We know that [b]=[S][a],

Receiver
, I/P port1 ---- O/P port 2 and port 4 but not from port 3, S21, S41, S31=0;
I/P PORT 2 --- O/P PORT 3 and Port 1 but not from port 4, S32, S12,
S42=0
Incident Power
Several types of directional couplers exist, such as a two-hole direct coupler, four-hole
directional coupler, reverse-coupling directional coupler , and Bethe- hole directional coupler
the very commonly used two-hole directional coupler is described here.
MICROWAVE CIRCULATORS:

A microwave circulator is a multiport waveguide junction in which the wave can flow only
from the nth port to the (n + I)th port in one direction Although there is no restriction on the
number of ports, the four-port microwave circulator is the most common. One type of four-
port microwave circulator is a combination of two 3-dB side hole directional couplers and a
rectangular waveguide with two non reciprocal phase shifters.

Schematic diagram of four port circulator

The operating principle of a typical microwave circulator can be analyzed with the aid of Fig
shown above .Each of the two 3-dB couplers in the circulator introduces a phase shift of 90°,
and each of the two phase shifters produces a certain amount o f phase change in a certain
direction as indicated. When a wave is incident to port 1,the wave is split into two
components by coupler I. The wave in the primary guide arrives at port 2 with a relative
phase' change of 180°. The second wave propagates through the two couplers and the
secondary guide and arrives at port 2 with a relative phase shift of 180°. Since the two waves
reaching port 2 are in phase, the power transmission is obtained from port 1 to port 2.
However, the wave propagates through the primary guide, phase shifter, and coupler 2 and
arrives at port 4 with a phase change of 270°. The wave travels through coupler 1 and the
secondary guide, and it arrives at port 4 with a phase shift of 90°. Since the two waves
reaching port 4 are out of phase by 180°, the power transmission from port 1 to port 4 is zero.
In general, the differential propagation constants in the two directions o f propagation in a
waveguide containing ferrite phase shifters should be

where m and n are any integers, including zeros. A similar analysis shows that a wave
incident to port 2 emerges at port 3 and so on. As a result, the sequence of power flow is
designated as 1 ~ 2 ~ 3 ~ 4 ~ 1.

Many types of microwave circulators are in use today. However, their principles of operation
remain the same. .A four-port circulator is constructed by the use of two magic tees and a
phase shifter. The phase shifter produces a phase shift of 180°.

A perfectly matched, lossless, and nonreciprocal four-port circulator has an S matrix of the
form
Using the properties of S parameters the S-matrix is