PSC150S: Physics

Lecture 2: Vectors and their properties

Monday 26th February, 2024

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1 Coordinate Systems
Coordinate systems are used to describe positions of particles or points at which quantities are to
be defined or measured. They are often used as references for specifying directions. The coordinate
system or reference frame is used extensively in describing the physical problem or situation, but it is
not a part of the problem. No physical result can depend on the choice of coordinates. The coordinate
system is a passive aid to the observer, and it may be chosen or adjusted to suit the purposes of the
observer. Problem statements may use a coordinate system as a convenience, but no physical problem
comes with axes glued to it. We add them to facilitate the description of the problem. Once the
coordinates have been chosen for a problem and the description has been started, further changes are
usually not advised as a complicated transformation scheme is often required to translate information
stated relative to one set of coordinates into a form suitable for use in another set of coordinates.

1.1 1D Coordinate systems

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The easiest coordinate system to construct is one that we can use to describe the location of ob-
jects in one dimensional space. For example, we may wish to describe the location of a train along a
straight section of track that runs in the East-West direction. In order to do so, we must first define
an “origin”, which is the reference point of our coordinate system. For example, the origin for our
train track may be the Unibell train station (Figure 1).

We can describe the position of the train by specifying how far it is from the train station (the
origin), using a single real number, say x . If the train is at position x = 0, then we know that it is at
the Kingston station. If the object is not at the origin, then we need to be able to specify on which
side (East or West in our train example) of the origin the object is located. We do this by choosing
a direction for our one dimensional coordinate x. For example, we may choose that the East side of
the track corresponds to positive values of x and that the West side of the track correspond to the
negative values of x. Thus, in order to fully specify a one-dimensional coordinate system we need to
choose:
1. the location of the origin.

2. the direction in which the coordinate, x, increases.

3. the units in which we wish to express x.
In one dimension, it is common to use the variable x to define the position along the “x-axis”. The
x-axis is our coordinate system in one dimension, and we represent it by drawing a line with an arrow
in the direction of increasing x and indicate where the origin is located (as in Figure 1).

1.2 2D Coordinate systems

In a 2-dimensional coordinate system, you use two values to give the location. The most commonly
used coordinate system is called the xy coordinate grid/plane, which consists of two 1-dimensional
number lines that intersect perpendicular to each other at the 0 coordinate. The horizontal number
line is called the x-axis, while the vertical number line is known as the y-axis. The point at which
both lines intersect is called the origin, which uses the coordinates of (0,0).

All points within a 2-dimensional space are given by an ordered pair (x, y). The first number, or
x, tells us how far to move from the origin along the x-axis. Positive numbers move right, while
negative numbers move left. The second number, or y, tells us how far to move along the y-axis.
1A 1-dimensional coordinate system, also known as a number line, uses one coordinate to tell how far away from the
origin object is located.

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Figure 1: A 1d coordinate system describing the position of a train. The Unibell train station is
the origin and the East side of the track corresponds to positive values of x. The train is located at
position x1 .

The example of 2D coordinate system also known as Cartesian coordinates or rectangular coordi-
nates is shown in Figure 3. In two dimensions, sometimes, it is more convenient to represent a point

Figure 2: Designation of points in a Cartesian coordinate system. Every point is labeled with coordi-
nates (x, y)

in a plane by its plane polar coordinates (r, θ) as shown in Figure 3

In this polar coordinate system, r is the distance from the origin to the point having Carte-
sian coordinates (x, y) and θ is the angle between a fixed axis and a line drawn from the origin to the
point.

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Figure 3: a) The plane polar coordinates of a point are represented by the distance r and the angle θ,
where θ is measured counterclockwise from the positive x axis. (b) The right triangle used to relate
(x, y) to (r, θ).

From right triangle in Figure 3b, we can write the following trigonometric ratios
y
sin(θ) = (1)
r
x
cos(θ) = (2)
r
y
tan(θ) = (3)
x
One can easily convert the two Cartesian coordinates, x and y, to the two corresponding polar coor-
dinates, r and θ:

x = r cos(θ) (4)
y = r sin(θ) (5)

Similarly, one can easily convert the two polar coordinates, r and θ to the two corresponding Cartesian
coordinates

p
r= x2 + y 2 (6)
y
tan(θ) = (7)
x
We will need to be careful with this because inverse tangents only return values in the range
− π2 < θ < π2 . Recall that there is a second possible angle and that the second angle is given by θ + π.

Polar coordinates are often used to describe the motion of an object moving around a circle, as
this means that only one of the coordinates (θ) changes with time (if the origin of the coordinate
system is chosen to coincide with the center of the circle).

Example
Convert each of the following points into the given coordinate system.

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 1. Convert −4, 2π


3 into Cartesian coordinates

2. Convert (−1, −1) into polar coordinates.

Solution
1. Convert −4, 2π


3 into Cartesian coordinates.

This conversion is easy enough. All we need to do is plug the points into the formulas.

This conversion is easy enough. All we need to do is plug the points into the formulas

   
2π 1
x = −4 cos = −4 − =2
3 2
√ !
√
 
2π 3
y = −4 sin = −4 = −2 3
3 2
√

So, in Cartesian coordinates this point is 2, −2 3 .
2. Convert (−1, −1) into polar coordinates Let’s first get r
q
2 2
√
r = (−1) + (−1) = 2

Now, let’s get θ.

 
−1 −1 π
θ = tan = tan−1 (1) =
−1 4

This is not the correct angle however. This value of θ is in the first quadrant and the point we’ve
been given is in the third quadrant. As noted above we can get the correct angle by adding p
onto this. Therefore, the actual angle is, p

π 5π
θ= +π =
4 4
√ 5π

So, in polar coordinates the point is 2, 4 . Note as well that we could have used the first
θ that we got by√using
a negative r. In this case the point could also be written in polar
coordinates as − 2, π4 .
Example 2
Two points in the xy plane have Cartesian coordinates (2.00, -4.00) m and (-3.00, 3.00) m. Determine
(a) the distance between these points and (b) their polar coordinates.

Solution
1. a) the distance between these points

The formula for the distance, d, between two points whose coordinates are (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 )
is: p
d = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
This is called the Distance Formula.

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 p
d = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 (8)
p
= (2.00 − (−3.00))2 + (4.00 − 3.00)2 (9)
= 8.6 m (10)

2. (b) their polar coordinates.

To find the polar coordinates of each point, we measure the radial distance to that point and
the angle it makes with the +x axis:
p
r = 22 + (−4)2 = 4.47 m (11)
 
4
θ1 = arctan − = 63.4◦ (12)
2
p
= (−3)2 + (3)2 = 4.24 m (13)
 
3
θ2 = arctan − = −45◦ (14)
3

We can also see from the Cartesian coordinates of the point that our point must be in the second
quadrant and so, for this problem, θ2 + 180◦ is the correct value.

1.3 3D Coordinate systems ( Not to be examined)

In three dimensions, we need to specify three numbers to describe the position of an object (e.g. a
bird flying in the air). In a three dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, we simply add a third axis,
z, that is mutually perpendicular to both x and y. The position of an object can then be specified by
using the three coordinates, x, y, and z. By convention, we use the z axis to be the vertical direction
in three dimensions.
Two additional coordinate systems are common in three dimensions: “cylindrical” and “spherical”
coordinates.

Figure 4: Cartesian (left), cylindrical (center) and spherical (right) coordinate systems used in three
dimensions. The y and z axes are in the plane of the page, whereas the x axis comes out of the page.

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2 Vectors
In order to describe the motion of an object within the field of the kinematics we need to understand
difference between physical quantities.

There are many physical quantities in nature, and we can divide them up into two broad groups
called vectors and scalars.
1. A scalar is a physical quantity that has only a magnitude (size).
ˆ Scalars are physical quantities which have only a number value or a size (magnitude). A
scalar tells you how much of something there is.
2. A vector is a physical quantity that has both a magnitude and a direction.
ˆ A vector tells you how much of something there is and which direction it is in.

2.1 Algebraic Properties of Vectors

Equality of Two Vectors
For many purposes, two vectors A ~ and B
~ may be defined to be equal if they have the same magnitude
~ =B
and if they point in the same direction. That is, A ~ only if A = B and if A ~ and B ~ point in the
same direction along parallel lines.

For example, all the vectors in Figure 5 are equal even though they have different starting points.
This property allows us to move a vector to a position parallel to itself in a diagram without affecting
the vector.

Figure 5: These four vectors are equal because they have equal lengths and point in the same direction.

~ Q
We list algebraic properties of vectors below for vectors P, ~ and R
~ and scalar, r

~ +Q
1. Commutative (vector) P ~ =Q
~ +P
~

~ + Q)
2. Associative (vector) (P ~ +R
~ =P
~ + (Q
~ + R)
~

3. Additive identity There is a vector 0 such

that (P~ + 0) = P~ = (0 + P)
~
~
for all P
~ there is a vector -P
4. Additive inverse For any P ~ such that P
~ + (-P)
~ =0

~ + Q)
5. Distributive (vector) r(P ~ = rP
~ + rQ
~

~ = rP
6. Distributive (scalar) (r + s) P ~ + sP
~

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 ~ = (rs)P
7. Associative (scalar) r(sP) ~

8. Multiplicative identity For the real number 1,

~ =P
1P ~ for each P
~

We remark that the rules for adding vectors are conveniently described by a graphical method. You
will be given a separate set of notes to familiarise yourself with this method. We will hardly apply it
to solve problems in this course.

2.2 Components of a Vector and Unit Vector

The graphical method of adding vectors is not recommended whenever high accuracy is required or in
three-dimensional problems. Here, we describe a method of adding vectors that makes use of the pro-
jections of vectors along coordinate axes. These projections are called the components of the vector
or its rectangular components. Any vector can be completely described by its components.

~ lying in the xy plane and making an arbitrary angle θ with the positive x
1. Consider a vector A
axis as shown in Figure 6a.
~ x , which is parallel
2. This vector can be expressed as the sum of two other component vectors A
~ y , which is parallel to the y axis.
to the x axis, and A
~ =A
3. From Figure 6b, we see that the three vectors form a right triangle and that A ~x+A
~ y.

~ written Ax and Ay (without the boldface

4. We shall often refer to the “components of a vector A”
notation).

5. The component Ax represents the projection of A ~ along the x axis, and the component Ay
~
represents the projection of A along the y axis.

6. These components can be positive or negative.

7. The component Ax is positive if the component vector A ~ x points in the positive x direction and
~ x points in the negative x direction.
is negative if A
8. A similar statement is made for the component Ay

~ lying in the xy plane can be represented by its component vectors A

Figure 6: a) A vector A ~ x and
~ y . (b) The y component vector A
A ~ y can be moved to the right so that it adds to A
~ x . The vector
~
sum of the component vectors is A. These three vectors form a right triangle.

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From Figure 6 and the definition of sine and cosine, we see that

Ax
cos θ = (15)
A
Ay
sin θ = (16)
A
~ are
Hence, the components of A

Ax = A cos θ (17)
Ay = A sin θ (18)

The magnitudes of these components are the lengths of the two sides of a right triangle with a
~ are related to its components
hypotenuse of length A. Therefore, the magnitude and direction of A
through the expressions

q
A = A2x + A2y (19)
 
Ay
θ = arctan (20)
Ax
Notice that the signs of the components Ax and Ay depend on the angle θ.
~ either with its components Ax and Ay or with
When solving problems, you can specify a vector A
its magnitude and direction A and θ. Remember that this depends on whether you wish to solve the
problems in Cartesian or polar coordinates.

Unit Vectors
ˆ Vector quantities often are expressed in terms of unit vectors.
ˆ Unit vector is a dimensionless vector having a magnitude of exactly 1
ˆ Unit vectors are used to specify a given direction and have no other physical significance.
ˆ They are used solely as a bookkeeping convenience in describing a direction in space.
ˆ We shall use the symbols î, ĵ, and k̂ to represent unit vectors pointing in the positive x , y, and
z directions, respectively.
ˆ The “hats,” or circumflexes, on the symbols are a standard notation for unit vectors.
ˆ The unit vectors î, ĵ, and k̂ form a set of mutually perpendicular vectors in a right-handed
coordinate system as shown in Figure 7a
ˆ The magnitude of each unit vector equals 1; that is,|î| = |ĵ| = |k̂| = 1

ˆ The product of the component Ax and the unit vector î is the component vector A
~ x = Ax î
which lies on the x axis and has magnitude |Ax |

ˆ Likewise, A
~ y = Ay ĵ is the component vector of magnitude |Ay | lying on the y axis.

ˆ Therefore, the unit-vector notation for the vector A

~ is

à = Ax î + Ay ĵ

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Figure 7: a) The unit vectors î, ĵ, and k̂ are directed along the x, y, and z axes, respectively. (b)
Vector à = Ax î + Ay ĵ lying in the xy plane has components Ax and Ay .

2.3 Vector notation

The three standard basis vectors for three dimensional space. This is a different way of representing
a vector in its component form
Note that in literature there are a plenty of methods to represent vectors below we show some of
them.

~
The vector is often denoted by bold, upper case letter with an arrow on the top (e.g A). How-
ever, some books use normal upper case letter with an arrow on the top (e.g ~a). While others use
~ You may also encounter vectors represented bold letters
either upper or lower case letter (~a or A).
without an arrow on top. Throughout these notes we will represent vectors with bold, upper case
letter with an arrow on the top.

Notation for unit vectors also varies. The common notation is lower case letters (i,j,k) or (x,y,z)
in bold or math mode with a hat on top. In this course (i,j,k) in bold or or in math mode.

Note that components of a vector will be represented in two equivalent forms:

ha1 , a2 , a3 i = a1~i + a2~j + a3~k (21)
These two notations are self-evident but will be emphasised in class. Henceforth, they will be use the
two notations interchangeably so make sure that you can deal with both notations.

2.4 Vector Arithmetic

In this section we need to have a brief discussion of vector arithmetic.

~ = hAx , Ay , Az i and B
We’ll start with addition of two vectors. So, given the vectors A ~ = hBx , By , Bz i
the addition of the two vectors is given by the following formula.

~ +B
A ~ = hAx , Ay , Az i + hBx , By , Bz i = hA1 + B1 , B2 + B2 , A3 + B3 i (22)
Computationally, subtraction is very similar. Given the vectors ~a = ha1 , a2 , a3 i and ~b = hb1 , b2 , b3 i
the difference of the two vectors is given by,

~ −B
A ~ = hAx , Ay , Az i − hBx , By , Bz i = hA1 − B1 , B2 − B2 , A3 − B3 i (23)

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 ~ W
If V, ~ and U~ are vectors (each with the same number of components) and a and b are two numbers
then we have the following properties.
   
V~ +W ~ =W ~ +V~ ~ + V
U ~ +W~ = U ~ +V ~ +W ~
V~ + ~0 = V
~ ~ =V
1V ~
 
a V ~ +W ~ = aV ~ + aW~ ~ = aV
(a + b) V ~ + bV~

Example
~ = h3, −9, 1i and V
If A ~ = −î + 8k̂ compute 2A
~ − 3V.
~

Solution
In order to do the problem we’ll convert to one notation and then perform the indicated operations.

~ − 3V
2A ~ = 2 h3, −9, 1i − 3 h−1, 0, 8i
= h6, −18, 2i − h−3, 0, 24i
= h9, −18, −22i

2.5 Resultant vector

Now let us see how to use components to add vectors when the graphical method is not sufficiently
accurate. Suppose we wish to add vector

à = Ax ĵ + Ay ĵ

and
B̃ = Bx ĵ + By ĵ

Because of the bookkeeping convenience of the unit vectors, all we do is add the x and y compo-
nents separately.

The resultant vector

~ =A
R ~ +B
~

We can now write

R̃ ~ +B
= A ~
   
= Ax î + Ay ĵ + Bx ĵ + By ĵ
   
= Ax î + Bx î + Ay ĵ + By ĵ (24)

~ = Rx î + Ry ĵ, we see that the components of the resultant vector are

Because R

Rx = Ax î + Bx î (25)
Ry = Ay ĵ + By ĵ (26)

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Therefore, we see that in the component method of adding vectors, we add all then x components
together to find the x component of the resultant vector and use the same process for the y components.

The magnitude of R~ and the angle it makes with the x axis are obtained from its components using
the relationships
q q q
2 2
R = Rx2 + Ry2 = Rx2 + Ry2 = (Ax + Bx ) + (Ay + By ) (27)

Ry Ay + B y
tan θ = = (28)
Rx Ax + B x
At times, we need to consider situations involving motion in three component directions. The extension
of our methods to three-dimensional vectors is straightforward. If A ~ and B
~ both have x , y, and z
components, they can be expressed in the form
~ =
A Ax ĵ + Ay ĵ + Az k̂ (29)
~ =
B Bx ĵ + By ĵ + Bz k̂ (30)

~ and B
The sum of A ~ is

~ =
R ~ +B
A ~ (31)
   
= Ax ĵ + Ay ĵ + Az k̂ + Bx ĵ + By ĵ + Bz k̂ (32)
     
= Ax î + Bx î + Ay ĵ + By ĵ + Az î + Bz î (33)
= Rx î + Ry ĵ + Rz k̂ (34)

~ has x, y, and z components, the magnitude of the vector is

If a vector R
q
~ =R =
|R| (Rx î)2 + (Ry ĵ)2 + (Rz k̂)2 (35)
q
= Rx2 î2 + Ry2 ĵ2 + Rz2 k̂2 (36)
q
= Rx2 + Ry2 + Rz2 , î2 = ĵ2 = k̂2 = 1 (37)

~ makes with the x axis is found from the expression cos θx = Rx

The angle θx that R
R
Ry
The similar expressions for the angles with respect to the y and z axes are cos θy = and
R
Rz
cos θz = , respectively.
R
The extension of our method to adding more than two vectors is also straight-forward.

Example
~ = Ax ĵ + Ay ĵ + Az k̂, B
Given the three vectors A ~ = Bx ĵ + By ĵ + Bz k̂ and C
~ = Cx ĵ + Cy ĵ + Cz k̂.
Calculate their sum.

Solution

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~ =
R ~ +B
A ~ +C~
     
= Ax ĵ + Ay ĵ + Az k̂ + Bx ĵ + By ĵ + Bz k̂ + Cx ĵ + Cy ĵ + Cz k̂
     
= Ax î + Bx î + Cx î + Ay ĵ + By ĵ + Cy ĵ + Az k̂ + Bz k̂ + Cz k̂

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2.6 Position vector
What is a position vector? A position vector tells the location of a point with respect to another
point. The original point is called the initial point, and the point whose location is being described
is the terminal point. When looking at a map, a position vector can be defined as the location of one
point with respect to another on the same map.

The direction of the position vector always points from the origin of that vector towards the given
point.
ˆ In the cartesian coordinate system, if O is the origin and P (x1 , y1 ) is another point, then the
position vector that is being directed from the point O to the point P can be represented as
−−→
OP .

ˆ In a three-dimensional space, if the origin O = (0, 0, 0) and P = (x1 , y1 , z1 ), then the position
vector ~v of point P can be represented as: ~v = x1 î + y1 ĵ + z1 k̂
A position vector is defined as a vector that symbolises either the position or the location of any given
point with respect to any arbitrary reference point like the origin. The direction of the position vector
always points from the origin of that vector towards a given point.

Position Vector Formula

To find the position vector of any point in the xy-plane, we should first know the point coordinates.
Consider two points A and B whose coordinates are (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ), respectively. To determine
the position vector, we need to subtract the corresponding components of A from B as follows:
−−→
AB = (x2 –x1 )î + (y2 –y1 )ĵ
−−→
The position vector AB refers to a vector that starts at point A and ends at point B.

Similarly, if we want to find the position vector from the point B to point A, then we can use:
−−→
BA = (x1 –x2 )î + (y1 –y2 )ĵ

NB: The direction of the position vector always points from the origin of that vector towards the
given point.

Example 1
−−→
Given two points P = (-4, 6) and Q = (5, 11), determine the position vector P Q.
Solution
If two points are given in the xy-coordinate system, then we can use the following formula to find the
−−→
position vector PQ: P Q = (x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 )

Where (x1 y1 ) represents the coordinates of point P and (x2 , y2 ) represents the point Q coordinates.
Thus, by simply putting the values of points P and Q in the above equation, we can find the position
−−→
vector P Q:

−−→
PQ = (5 − (−4), 11 − 6)
= ((5 + 4), 11 − 6)
= (9, 5)
= 9î + 5ĵ

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 −−→
Thus, the position vector P Q is equivalent to a vector that starts at the origin. This vector is directed
to a point 9 units to the right along the x-axis, and 5 units upward along the y-axis.

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Repeated for emphasis
A vector is a specific quantity drawn as a line segment with an arrowhead at one end. It has an initial
point, where it begins, and a terminal point, where it ends. A vector is defined by its magnitude,
or the length of the line, and its direction, indicated by an arrowhead at the terminal point. Thus,
a vector is a directed line segment. There are various symbols that distinguish vectors from other
quantities:

ˆ Lower case, boldfaced type, with or without an arrow on top such as u, w, → −

v, →
−
u, →
−
w.
−−→
ˆ Given initial point P and terminal point Q, a vector can be represented as P Q. The arrowhead
on top is what indicates that it is not just a line, but a directed line segment.
ˆ Given an initial point of (0, 0) and terminal point (a, b), a vector may be represented as ha, bi

This last symbol ha, bi has special significance. It is called the standard position. The position vector
has an initial point (0,0) and a terminal ha, bi. To change any vector into the position vector, we think
about the change in the x-coordinates and the change in the y0-coordinates. Thus, if the initial point
−−→
of a vector CD is C(x1 , y1 ) and the terminal point is D(x2 , y2 ), then the position vector is found by
calculating

−−→
AB = hx2 − x1 , y2 − y1 i
= ha, bi

Example
Consider the vector whose initial point is P(2,3) and terminal point is Q(6,4). Find the position vector.

Solution
The position vector is found by subtracting one x -coordinate from the other x-coordinate, and one
y-coordinate from the other y-coordinate. Thus

−−→
PQ = h6 − 2, 4 − 3i
= h4, 1i

The position vector begins at (0,0) and terminates at (4,1). The graphs of both vectors are shown in
Figure below

We see that the position vector is h4, 1i.

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2.7 MAGNITUDE AND DIRECTION OF A VECTOR
To work with a vector, we need to be able to find its magnitude and its direction. We find its mag-
nitude using the Pythagorean Theorem or the distance formula, and we find its direction using the
inverse tangent function.
√
Given a position vector V ~ = ha, bi, the magnitude is found by |V~ | = a2 + b2 . The direction is
equal to the angle formed with the x-axis, or with the y-axis, depending on the application. For a
b
=⇒ θ = arctan ab , as illustrated in Figure


position vector, the direction is found by tan θ =
a
below.

Two vectors V~ and U ~ are considered equal if they have the same magnitude and the same direction.
Additionally, if both vectors have the same position vector, they are equal.

Example
Find the magnitude and direction of the vector with initial point P(-8,1) and terminal point Q(-2,-5).
Draw the vector.

Solution
First, find the position vector.
~
U = h−2, −(−8), −5 − 1i
= h6, −6i

We use the Pythagorean Theorem to find the magnitude.

~| =
p
|U 62 + (−6)2
√
= 72

The direction is given as

 
6 6
tan θ = − =⇒ θ = arctan −
6 6
= 45◦

However, the angle terminates in the fourth quadrant, so we add 360◦ to obtain a positive angle.
Thus, -45◦ +360◦ =315◦ . See Figure below

For a three-dimensional vector ~a = a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂, the formula for its magnitude is

q
|~a| = a21 + a22 + a23

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To find the direction angles relative to î, ĵ and k̂ components in 3d whose initial position is at the
origin, use
a1 a2 a3
cos α = , cos β = , cos γ =
|~a| |~a| |~a|
The formula for the magnitude of a vector can be generalized to arbitrary dimensions. The same
applies for the formula to calculate the angle the components make.

Exercises
1. Find the magnitude and direction angles relative to î, ĵ and k̂ components of ~u = 2î + 3ĵ − 2k̂
2. Find the magnitude and direction of angles relative to î, ĵ and k̂ components ~v = î + 3ĵ − 5k̂
~ = 7î − 5ĵ − 3k̂
3. Find the magnitude and direction of angles relative to î, ĵ and k̂ components w
4. Find the magnitude and direction angles relative to î, ĵ and k̂ components of ~t = 7î − 15ĵ + 13k̂

2.8 Displacement Vector

The change in the position vector of an object is known as the displacement vector. Suppose an object
is at point A at time = 0 and at point B at time = t. The position vectors of the object at point A
and point B are given as:

~ = ~rA = 5î + 3ĵ + 4k̂

Position vector at point A

~ = ~rB = 2î + 2ĵ + 1k̂

Position vector at point B

Now, the displacement vector of the object from time interval 0 to t will be: ~rB − ~rA = −3î − ĵ − 3k̂

The displacement of an object can also be defined as the vector distance between the initial point and
the final point.

Conceptual questions and answers

1. How Do You Find the Position Vector? It’s essential to first determine the coordinates of
a point, before finding the position vector of that point. Consider two points, A and B, where
A = (x1 , y1 ) and B = (x2 , y2 ).
−−→
ˆ Next, we will find the position vector from point A to point B, the vector AB.

18
 ˆ To determine this position vector, we need to subtract the corresponding components of A
−−→
from B : AB = (x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 )
2. What Is the Difference Between a Position Vector and Displacement Vector? A
position vector is defined as a vector that indicates either the position or the location of any given
point with respect to any arbitrary reference point like the origin. Whereas, the displacement
vector helps us to find the change in the position vector of a given object.

3. Where Does a Position Vector Always Start? The position vector starts at the origin and
terminates at any other arbitrary point. These are used to determine the position of a point
with reference to the origin.
4. What Is the Difference Between a Position Vector and a Unit Vector? A vector is
considered to be a unit vector when it is used to specify only the direction and has a magnitude
equal to 1. There is no magnitude required for direction, hence the magnitude of the unit vector
is always equal to 1. A position vector is defined as a vector that indicates either the position
or the location of any given point with respect to any arbitrary reference point like the origin.
5. What Is the Formula for Position Vector? If we know the position of any point in the
xy-plane, then we can use a formula to determine a position vector between those two points.
For instance, consider a point A, which has the coordinates (xk , yk ) in the xy-plane, and another
point B, which has the coordinates (xk+1 , yk+1 ). The formula to determine the position vector
−−→
from A to B is AB = (xk+1 − xk , yk+1 − yk ).
6. Is Displacement a Position Vector? No, a displacement is not a position vector. The
position vector is used to help us find the location of one object relative to another object. It
is essential to know the position of a body when we are describing its motion. But then, a
displacement vector can be defined as the change or variation in the given position vector.

19
Numerical questions
1. What form does the trajectory of a particle have if the distance from any point A to point B is
equal to the magnitude of the displacement from A to B? Solution: Straight line
2. The coordinates of a particle in a rectangular coordinate system are (1.0, -4.0, 6.0). What is
the position vector of the particle? Solution: ~r = 1.0î − 4.0ĵ + 6.0k̂
3. The position of a particle changes from ~r1 = (2.0î + 3.0ĵ)cm to ~r2 = (−4.0î + 3.0ĵ) cm. What is
the particle’s displacement?
4. A cyclist rides 5.0 km due east, then 10.0 km 20◦ west of north. From this point she rides 8.0
km due west. What is the final displacement from where the cyclist started?

Solution
Take east as positive x axis and north as positive y axis.

~a = 5î
~b = −10 sin 20◦ î + 10 cos 20◦ ĵ
~c = −8î

Resultant

d~ = ~a + ~b + ~c
= −(3 + 10 sin 20◦ )î + 10 cos 20◦ ĵ

Magnitude of d~ is given by

d~ =
p
(3 + 10 sin 20◦ )2 + (10 cos 20◦ )2
= 11.38 km
−10 cos 20◦
 
d~ makes an angle θ with x-axis given by θ = arctan = 124.33◦
(3 + 10 sin 20◦ )
That is 55.66◦ north of west.
5. The 18th hole at Pebble Beach Golf Course is a dogleg to the left of length 496.0 m. The
fairway off the tee is taken to be the x direction. A golfer hits his tee shot a distance of 300.0
m, corresponding to a displacement of ~r1 = 300.0 mî and then hits his second shot 189.0 m
corresponding to a displacement of ~r2 = 172.0 mî + 80.3 mĵ. What is the final displacement of
the golf ball from the tee? Give your answer as a resultant vector that incorporates horizontal
and vertical components.The 18th hole at Pebble Beach Golf Course is a dogleg to the left of
length 496.0 m. The fairway off the tee is taken to be the x direction. A golfer hits his tee shot
a distance of 300.0 m, corresponding to a displacement ∆~r = 300.0 mî, and hits his second shot
189.0 m with a displacement ∆~r2 = 172.0 mî + 80.3 mĵ. What is the final displacement of the
golf ball from the tee?

Solution
Given the following :
Distance of tee shot = 300m
Distance of second shot = 189.0 m
Displacement ~r1 of tee shot :

20
 ~r1 = 300 mi
Displacement ~r2 of second shot :

~r2 = 172.0 mî + 80.3 mĵ

The final displacement of the golf ball from the tee:

~rf inal = ~r1 + ~r2

= (300î) m + (172.0î + 80.3ĵ) m
= (300 + 172)î m + 80.3ĵ m
= (472î + 80.3ĵ) m

21
3 Products of Vectors
A vector can be multiplied by another vector but may not be divided by another vector. There are
two kinds of products of vectors used broadly in physics and engineering. One kind of multiplication
is a scalar multiplication of two vectors. Taking a scalar product of two vectors results in a number
(a scalar), as its name indicates.

A quite different kind of multiplication is a vector multiplication of vectors. Taking a vector product
of two vectors returns as a result a vector, as its name suggests. Vector products are used to define
other derived vector quantities.

It is important to distinguish between these two kinds of vector multiplications because the scalar
product is a scalar quantity and a vector product is a vector quantity.

3.1 Scalar Product (Dot Product)

Scalar multiplication of two vectors yields a scalar product.

~ ·B
The scalar product A ~ of two vectors A
~ and B
~ is a number defined by the equation
~ ·B
A ~ = AB cos θ

where θ is the angle between the vectors (shown in (Figure 8)). The scalar product is also called the
dot product because of the dot notation that indicates it. In the definition of the dot product, the

~ ·B
Figure 8: The scalar product A ~ equals the magnitude of A
~ multiplied by B cos θ, which is the
~ ~
projection of B onto B

direction of angle θ does not matter, and θ can be measured from either of the two vectors to the other
because cos(θ)=cos(−θ)=cos(2π − θ). The dot product is a negative number when 90◦ < θ ≤ 180◦
and is a positive number when 90◦ ≤ θ < 90◦ . Moreover, the dot product of two parallel vectors is
~ ·B
A ~ = AB cos 0◦ = AB, and the dot product of two antiparallel vectors is A ~ ·B~ = AB cos 180◦ =
~ ~
−AB. The scalar product of two orthogonal vectors vanishes: A · B = AB cos 90◦ = 0. The scalar
product of a vector with itself is the square of its magnitude:

~ ·A
A ~ =A
~ 2 = AA cos 0◦ = A2
In the Cartesian coordinate system, scalar products of the unit vector of an axis with other unit
vectors of axes always vanish because these unit vectors are orthogonal: orthogonal:
î · ĵ = |ĵ||ĵ| cos 90◦ = (1)(1)(0) = 0, (38)
◦
î · ĵ = |ĵ||ĵ| cos 90 = (1)(1)(0) = 0, (39)
In these equations, we use the fact that the magnitudes of all unit vectors are one: |î| = |î| = |î| = 1.
For unit vectors of the axes, Figure 8 gives the following identities:
î · î = î2 = ĵ · ĵ = ĵ2 = k̂ · k̂ = k̂2

22
When the vectors in (Figure 6) are given in their vector component forms,

~ =
A Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂ (40)
~ =
B Bx î + By ĵ + Bz k̂ (41)

we can compute their scalar product as follows:

   
~ ·B
A ~ = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂ · Bx î + By ĵ + Bz k̂
= Ax Bx î · î + Ax By î · ĵ + Ax Bz î · k̂
+ Ay Bx ĵ · î + Ay By ĵ · ĵ + Ay Bz ĵ · k̂
+ Az Bx k̂ · î + Ay By k̂ · ĵ + Ay Bz k̂ · k̂ (42)

Since scalar products of two different unit vectors of axes give zero, and scalar products of unit vectors
with themselves give one and there are only three nonzero terms in this expression. Thus, the scalar
product simplifies to

~ ·B
A ~ = Ax Bx î · î + Ay By ĵ · ĵ + Ay Bz k̂ · k̂ since î · î = ĵ · ĵ = k̂ · k̂ = 1
= Ax Bx + Ay By + Ay Bz (43)

Example
Compute the dot product for each of the following.
1. ~v = 5~i − 8~j, w
~ = ~i + 2~j
2. ~a = h0, 3, −7i , ~b = h2, 3, 1i
Solution
Not much to do with these other than use the formula.
~ = 5 − 16 = −11
1. ~v  w
2. ~a  ~b = 0 + 9 − 7 = 2
Here are some properties of the dot product.

~u  (~v + w)
~ = ~u  ~v + ~u  w
~ (c~v )  w
~ = ~v  (cw)
~ = c (~v  w)
~
~v  w
~ =w
~  ~v ~v  ~0 = 0
2
~v  ~v = k~v k If ~v  ~v = 0 then ~v = ~0

The scalar product of any two vectors A~ and B~ is defined as a scalar quantity equal to the product
of the magnitudes of the two vectors and the cosine of the angle θ between them:
~ ·B
A ~ = |A||
~ B|~ cos(θ) (44)

Explicitly, the angle is given by

~ ·B
A ~
cos(θ) = (45)
~ B|
|A|| ~
~ and B
As is the case with any multiplication, A ~ need not have the same units.

Example
Determine the angle between ~a = h3, −4, −1i and ~b = h0, 5, 2i

23
Solution
We will need the dot product as well as the magnitudes of each vector.
√ √
~a  ~b = −22 k~ak = 26 ~b = 29
The angle is then,
~a  ~b −22
cos θ = = √ √ = −0.8011927
k~ak ~b 26 29

θ = cos−1 (−0.8011927) = 2.5 radians = 143.24 degrees

The dot product gives us a very nice method for determining if two vectors are perpendicular and it
will give another method for determining when two vectors are parallel. Note as well that often we
will use the term orthogonal in place of perpendicular.

Now, if two vectors are orthogonal then we know that the angle between them is 90 degrees. From
(2) this tells us that if two vectors are orthogonal then,
~ ·B
A ~ =0 (46)
Likewise, if two vectors are parallel then the angle between them is either 0 degrees (pointing in the
same direction) or 180 degrees (pointing in the opposite direction). Once again using Eq. (44) this
~ B
would mean that one of the following would have to be true. A ~ = A ~ B~ (θ = 0◦ ) OR ~
A
~ =− A
B ~ ~ (θ = 180◦ ) Example
B
Determine if the following vectors are parallel, orthogonal, or neither.
1. ~a = h6, −2, −1i , ~b = h2, 5, 2i
1 1
2. ~u = 2~i − ~j, ~v = − ~i + ~j
2 4
Solution

1. ~a = h6, −2, −1i , ~b = h2, 5, 2i

First get the dot product to see if they are orthogonal

~a  ~b = 12 − 10 − 2 = 0
The two vectors are orthogonal.
1 1~
2. ~u = 2~i − ~j, ~v = − ~i +
j Again, let’s get the dot product first.
2 4
1 5
~u  ~v = −1 − = −
4 4
So, they are not orthogonal. Let’s get the magnitudes and see if they are parallel.
√
√
r
5 5
k~uk = 5 k~v k = =
16 4
Now, notice that,
√ !
5 √ 5
~u  ~v = − = − 5 = − k~uk k~v k
4 4
So, the two vectors are parallel.

24
3.2 The Vector Product
In this final section of this chapter we will look at the cross product of two vectors. We should note
that the cross product requires both of the vectors to be three dimensional vectors.

Also, before getting into how to compute these we should point out a major difference between
dot products and cross products. The result of a dot product is a number and the result of a cross
product is a vector! Be careful not to confuse the two.
We now give a formal definition of the vector product. Given any two vectors A ~ and , the vector
~ ~ ~ ~
product B A × B is defined as a third vector C, which has magnitude of AB sin θ, where θ the angle
between A~ and B~ . That is, if C
~ is given by

~ =A
C ~ ×B
~ (47)

its magnitude is
C = AB sin θ (48)
The quantity AB sin θ is equal to the area of the parallelogram formed by A ~ and B~ as shown in
Figure 9. The direction of C~ is perpendicular to the plane formed by A ~ and B ~ , and the best way
to determine this direction is to use the right-hand rule illustrated in Figure 9. The four fingers of
the right hand are pointed along A~ and then “wrapped” in the direction that would rotate A ~ and B~
through the angle θ. The direction of the upright thumb is the direction of A ~ =A ~ × B.
~ Because of
~ ×B
the notation, A ~ is often read “ B
~ cross B,”
~ so the vector product is also called the cross product.
Some properties of the vector product that follow from its definition are as follows:

Figure 9: The vector product A~ ×B

~ is a third vector C
~ having a magnitude AB sin θ equal to the
area of the parallelogram shown.

1. Unlike the scalar product, the vector product is not commutative. Instead, the order in which
the two vectors are multiplied in a vector product is important:
~ ×B
A ~ = −B
~ ×A
~

Therefore, if you change the order of the vectors in a vector product, you must change the sign.
You can easily verify this relationship with the right-hand rule.
~ is parallel to A,
2. If A ~ then A
~ × B;
~ therefore, it follows that A
~ ×A
~ = 0.
~ is perpendicular to B
3. If A ~ , then A
~ ×A
~ = AB.

25
 4. The vector product obeys the distributive law
 
A~ × B ~ +C~ =A ~ ×B
~ +A
~ ×B
~

When we apply the definition of the cross product, to unit vectors î, ĵ, and k̂ that define the positive
x-, y-, and z-directions in space, we find that î × î = ĵ × ĵ = k̂ × k̂ = 0. All other cross products of
these three unit vectors must be vectors of unit magnitudes because î, ĵ, and k̂ are orthogonal. For
example, for the pair î and ĵ, the magnitude is |î × ĵ| = ij sin 90◦ = (1)(1)(1) = 1. The direction
of the vector product î × ĵ must be orthogonal to the xy-plane, which means it must be along the
z-axis. The only unit vectors along the z-axis are -k̂ or +k̂. By the corkscrew rule, the direction of
vector î × ĵ must be parallel to the positive z-axis. Therefore, the result of the multiplication î × ĵ is
identical to +k̂. We can repeat similar reasoning for the remaining pairs of unit vectors. The results
of these multiplications are

î × ĵ = +k̂, ĵ × k̂ = +î, k̂ × î = +ĵ. (49)

Notice that in Figure 10, the three unit vectors î, ĵ, and k̂ appear in the cyclic order shown in a
diagram in Figure (10a). The cyclic order means that in the product formula, î follows k̂ and comes
before î or ĵ follows ĵ and comes before î or ĵ follows ĵ and comes before k̂. The cross product of two
different unit vectors is always a third unit vector. When two unit vectors in the cross product appear
in the cyclic order, the result of such a multiplication is the remaining unit vector, as illustrated in
(Figure)(10b). When unit vectors in the cross product appear in a different order, the result is a
unit vector that is antiparallel to the remaining unit vector (i.e., the result is with the minus sign, as
shown by the examples in (Figure)(10c) and (Figure)(10d). In practice, when the task is to find cross
products of vectors that are given in vector component form, this rule for the cross-multiplication of
unit vectors is very useful. Suppose we want to find the cross product A ~ ×B ~ for vectors. The vector
component forms,
~ = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂
A (50)
~ = Bx î + By ĵ + Bz k̂
B (51)

We can use the distributive property, the anticommutative property and cyclic property and for unit
vectors to perform the following algebra:
   
A~ ×B ~ = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂ × Bx î + By ĵ + Bz k̂
= Ax Bx î × î + Ax By î × ĵ + Ax Bz î × k̂
+ Ay Bx ĵ × î + Ay By ĵ × ĵ + Ay Bz ĵ × k̂
+ Az Bx k̂ × î + Ay By k̂ × ĵ + Ay Bz k̂ × k̂
= Ax Bx (0) + Ax By (+k)ˆ + Ax Bz î × k̂
+ Ay Bx ĵ × î + Ay By (0) + Ay Bz ĵ × k̂
+ Az Bx k̂ × î + Ay By k̂ × ĵ + Az Bz (0) (52)

When performing algebraic operations involving the cross product, be very careful about keeping
the correct order of multiplication because the cross product is anticommutative. The last two steps
that we still have to do to complete our task are, first, grouping the terms that contain a common
unit vector and, second, factoring. In this way we obtain the following very useful expression for the
computation of the cross product:

~ ×B
A ~ = (Ay Bz − Az By )î + (Az Bx − Ax Bz )ĵ + (Ax By − Ay Bx )k̂ (53)

26
Figure 10: (a) The diagram of the cyclic order of the unit vectors of the axes. (b) The only cross
products where the unit vectors appear in the cyclic order. These products have the positive sign. (c,
d) Two examples of cross products where the unit vectors do not appear in the cyclic order. These
products have the negative sign.

This is not an easy formula to remember and the algebra involved is cumbersome. There are two
other ways to derive this formula. Both of them use the fact that the cross product is really the
determinant of a 3×3 matrix. If you don’t know what that is don’t worry about it. You don’t need
to know anything about matrices or determinants to use either of the methods. The notation for the
determinant is as follows,
î ĵ k̂
A~ ×B~ = Ax Ay Az (54)
Bx By Bz
The first row is the standard basis vectors and must appear in the order given here. The second row is
the components of A ~ and the third row is the components of B.Now,
~ let’s take a look at the different
methods for getting the formula.

The first method uses the Method of Cofactors. If you don’t know the method of cofactors that
is fine, the result is all that we need. Here is the formula.

Ay Az A Az A Ay
î − x ĵ + x k̂ (55)
By Bz Bx Bz Bx By
where
a b
= ad − bc (56)
c d
This formula is not as difficult to remember as it might at first appear to be. First, the terms alternate
in sign and notice that the 2×2 is missing the column below the standard basis vector that multiplies

27
it as well as the row of standard basis vectors.

The second method is slightly easier; however, many textbooks don’t cover this method as it will
only work on 3×3 determinants. This method says to take the determinant as listed above and then
copy the first two columns onto the end as shown below.

î ĵ k̂ î ĵ
~a × ~b = a1 a2 a3 a1 a2 (57)
b1 b2 b3 b1 b2
We now have three diagonals that move from left to right and three diagonals that move from
right to left. We multiply along each diagonal and add those that move from left to right and subtract
those that move from right to left. We now have three diagonals that move from left to right and
three diagonals that move from right to left. We multiply along each diagonal and add those that
move from left to right and subtract those that move from right to left.

This is best seen in an example. We’ll also use this example to illustrate a fact about cross products.

Example
If ~a = h2, 1, −1i and ~b = h−3, 4, 1i compute each of the following

1. ~a × ~b
2. ~b × ~a
Solution
1. Here is the computation for this one ~a × ~b:

î ĵ k̂ î ĵ
~a×~b = 2 1 −1 2 1 = î(1)(1)+ĵ(−1)(−3)+~k(2)(4)−~j(2)(1)−~i(−1)(4)−~k(1)(−3) = 5~i+~j+11~k
−3 4 1 −3 4

2. And here is the computation for this one ~b × ~a:

î ĵ k̂ î ĵ
~b×~a = −3 4 1 −3 4 = î(4)(−1)+ĵ(1)(2)+~k(−3)(1)−ĵ(−3)(−1)−î(1)(1)−~k(4)(2) = −5î−ĵ−11~k
2 1 −1 2 1

NB: Notice that switching the order of the vectors in the cross product simply changed all the signs
in the result. Note as well that this means that the two cross products will point in exactly opposite
directions since they only differ by a sign.

Important points to note:

1. If the two vectors, ~a and ~b, are parallel then the angle between them is either 0 or 180 degrees.
This implies ~a × ~b = 0

2. If ~a × ~b = 0 then ~a and ~b will be parallel vectors.

3. If ~a × ~b 6= ~0 then ~a × ~b is orthogonal to both ~a and ~b

28
Here are some nice properties about the cross product.

If ~u, ~v and w
~ are vectors and c is a number/scalar then,

~u × ~v = −~v × ~u (c~u) × ~v = ~u × (c~v ) = c (~u × ~v )

~u × (~v + w)
~ = ~u × ~v + ~u × w
~ ~u  (~v × w)
~ = (~u × ~v )  w
~
u1 u2 u3
~u  (~v × w)
~ = v1 v2 v3
w1 w2 w3

The volume of the parallelepiped (the whole three dimensional object) is given by,
 
Volume = ~a  ~b × ~c (58)

Note that the absolute value bars are required since the quantity could be negative and volume isn’t
negative.

We can use this volume fact to determine if three vectors lie in the same plane or not. If three
vectors lie in the same plane then the volume of the parallelepiped will be zero.

Example
Determine if the three vectors ~a = h1, 4, −7i, ~b = h2, −1, 4i and ~c = h0, −9, 18i lie in the same plane
or not.

Solution
So, as we noted prior to this example all we need to do is compute the volume of the parallelepiped
formed by these three vectors. If the volume is zero they lie in the same plane and if the volume isn’t
zero they don’t lie in the same plane.

  1 4 −7
~a  ~b × ~c = 2 −1 4
0 −9 18
1 4 −7 4 −7
= 2 −1 4 −1 4
0 −9 18 −1 4
= (1) (−1) (18) + (4) (4) (0) + (−7) (2) (−9) −
(4) (2) (18) − (1) (4) (−9) − (−7) (−1) (0)
= −18 + 126 − 144 + 36
=0

So, the volume is zero and so they lie in the same plane.

29