AGE 212:

MATHEMATICS III

LUANAR
2013/2014 Academic Year

Lecturer: Wellam Kamthunzi

Agricultural Engineering Department
TOPIC 1 November 14, 2013

Analytic Geometry
What is Analytic Geometry

• Analytic geometry, also known as coordinate

geometry, or Cartesian geometry, is the study of
geometry using a coordinate system and the
principles of algebra and analysis.
• Analytic geometry is concerned with defining
geometrical shapes in a numerical way and
extracting numerical information from that
representation.
• Analytic geometry is widely used in physics and
engineering
Coordinate Systems

• A coordinate system is a system which

uses one or more numbers, or coordinates,
to uniquely determine the position of a point
or other geometric element.
• The order of the coordinates is significant.
• In elementary mathematics the coordinates
are taken to be real numbers.
Coordinate Systems

• The use of a coordinate system allows

problems in geometry to be translated into
problems about numbers and vice versa.
• An example of a coordinate system in everyday
use is the system of assigning longitude and
latitude to geographical locations.
• In physics, a coordinate system used to
describe points in space is called a frame of
reference.
The Number Line

• The simplest example of a coordinate system is

the identification of points on a line with real
numbers using the number line.
• In this system, an arbitrary point O (the origin) is
chosen on a given line.
• The coordinate of a point P is defined as the
signed distance from O to P.
• Each point is given a unique coordinate and each
real number is the coordinate of a unique point
Cartesian Coordinate System

• The Cartesian coordinate system, also

called the rectangular coordinate
system, is used to define the position
of a point or other geometric element
on a plane in two dimensions using a
pair of coordinates or in space in three
dimensions using three coordinates.
2-D of Plane Cartesian Coordinate
System

• Uses an x-coordinate representing its

horizontal position, and a y-coordinate
representing its vertical position and is
written as an ordered pair (x, y).
3-D Space Cartesian Coordinate
System

• In 3-D space, three perpendicular

planes are chosen and the three
coordinates of a point are the signed
distances to each of the planes.
• The most common three-dimensional or
space Cartesian coordinate system
uses an ordered triple of coordinates (x,
y, z).
Polar Coordinate System

• The polar coordinate system

represents every point on the plane by
its radius r from the origin O and its
angle q. The polar coordinates are
written (r, q).
Cylindrical Coordinate System

• This is an extension of the two dimension polar

coordinate system to three dimensions by
superposing a height or z-axis.
• A z-coordinate with the same meaning as in
Cartesian coordinates is added to the r and q polar
coordinates to form the cylindrical coordinate (r, q,
z).
• Cylindrical coordinate systems represent a point in
space by a distance r from the origin, an angle q,
and a height z.
 Spherical Coordinate System

• This is another extension of the two dimension polar

coordinate system and the three dimension
cylindrical coordinate system.
• Spherical coordinates convert the pair of cylindrical
coordinates (r, z) to polar coordinates (r, f) giving a
triple coordinate (r, q, f).
• Spherical coordinate systems represent a point in
space with two angles q, called the azimuth angle,
and f, called the polar angle or inclination and a
distance r (or r) from the origin.
The Geographic Coordinate System

• This uses the azimuth q and elevation

(90 – f) of the spherical coordinate
system to express locations on Earth,
calling them respectively longitude
and latitude.
The Number Line
2-D Cartesian Coordinates
3-D Cartesian Coordinate system
3-D Cartesian Coordinates
Polar Coordinates
 Cylindrical Coordinates

cylindrical coordinate (r, q, z)

 Spherical Coordinates
Spherical coordinate (r, q, f)

Spherical coordinates (r, θ, f)

as often used in mathematics:
radial distance r, azimuthal
angle θ, and polar angle f.
Spherical Coordinates
Latitudes and Longitudes
Coordinate Transformation

• A coordinate transformation is a
conversion from one system to
another, to describe the same space.
Coordinate transformation
Polar ↔ Cartesian

• Polar to Cartesian Cartesian to Polar

x  r cos r x2  y2
y  r sin   y
  tan  
1

x
Coordinate transformation
Cartesian ↔ Spherical

• Cartesian to spherical Spherical to

Cartesian
  x2  y 2  z 2 x  r cos  sin 
 y
  tan   y  r sin  sin 
1

x

z
  cos  1   z  r cos
r
Coordinate transformation
Cartesian ↔ Cylindrical

• Cartesian to Cylindrical Cylindrical to Cartesian

r x2  y2 x  r cos 
 y y  r sin 
  tan  
1

x
zz zz
Coordinate transformation
Spherical ↔ Cylindrical

r   sin 
z   cos 

  r2  z2
r
  tan  
1

z
Distance between points

• The distance D between point A(x1, y1) and

B(x2, y2) on x-y plane is:

D  x2  x1  2   y 2  y1 
2

• The distance D between point A(x1, y1, z1)

and B(x2, y2, z2) in 3-D space is:

D  x2  x1  2
  y 2  y1 
2
  z 2  z1  2
Functions

• A function associates one quantity (the input or

argument), with another quantity (the output or
value).
• A function assigns exactly one output to each
input.
• The input to a function is often called the
independent variable or argument and is often
represented by the letter x or t.
• The output is called the dependent variable or
value and is often represented by the letter y.
Functional notation

• The function is most often called f, and the

notation y = f(x) indicates that a function named
f has an input named x and an output named y.
• The set of all permitted inputs to a given
function is called the domain of the function.
• The set of all the outputs is called the image or
range of the function.
• Most functions are real-valued functions of real
variables and not complex variables.
Multivariable functions

• A function that associates two or more

quantities (or independent variables) with
another quantity (the dependent variable) is
called a multivariable function.
• If f is a multivariable function with input
variables x, y, and z and output variable w,
then we can write w = f(x, y, z)
• Multivariable functions are common in
engineering and physics.
Examples of multivariable
functions

• Volume of a cylinder V = f(r, h) = p r2h

• Resonant frequency f
1
f   g ( L, C )
2 LC

• Time of oscillation of pendulum t

l
t  2  f (l , g )
g
Graphs or curves

• The equation y = f(x) defines an

algebraic curve expressed in Cartesian
coordinates and can therefore be
plotted on the x–y plane to produce a
graph or curve.
• The resulting curve consists of points of
the form (x, y) and can be regarded as
the graph of the function f.
Equations of curves in Cartesian
form

• y = x + 1 for a straight line

• y = x2 + x + 1 for a parabola
• x2 + y2 = 9 for a circle, centre (0, 0)
and R = 3
Plotting Graphs using Excel

• Enter or generate the (x, y) data.

• The header row should contain the data labels.
• Select the data including the labels.
• From the Insert Tab select type of chart, e.g.
scatter to get an x-y plot.
• Format the chart or graph using Chart tools from
the Design, Layout and Format tabs.
• Right clicking a chart item opens a menu for
various actions.
Example of Excel Charts

• Excel was used to produce the

following curves:
y = x + 1 for a straight line
y = x2 + x + 1 for a parabola
x2 + y2 = 9 for a circle, centre (0, 0) and R = 3
• For each equation, (x, y) values were
obtained for a limited set of x values.
Graph of y = x + 1
x -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
y -9 -7 -5 -3 -1 1 3 5 7 9 11

x
 Graph of y = x2 + x + 1
x -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
y 91 57 31 13 3 1 7 21 43 73 111

120
y
100

80

60

40

20
x
0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
Graph of x2 + y2 = 9
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y 0 2.24 2.83 3 2.83 2.24 0
y 0 -2.24 -2.83 -3 -2.83 -2.24 0
4

0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-1

-2

-3

-4
Polar equation of a curve

• The equation defining an algebraic curve

expressed in polar coordinates is known
as a polar equation.
• Such an equation can simply be specified
by defining r as a function of q.
• The resulting curve then consists of points
of the form (q, r(q)) and can be regarded
as the graph of the polar function r.
Polar curves or graphs

• Polar curves or graphs are plotted on a

polar grid.
• Angles in polar notation are generally
expressed in either degrees or radians.
• Among the best known of polar curves
are the polar rose, Archimedean spiral,
lemniscate, limaçon, and cardioid.
A polar grid with several angles
labeled in degrees
Polar form of equation of a circle

• Cartesian form: x  y 9
2 2

• Polar form: r 2 cos 2   r 2 sin 2   9

r 2 (cos 2   sin 2  )  9
r2  9
r ( )  3
Polar rose

• A polar rose is a famous mathematical

curve that looks like a petaled flower.
• It can be expressed as a simple polar
equation, r(q) = a sin bq, where a and b
are constants.
 Polar curves

Polar graph of r(q ) = 1 Polar rose for r(q) = 2 sin 4q

 Polar roses

Blue curve is r(q) = cos 3q 350 0 10 Red curve is r(q) = sin

3 3q
340 20
330 30
320 40
310 50
300 60

290 70

280 80

270 90

260 100

250 110

240 120
230 130
220 140
210 150
200 160
190 180 170
Properties of curves
• Curves have properties that distinguish them
from each other.
• These properties may be used in sketching
the curve.
• The most important properties of curves are:
Extent (domain and range); restricted or
forbidden regions; crossing points or
intercepts; turning points; points of inflexion;
asymptotes; symmetry; odd and even.
Properties of curves

• Extent (domain and range);

• Restricted or forbidden regions;
• Crossing points or intercepts;
• Turning points;
• Points of inflexion;
• Asymptotes;
• Symmetry;
• Odd and even.
Symmetry
• The curve is symmetric with respect to the y-axis
if:
f ( x )  f (  x ) F ( x, y )  F (  x, y ) y  x2

• The curve is symmetric with respect to the x-axis

if:
g ( y )  g ( y ) F ( x, y )  F ( x,  y ) y2  x
 Graph of y = x2
x -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 25 16 9 4 1 0 1 4 9 16 25

30 y
25

20

15

10

5
x
0
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Graph of y2 = 2x
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
Symmetry
• A function is odd and its curve is symmetric with
respect to the origin if:
f ( x)   f ( x) y  x3 y  f ( x)  sin x

• A function is even and its curve has a reflection

symmetry with respect to the y-axis if:
f ( x)  f ( x) y  f ( x)  cos x
Graph of y = x3
x -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y -125 -64 -27 -8 -1 0 1 8 27 64 125

150 y
100

50

0 x
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-50

-100

-150
Graph of y = cos x
1.5

0.5

0
-400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400

-0.5

-1

-1.5
Symmetry

• The curve is symmetric with respect to

the line y = x if:
F ( x, y )  F ( y , x ) x  y1

• A periodic function has a periodic

symmetry.
f ( x )  f ( x  b) y  f ( x)  sin x
Extent (Domain and range)

• The extent of a curve is defined by the domain

and range of the function and is limited by the
requirement for real values instead of complex
numbers.
• Establishing the extent for a curve is the first
step in plotting a graph.
• If y = f(x), the domain is the set of x values
that will give real values of y.
• The range is the set of real values of y.
Graph of y = sin x
1.5

0.5

0
-400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400
-0.5

-1

-1.5
Forbidden or restricted regions

• These are regions where a curve does

not exist.
Intercepts or crossing points

• The intercepts are the points where the

graph or curve crosses the x- or y-axis.
• By setting x = 0, the y-intercept is
found.
• Similarly, by setting y = 0, the x-
intercept is obtained.
Asymptotes

• Asymptotes are lines that a curve

tends to approach but are never
reached or crossed.
• Basically there are three kinds of
asymptotes: horizontal, vertical, and
slant asymptotes.
Horizontal asymptotes

• The line y = A is called a horizontal

asymptote of the curve y = f(x) if
lim f ( x)  A lim f ( x)  A
x x 

1
y  f ( x) 
• Consider ( x  1)
lim f ( x)  0 lim f ( x)  0
x x 

• Thus y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote

Vertical asymptotes

• The line x = A is called a vertical

asymptote of the curve y = f(x) if
lim f ( x)    lim  f ( x)   
x A xA

lim f ( x)    lim f ( x)   
xA x  A
Vertical asymptotes (cont’d)

• The line x = c is a vertical asymptote of

a function y = f(x) if D(c) = 0, where
N ( x)
y  f ( x) 
D( x)
• Thus, to find the vertical asymptotes
solve the equation D(x) = 0
Vertical asymptotes (cont’d)

• Consider the function

1
y  f ( x) 
( x 1)

• If x → +∞, y → +0.
• If x → -∞, y → -0.
• Therefore y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote
Vertical asymptotes (cont’d)

• Finding the vertical asymptote requires

solving the equation (x – 1) = 0.
• Thus, x = 1 is a vertical asymptote
Graph of y = 1/(x-1)
15

10

0
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-5

-10

-15
Slant asymptote

• Some curves may have an asymptote

that is neither vertical nor horizontal.
• These curves approach a line as x
approaches positive or negative infinity.
• This line is called the slant asymptote
of the function.
Slant asymptote (cont’d)

• The line y = mx + c is called a slant

asymptote of the curve y = f(x) if:
lim  f ( x)  (mx  a)  0
x
Slant asymptotes (cont’d)
Graph of y = 1/x
Asymptotes y = 0 and x = 0
6

0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
-2

-4

-6
 Graph of y = 5/x
6

0
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

-2

-4

-6
Graph of y = x + 1/x
Asymptotes x = 0 and y = x
15

10

0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
-5

-10

-15
Graph of y = 4 + 1/x
Asymptotes x = 0 and y = 4
10

0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
-2
Increasing or decreasing regions of
a curve

• If the derivative is greater than zero for

all x in (a, b), then the function is
increasing or rising on [a, b].
• If the derivative is less than zero for all
x in (a, b), then the function is
decreasing or falling on [a, b].
Turning points

• The turning points of a curve are the local

extreme values (maximum or minimum values)
of the function.
• In order to find the turning points of a function,
the critical point need to be calculated.
• If y = f(x) then set dy/dx = 0 to get the critical
point.
• Use the second derivative test to establish
whether point is maximum or minimum.
Graph of y = x3 - 4x2 -3x +8
20

15

10

0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-5

-10

-15

-20
Concavity of the curve

• The bend direction (concave downward

or concave upward) or concavity of the
curve can be determined using the second
derivative and the test for concavity.
• When the second derivative is greater than
0, the curve is concave upward.
• When the second derivative is less than 0,
the curve is concave downward.
Inflection Points

• A point on a curve that separates a

concave downward portion from a
concave upward portion is called an
inflection point.
• The inflection point is a point on the
curve where both the first and second
derivatives are zero.
Curve sketching
• When a mathematical function is known,
coordinates may be calculated for a limited
range of values and the function can be
represented pictorially as a graph within the
range of values calculated.
• This is known as plotting a graph.
• Curve sketching involves the use of differential
calculus and other techniques to obtain the
general form of a graph without going to the
extent of plotting the curve exactly.
Curve sketching (cont’d)

• One uses the properties of curves to

sketch a curve.
• In order to properly sketch a curve, we
need to determine how the curve
behaves as x approaches positive and
negative infinity.
• We must find the limit of the function as
x approaches infinity.
Curve sketching (cont’d)

• The following steps are helpful when

sketching curves.
• These are general guidelines for all
curves, so each step may not always
apply to all functions
Curve sketching steps

• Draw the x- and y-axis.

• Determine and draw all asymptotes.
• Determine and plot the intercepts, turning points, and
inflection points.
• Draw the curve passing all the above points.
• Locate and draw the sections where the curve rises or
falls.
• Draw the bends of the curve based on the concavity tests.
• Use the tests of symmetry to complete the curve, if
possible.
Curve sketching example

• Sketch the curve

1
y 4
x2
Curve sketching example (cont’d)

• When x = 0, y = 3.5 1
y 4
• When y = 0, x = 1.75 x2
• Asymptotes
• Vertical asymptote x = 2
• Horizontal asymptote y = 4
• When x → ∞, y → 4 from top
• When x → -∞, y → 4 from bottom
• When x → 2 from left, y → -∞
• When x → 2 from right, y → +∞
Sketch of y = 4 + 1/(x-2)
Graph of y = 4 + 1/(x – 2)
10

0
-11 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
-2
Practice Problems

• Sketch the following curves

2x 1 1
y y y  x 9
2
y   2x
x4 2x  5 x

1 1 1
y y  4x  y 2
( x  1)( x  1) x 1 x

x 1
y y  2  8x
( x  1)( x  1) y2  4  2x
x
Parametric forms
Curves of parametric equations
Conic sections
The Circle
The Ellipse
The Parabola
The Hyperbola
Curve fitting