Algorithm: series of unambiguous instructions to solve a problem.

Sub-procedures: Breaking up the problem into many sub-problems.

Trace table: Table that tracks what happened to the input depending
on the instruction.

Iteration: Process of repeating a series of instructions.

• For loop: Knows how many iterations are needed.
• While loop: Iterates until the condition is met.

Number system: A system that represents numbers. There are many

systems, these are some:

1. Binary (base 2):

You can convert from binary decimal. An example is:

(11001110)

a
=128+64+32
+16+8+4+2
=(206)
10
2. Decimal (base 10):
You can convert from decimal binary and decimal hex. An
example is:
2206 r 16 206 r
(206)18 (206)1016
2103 12 14
=(1100110)22
2 s i =(CE)
16

s
vid-las

d
3. Hexadecimal (base 16):
You can convert from hex denary. For example:
(CE)If (C )(16)+(E)(16)=206
1 2

=(206) 10

Array: Data collection of variables that each identify by one key/

index.

Collection: A group of items (data or objects) that are stored together

and can be accessed, managed, and manipulated as a single unit.
Can be dynamic(changeable) or static(fixed), there are some terms
only for collections, for example:
names.resetnext(): starts at the first index.
names.hasnext(): checks if there is a index after the current one.
names.getnext(): gets the next index.
names.isempty(): checks if there is any remaining index.
names.additem(“”): adds new item(only if dynamic).
Gantt Chart: a chart that tracks order of events
Concurrent: when two or more event overlap each other

Concurrent Processing System: when one input uses several

processors to execute the output, it increases computation, complexity
of programming languages, and reduces complexity of working
with array oporations

Pre/Post Conditions: pre conditions is set before the execution,

meanwhile post conditions are after its been executed

Abstraction: process of removing characteristics from something to

reduce it from essential characteristics

Searches: There are 2 types of searches in a computer system, they

are:
1) Sequential Search: A sequential or linear search algorithm is a
very simple method to find a particular element in an array. It is
considered to be the simplest search algorithm. The implementation
of this algorithm does not require the use of ordered elements (sorted
arrays).

2) Binary Search: Binary search is an efficient algorithm used to

search sorted arrays by repeatedly dividing the search interval in
half. In each iteration, the middle element is compared to the search
value. If it matches, the value is found. If the search value is smaller,
the algorithm continues in the left sub-array, and if it is larger, the
search proceeds in the right sub-array. This method eliminates half
of the elements in each step, making it particularly effective for
large arrays.
Sorting: to sort a set of values in order of descending to ascending or
vice versa, there are two types:
1) Bubble Sort: Bubble sort is a simple way to sort a list by
comparing two numbers at a time and swapping them if they are in
the wrong order. It keeps going until everything is in the right place.
It’s called "bubble" sort because smaller numbers slowly move up, like
bubbles in water. Not good for big databases as its slow.

2) Selection Sort: Selection sort is a simple sorting method that

works by dividing a list into two parts: sorted and unsorted. It
repeatedly finds the smallest number in the unsorted part and swaps
it with the first unsorted number, moving the boundary of the sorted
part to the right. It is slow for large databases, but takes little
storage.

Collections: are unordered lists of unknown lengths or sizes

Standard Operations:
.addItem("item"), adds item to collection
.resetNext (), starts at beginning
.hasNext (), checks if thers another item
.getNext (), gets the next item
.isEmpty (), checks if collection is empty

Measure: we measure an algorithm rather than a code, there are tree

types
Worst Case: maximum steps needed
Best Case: minimun steps needed
Avarage Case: expected on normal conditions
Growth Rate of Time Complexity (Big O Notation):
O(1): Constant time
O(log n): Logarithmic time
O(n): Linear time
O(n log n) Log-linear time
O(n²): Quadratic time (nested loops)
O(n³): Cubic time
O(2ⁿ), O(n!): Exponential and factorial time (very inefficient)
Logic gates: Has many Boolean operators. They are:

1. AND: True if both variables are true. Relationship multiplication.

For example:
A B AB
1 1 1
1 0 0
&

0 1 0
0 0 0

2. OR: True if one variable is true. Relationship is addition. For

example:
A B AB
1 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 1 S

0 0 0

3. NOT: Inverse of the Boolean value. Relationship is opposite. For

example:
A AB
1 0
0 1

4. NAND: True if both variables aren’t true. Relationship is opposite

of AND. For example:
A B AB
1 1 0
1 0 1
~

0 1 1
0 0 1
5. NOR: True if both are false. Relationship is opposite of OR, for
example: &

A B AB '
1 1 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

6. XOR:
True if both variables are different. Relationship is subtraction, for
example:
A B AB
1 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0

When solving a truth table: Parentheses are the most important,

then NOT, then AND, then OR (left to right).

CPU: The central processing unit. It contains the circuitry

necessary to interpret and execute program instructions.

ALU: The arithmetic logic unit; it does all the arithmetic (+, -) and
logic calculations (logic gates). Sometimes called the core. Some
CPUs have 2 to calculate at the same time.

CU: The control unit; it handles the loading and decoding

commands for the CPU. It also directs data flow to the ALU.
Registers: Small, fast storage areas for calculations or instructions in
the CPU. There are many; these are three examples:
1. MAR: The memory address register; connected to the memory
bus, it contains memory addresses read from or written to the RAM.
2. MDR: The memory data register; connected to the data bus, it
holds data from or to the RAM.
3. Accumulator and Program Counter:
• Accumulator: Holds the immediate result of an instruction.
• Program Counter: Holds the memory address of the next
instruction.

MAR and MDR: MAR gives the address data, and MDR is to be written/
read.

Memory: Main memory area has two types. They are:

Primary Memory: RAM, ROM, Cache
Secondary Memory: HDD’s, Flash

1. RAM: RAM is the random access memory. It has the loaded

instructions since it loaded, is volatile (loses data if power is lost), and
has a speed link with the CPU.

2. ROM: ROM is the read-only memory (previously it was only read).

If the motherboard has changed, it is non-volatile (does not lose data if
power is lost), stores BIOS (Basic Input Output System), and a small
program that allows the computer to know what to do after the power is
restored.

3. Cache: Cache is a small, high-speed, frequently used data that is

inside the CPU, like a connection between CPU and RAM.
RAM and CPU: RAM and CPU have 3 connections: control bus (bi-
directional), address bus (uni-directional CPU RAM only), and
data bus (bi-directional). A bus is a set of wires that connect 2
components.

Machine Instruction Cycle:

Fetch Decode Execute Store
Software:
System Software: OS (Operating System), Utilities, Drivers
Application Software: Games, production, specialist

OS: An operating system that is in charge of many things like:

1. User Interface: What the user sees from the hardware. There are
many UIs (user interfaces), for example:
• GUI (Graphical User Interface): Have menus, icons, graphics, etc.
• CLI (Command Line Interface): Where users type in commands,
low-energy style.
• NLI (Natural Language Interface): Where the user speaks to the
interface.
• MBI (Menu Based Interface): Gives the user a selection of objects.
2. Memory Management: This is done by keeping track of storage
devices and controlling what apps have access to RAM.
3. Peripheral Management: Focuses on input and output
4. Multitasking: Programs fit by priority and time; each task has a
slice of time. If it’s important, it has long time slices.
5. Security: Prevents unauthorized access through usernames and
passwords.
Common Apps:
• Word Processor: Any app you can type on.
• Spreadsheet: Any app that has columns and rows.
• DBMS (Database Management System): Software system that
makes databases.
• Email Client: Any program used to access and manage a user’s
email.
• Web Browser: A browser you can search on.
• CAD (Computer-Aided Design): Makes designs on a software.
Network: is a computer network—a group of computer systems and
other hardware devices that are linked through communication
channels to facilitate communication and resource-sharing among a
range of users.

There are many types; some are:

LAN (Local Area Network):
• Covers a local area (buildings, homes).
• Can be wireless or wired; based on Ethernet.
• Either twisted-pair cable (UTP) or wireless (WiFi-radio waves).
WAN (Wide Area Network):
• Like LAN but wider.
• Most popular.
• Can be wired(fiber optic) or wireless (wi-fi radio waves).
VLAN (Virtual Local Area Network):
• Is a logical group of workstations.
• Allows users to use it like LAN regardless of its location.
• Helps achieve scalability, security, and ease of network
management.

SAN (Storage Area Network):

• Is a high-speed data transfer network that provides access to
consolidated block-level storage.
• Appears as an attached drive.
·

• Also could be added redundantly.

WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network):
• Is a wireless distribution method for 2 or more devices that
use high-frequency radio waves.
• Has high coverage.
• Sometimes called a Wi-Fi network.
Internet (Network of Networks):
• Is a globally connected network system that uses TCP/IP
protocol to transmit data by different types of media.
• Is a “network of global exchanges.”
• WWW (World Wide Web) and Internet aren’t the same thing.
The Internet refers to a global communication system,
including hardware and infrastructure.

Extranet:
• Is a controlled private network allowing people to gain
information without granting access to the company’s entire
network.
• Part of a private part of a website.
• Restricted to users without passwords.

VPN (Virtual Private Network):

• Allows people to log in to a network remotely and access
information but encrypts the connection.
• Useful in fields like healthcare, etc.

PAN (Personal Area Network)

• Covers a small area.
• Like Bluetooth, USB, etc.

P2P (Peer-to-Peer)
• It is a network model that computers exchange files.
• Described as “equal client systems,” instead of getting files
from servers, they swap files
Standards
• Standards are important to have common ground between
manufacturers.
• Without standards, communication would be impossible.

OSI Model
Apps
Presentations
Sessions
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical

VPN Fundamentals
1. Encryption: Process of encoding data so that only a computer
with the right decoder can read it.
2. Tunneling: Involves establishing and maintaining a logical
network connection. On this network connection, packets are
encapsulated within another base and transmitted between VPN
clients.
3. Telecommuting: With a VPN, it is possible to connect a LAN
that is protected from outside access. This makes it possible to work
online.

Protocol
• Set of rules for data communication over a network.

Data Packet
• Data is anything suitable for use with a computer. Packets are
a small unit of data used in network communication.
Essential Protocol Functions

1. Ensure Data Integrity:

• Refers to the overall completeness, accuracy, and
consistency of data.
• Must be imposed when sending data through.

2. Flow Control
• Ensures the rate at which a sender is transmitting data is in
proportion to the receiver’s receiving capabilities.
• Sends data much faster.

3. Deadlock
• A situation where two nodes are trying to access the same
node at the same time, causing neither to be able to proceed.
• To fix this, they both stop and retry. They do this due to the
protocol.

4. Congestion Control
• A network state where a node carries so much data that it
can deteriorate network quality, resulting in queue delay or
data packet loss and blocking of new connections.

5. Error Checking
• Detects noise or other problems introduced into the data while
transferring.
• Often uses parity bits calculated to be 0 or 1.
Factors That Affect Network Speed

Primary:
1) Traffic.

Secondary:
1) Time.
2) Distance.
3) Infrastructure.

Tertiary:
1) Environmental issues.
2) Infrastructure limitations.
3) Type of data being transmitted.

Data Compression
• Involves encoding information to use fewer bits than the
original entity.
There are two types:
1. Lossless: Original Compressed Restored.
2. Lossy: Original Compressed Smaller.

Advantages of Compression:
Backups, file transfer, encryption, media file transfer.

Characteristics of Media:
Security, reliability, cost, speed.
3 types are:
1. UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair):
• Security: Medium if encrypted
• Reliability: Susceptible to EMI
• Cost: $1 per meter
• Speed: 100 Mbps - 1 Gbps
• Material: Metal
2. Fibre-Optic:
• Security: Very good
• Reliability: Fragile
• Cost: $2–8 per meter
• Speed: 5–100 Gbps
• Material: Glass
3. Radio Waves:
• Security: Very bad
• Reliability: Susceptible to interference
• Cost: $0 per meter
• Speed: 5–200 Mbps
• Material: WLAN/Wi-Fi

Packet:
Unit of data

Packet Switching:
Type of network that sends small packets. Packets are routed
through a network based on destination addresses.
Wireless Network:
Pros:
• Uses unlicensed radio spectrum.
• Can be set up without cabling for LANs.
• Wi-Fi can support roaming between access points.
• Global standards.
• Setup costs are minimal.
Cons:
• Interference.
• Limited range.
• WEP (security concern).
• Access points.
• Health concerns.
Hardware:
• Node
• Wireless interface card
• Radio waves
• Router
Software:
• Network operating system
• Protocol stack
• Applications

Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity):

• Also called Wireless LAN (WLAN).
• Used in laptops/mobile devices.
• Backward compatibility with old Wi-Fi standards.
• Small transmitting radius.
WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access):
• Designed for long distance.
• Cheap.
• Long-Term Evolution (LTE) standard.

3G (Third Generation):
• Primary way phones access the internet.
• Fast.

Security Properties:
1. Confidentiality
2. Integrity: Maintaining accuracy of data.
3. Availability(DoS attacks).

3 Types of Authentication:
1. One factor (something you know).
2. Two factor (something you have).
3. Three factor (something you are).

Firewalls:
• Hardware or software.
• Control traffic.
• Analyze data packets based on predetermined set of rules.

MAC Address (Media Access Control):

• Hard-coded into devices.
• Managed by IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers).
• Used to identify hardware.
Encryption:
• Used to secure data.
• PSK (Pre-Shared Key): A shared password.
• WEP (Weak): Wireless Equivalent Privacy.
• WPA/WPA2: Advanced security standards.
Pros:
• Hard to break in.
• Fast enough to encrypt data on the fly.
Cons:
• Passwords are easy to guess.
• The password needs to be transmitted over the network to the
receiver to allow them to read the message.
• Some encryptions are designed to have backdoors built in.

User ID:
Pros:
• Access rights to the network.
• User groups can be created to manage user rights.
Cons:
• User ID can be stolen.
• Can be bypassed.
• Does not protect against intercepting messages in the
network.