SALALE UNIVERSITY

INCLUSIVENESS COURSE

A Course for Higher Education of

all Disciplines

Course code: SNIE 1012

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 Chapter 1: Understanding Disabilities and Vulnerabilities

1.1 Definitions of Basic Terms (Impairment, Disability and Handicap)

Impairment
 Impairment means a lack/abnormality of an anatomic, physiological or psychological structure or function or
deviation on a person.
 It refers to any loss or abnormality of physiological, psychological or anatomical structure or function.
 It is the absence of particular body part or organ.
 It could also a condition in which the body exists but doesn‘t function. Some children, for instance, have
impairments such as eyes that do not see well, arms and legs that are deformed, or a brain not developing in a
typical way etc. It is synonymous with AKAL-GUDATENGA (የአካል ጉዳተኛ)

Disability
 The term disability is ambiguous as there is no single agreement on the concept (Mitra, 2006)
The concept of disability is complex, dynamic, multidimensional, and contested (WHO and World Bank, 2011).
The full inclusion of people with impairments in society can be inhibited by:
1. Attitudinal (societal barriers, such as stigma)
2. Physical barriers (environmental barriers, such as absence of stairs), and
3. Policy barriers (systemic barriers),
Where all together can create a disabling effect and inhibit disability inclusive development. They are disabling factors
If these problems addressed, impairment may not lead to disability
Where all together can create a disabling effect and inhibit disability inclusive development. Societal, environmental, and
systemic barriers are the most popular disabling factors:
 A disabled persons
 Persons with disability
What is disability?
1. Medical Approach
 Disability is pathology (physiological, biological and intellectual). Disability means functional limitations due
to physical, intellectual or psychic impairment, health or psychic disorders on a person (WHO, 1996).
 The medical definition has given rise to the idea that people are individual objects to be ―treated‖, ―changed" or
―improved" and made more―normal.
 The medical definition views the disabled person as needing to ―fit in rather than thinking about how society
itself should change. This medical definition does not adequately explain the interaction between societal
conditions or expectations and unique circumstances of an individual
The social definition of disability:
 Disability is a highly varied and complex condition with a range of implications for social identity and behavior.
 Disability largely depends on the context and is a consequence of discrimination, prejudice and exclusion
 It Emphasizes the shortcomings in the environment and in many organized activities in society, for example on
information, communication and education, which prevent persons with disabilities from participating on equal
terms

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 Medical model: Social model:

Child is faulty Child is valued

Diagnosis and labeling Strengths and needs identified

Impairment is focus of attention Barriers identified and solutions developed

Medical model: Social model:

Segregation and alternative services Resources made available

Re-entry if normal enough or permanent Diversity welcomed; child is welcomed

exclusion

Society remains unchanged Society evolves

Causes of disability
What do you think is the causes of disability?
Some people, especially in the past times, wrongly believe that disability is a punishment from God.
There are some who still believe that disability is a form of personal punishment for individual with
disability, a kind of karma for their past mistakes, which is totally unacceptable now days.

Disability can be caused by the following factors.

Genetic Causes
 Abnormalities in genes and genetic inheritance can cause intellectual disability in children.
 In some countries, Down syndrome is the most common genetic condition. Sometimes, diseases, illnesses, and
over-exposure to x-rays can cause a genetic disorder.

Environmental
 Poverty and malnutrition in pregnant mothers can cause a deficiency in vital minerals and result in deformation
issues in the unborn child.
 After birth, poverty and malnutrition can also cause poor development of vital organs in the child, which can
eventually lead to disability.
 The use of drugs, alcohol, tobacco, the exposure to certain toxic chemicals and illnesses, toxoplasmosis,
cytomegalovirus, rubella and syphilis by a pregnant mother can cause intellectual disability to the child.
 Childhood diseases such as a whooping cough, measles, and chicken pox may lead to meningitis and encephalitis.
This can cause damage to the brain of the child.
 Toxic material such as lead and mercury can damage the brain too.
 Unfortunate life events such as drowning, automobile accidents, falls and so on can result in people losing their
sight, hearing, limbs and other vital parts of their body and cause disability.
Unknown Causes
The human body is a phenomenal thing. Scientists have still not figured out what and how some things in the body, cells,
brain, and genes come about. Humans have still not found all the answers to all the defects in the human body .

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Inaccessible environments
Sometimes society makes it difficult for people with some impairment to function freely. When society develops
infrastructure such as houses, roads, parks and other public places without consideration to people with impairment, the
basically make it impossible for them to take care of themselves. For example, if a school is built with a ramp in addition
to stairs, it makes it easy for people with wheelchairs to move about freely. This way, their impairment is not made worse.
Lack of education, support services, health and opportunities for people with impairment can cause additional disability
to people with disabilities and even people with no disability.
Some type of disabilities:
Some nine major disabilities are listed and briefly discussed in the coming pages below.
1. Visual impairment
Visual impairment in general designates two sub- classifications. These are blindness and low vision.
 Blindness - total or partial inability to see because of disease or disorder of the eye, optic nerve, or brain. The
term blindness typically refers to vision loss that is not correctable with eyeglasses or contact lenses. Blindness
may not mean a total absence of sight, however. Some people who are considered blind may be able to perceive
slowly moving lights or colors.
 The term low vision is used for moderately impaired vision. People with low vision may have a visual
impairment that affects only central vision—the area directly in front of the eyes—or peripheral vision—the area
to either side of and slightly behind the eyes.
2. Hearing Impairment
Pasonella and Carat from legal point of view, define hearing impairment as a generic term indicating a continuum of
hearing loss from mild to profound, which includes the sub-classifications of the hard of hearing and deaf.
Hard of Hearing: "A hearing impairment, whether permanent of fluctuating, which adversely affects a child's
educational performance but which is not included under the definition of 'deaf'." Whelan, R. J. (1988). This term
can also be used to describe persons with enough (usually with hearing aids) as a primary modality of acquisition
of language and in communication with others.
Deaf: Those who have difficulty understanding speech, even with hearing aids but can successfully communicate
in sign language. Cultural definitions of deafness, on the other hand, emphasize an individual‘s various abilities,
use of sign language, and connections with the culturally deaf community.

3. Specific learning disability

Specific Learning Disability means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in
understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think,
speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations.
 The term includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia,
and developmental aphasia.
 Learning disabilities should not be confused with learning problems which are primarily the result of visual,
hearing, or motor handicaps; of intellectual disability; of emotional disturbance; or of environmental, cultural or
economic disadvantages.

Generally speaking, people with learning disabilities are of average or above average intelligence. There often appears to
be a gap between the individual‘s potential and actual achievement.
 Learning disabilities are referred to as ―hidden disabilities: the person looks perfectly ―normal and seems to
be a very bright and intelligent person, yet may be unable to demonstrate the skill level expected from someone
of a similar age.
 A learning disability cannot be cured or fixed; it is a lifelong challenge. However, with appropriate support and
intervention, people with learning disabilities can achieve success in school, at work, in relationships, and in the
community.

Types of Specific Learning Disabilities

1. Auditory Processing Disorder (APD)

 Also known as Central Auditory Processing Disorder, this is a condition that adversely affects how sound that travels
unimpeded through the ear is processed or interpreted by the brain.
 Individuals with APD do not recognize subtle differences between sounds in words, even when the sounds are loud
and clear enough to be heard.
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 They can also find it difficult to tell where sounds are coming from, to make sense of the order of sounds, or to block
out competing background noises.
2. Dyscalculia
 Dyscalculia is a specific learning disability that affects a person‘s ability to understand numbers and learning
mathematic.
 Individuals with this type of LD may also have poor comprehension of math symbols, may struggle with memorizing
and organizing numbers, have difficulty telling time, or have trouble with counting.
3. Dysgraphia
Dyscalculia is a specific learning disability that affects a person‘s handwriting ability and fine motor skills. Problems may
include illegible handwriting, inconsistent spacing, poor spatial planning on paper, poor spelling, and difficulty
composing writing as well as thinking and writing at the same time.
4. Dyslexia
Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that affects reading and related language-based processing skills. The severity
can differ in each individual but can affect reading fluency; decoding, reading comprehension, recall, writing, spelling,
and sometimes speech and can exist along with other related disorders. Dyslexia is sometimes referred to as a Language-
Based Learning Disability.
5. Language Processing Disorder
Language Processing Disorder is a specific type of Auditory Processing Disorder (APD) in which there is difficulty
attaching meaning to sound groups that form words, sentences and stories. While an APD affects the interpretation of all
sounds coming into the brain, a Language Processing Disorder (LPD) relates only to the processing of language. LPD can
affect expressive language and/or receptive language.
6. Non-Verbal Learning Disabilities
Non-Verbal Learning Disabilities is a disorder which is usually characterized by a significant discrepancy between higher
verbal skills and weaker motor, visual-spatial and social skills.
Typically, an individual with NLD (or NVLD) has trouble interpreting nonverbal cues like facial expressions or body
language, and may have poor coordination.
7. Visual Perceptual/Visual Motor Deficit
Visual Perceptual/Visual Motor Deficit is a disorder that affects the understanding of information that a person sees, or
the ability to draw or copy. A characteristic seen in people with learning disabilities such as Dysgraphia or Non-verbal
LD, it can result in missing subtle differences in shapes or printed letters, losing place frequently, struggles with cutting,
holding pencil too tightly, or poor eye/hand coordination.
4. Speech and Language Impairments
Speech and language impairment means a communication disorder such as stuttering, impaired articulation, language
impairment, or a voice impairment that adversely affects a child‘s educational performance. It is disorder that adversely
affects the child's ability to talk, understand, read, and write.
This disability category can be divided into two groups: speech impairments and language impairments.
A. Speech Impairments
There are three basic types of speech impairments: articulation disorders, fluency disorders, and voice disorders.
 Articulation disorders are errors in the production of speech sounds that may be related to anatomical or
physiological limitations in the skeletal, muscular, or neuromuscular support for speech production.
These disorders include:
a. Omissions: (bo for boat)
b. Substitutions: (wabbit for rabbit)
c. Distortions: (shlip for sip)
 Fluency disorders are difficulties with the rhythm and timing of speech characterized by hesitations, repetitions,
or prolongations of sounds, syllables, words, or phrases. Common fluency disorders include:
d. Stuttering: rapid-fire repetitions of consonant or vowel sounds especially at the beginning of words,
prolongations, hesitations, interjections, and complete verbal blocks
e. Cluttering: excessively fast and jerky speech
 Voice disorders are problems with the quality or use of one's voice resulting from disorders in the larynx. Voice
disorders are characterized by abnormal production and/or absences of vocal quality, pitch, loudness, resonance,
and/or duration.
B. Language Impairments
There are five basic areas of language impairments: phonological disorders, morphological disorders, semantic disorders,
syntactical deficits, and pragmatic difficulties.
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 Phonological disorders are defined as the abnormal organization of the phonological system, or a significant deficit in
speech production or perception. A child with a phonological disorder may be described as hard to understand or as not
saying the sounds correctly. Apraxia of speech is a specific phonological disorder where the student may want to speak
but has difficulty planning what to say and the motor movements to use.
Morphological disorders are defined as difficulties with morphological inflections (inflections on nouns, verbs, and
adjectives that signal different kinds of meanings).
Semantic disorders are characterized by poor vocabulary development, inappropriate use of word meanings, and/or
inability to comprehend word meanings. These students will demonstrate restrictions in word meanings, difficulty with
multiple word meanings, excessive use of nonspecific terms (e.g., thing and stuff), and indefinite references (e.g., that and
there).
Syntactic deficits are characterized by difficulty in acquiring the rules that govern word order and others aspects of
grammar such as subject-verb agreement. Typically, these students produce shorter and less elaborate sentences with
fewer cohesive conjunctions than their peers.
Pragmatic difficulties are characterized as problems in understanding and using language in different social contexts.
These students may lack an understanding of the rules for making eye contact, respecting personal space, requesting
information, and introducing topics.
5. Autism
Autism means a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social
interaction, generally evident before age three that adversely affects a child‘s educational performance.
Autism characteristics are engaging in repetitive activities and stereotyped movements, resistance to environmental
change or change in daily routines, and unusual responses to sensory experiences.
Autism is a neurodevelopment disorder defined by impairments in social and communication development, accompanied
by stereotyped patterns of behavior and interest (Landa, 2007).
Autism is pervasive developmental disorder characterized by lack of normal sociability, impaired communication and
repetitive obsessive behavior such as politeness, turn-taking (Young & Nettlebeck , 2005). Linked to Profound Learning
Disability (PLDs) are further impairments in the production of speech. Among these are (i) personal pronouns reversal for
instance the use of ―I instead of ―you and vice-versa, (ii) the misuse of such prepositions as ―in, ―on, ―under,
―next to (...), and (iii) the prevalence, in speech, of echolalia formal repetition of other‘s utterances (Arron and
Gittens, 1999).
6. Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

According to Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), the term Emotional and
Behavioral Disorders means a condition exhibiting one or more of the following
characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects
educational performance
1) An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors;
2) An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and
teachers;
3) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances;
A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression; or
5) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school
problems. of behavioral and emotional disorders
Classification
An individual having behavioral or emotional disorders can exhibit widely varied types of behavior. Therefore, different
4)classification systems of behavioral and emotional disorders can be used for special education. Different professionals
have developed a classification system, which shows some promise for educational practice. These include:
 Conduct disorder: individuals may seek attention, are disruptive and act out. The disorder is classified by type:
overt (with violence or tantrums) versus covert (with lying, stealing, and/or drug use).
 Socialized aggression: individuals join subculture group of peers who are openly disrespectful to their peers,
teachers, and parents. Common are delinquency and dropping out of school. Early symptoms include stealing,
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 running away from home, habitual lying, cruelty to animals, and fire setting.
 Attention problems- These individuals may have attention deficit, are easily destructible and have poor
concentration. They are frequently impulsive and may not think the consequence of their actions.
 Anxiety/Withdrawn- These individuals are self-conscious, reserved, and unsure of themselves. They typically
have low self-esteem and withdraw from immediate activities. They are also anxious and frequently depressed.
 Psychotic behavior: These individuals show more bizarre behavior. They may hallucinate, deal in a fantasy
world and may even talk in gibberish.
 Motor excess: These students are hyperactive. They cannot sit nor listen to others nor keep their attention
focused.
Kauffman (1993) conclude that emotion or behavioral disorders fall into two broad classifications:
1) Externalizing Behavior: also called under controlled disorder, include such problems disobedience,
disruptiveness, fighting, tempers tantrums, irresponsibility, jealous, anger, attention seeking etc…
2) Internalizing Behavior: also known as over controlled disorders, include such problems anxiety,
immaturity, shyness, social withdrawal, feeling of inadequacy (inferiority), guilt, depression and worries a
great deal
Causes of behavioral and emotional disorders
Behavioral and emotion disorders result from many causes, these includes the following.
1. Biological- includes genetic disorders, brain damage, and malnutrition, allergies, temperament and damage to
the central nervous system.
2. Family factors- include family interactions, family influence, child abuse, neglect, and poor disciplinary
practices at home.
3. Cultural factors- include some traditional and cultural negative practices, for example watching violence and
sexually oriented movies and TV programs.
4. Environmental factors- include peer pressure, living in impoverished areas, and schooling practices that are
unresponsive to individual needs.

7. Intellectual Disability

Intellectual disability is a disability characterized by significant limitations in both intellectual functioning and in adaptive
behavior, which covers many everyday social and practical skills. This disability originates before the age of 18. An
individual is considered to have an intellectual disability based on the following three criteria:
1. Sub average intellectual functioning: It refers to general mental capacity, such as learning, reasoning, problem
solving, and so on. One way to measure intellectual functioning is an IQ test. Generally, an IQ test score of
around 70 or as high as 75 indicates a limitation in intellectual functioning.
2. Significant limitations exist in two or more adaptive skill areas: It is the collection of conceptual, social, and
practical skills that are learned and performed by people in their everyday lives.
 Conceptual skills—language and literacy; money, time, and number concepts; and self-direction.
 Social skills—interpersonal skills, social responsibility, self-esteem, gullibility, innocence (i.e.,
suspicion), social problem solving, and the ability to follow rules/obey laws and to avoid being
victimized.
 Practical skills—activities of daily living (personal care), occupational skills, healthcare,
travel/transportation, schedules/routines, safety, use of money, use of the telephone.

People with intellectual disabilities academic learning can be affected, as well as their ability to adapt to home, school,
and community environments are presented under the following sub-headings:
General Cognition: People with intellectual disabilities vary physically and emotionally, as well as by
personality, disposition, and beliefs. Their apparent slowness in learning may be related to the delayed rate of
intellectual development.
Learning and Memory: The learning and memory capabilities of people with intellectual disabilities are
significantly below average in comparison to peers without disabilities.
Children with intellectual disabilities may not spontaneously use appropriate learning or memory retention
strategies and may have difficulty in realizing the conditions or actions that aid learning and memory.
Attention: To acquire information, children must attend to the learning task for the required length of time and
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 control distractions. Children with intellectual disabilities may have difficulty distinguishing and attending to
relevant questions in both learning and social situations (Saunders, 2001). The problem is not that the student will
not pay attention, but rather that the student does not understand or does not filter the information to get to the
salient features.
Adaptive Skills: The adaptive skills of people with intellectual disabilities are often not comparable to those of
their peers without disabilities. A child with intellectual disabilities may have difficulty in both learning and
applying skills for a number of reasons, including a higher level of distractibility, inattentiveness, failure to read
social cues, and impulsive behavior (Hardman et al., 2008). The lack or underdevelopment of these skills notably
affects memory, rehearsal skills, organizational ability, and being in control of the process of learning (Erez &
Peled, 2001; Hunt & Marshall, 2002).
Speech and Language: People with intellectual disabilities may have delayed speech, language comprehension
and formulation difficulties. Language problems are generally associated with delays in language development
rather than with a bizarre use of language. People with intellectual disabilities may show delayed functioning on
pragmatic aspects of language, such as turn taking, selecting acceptable topics for conversation, knowing when to
speak knowing when to be silent, and similar contextual skills.
Motivation: People with intellectual disabilities are often described as lacking motivation, or outer-directed
behavior. Past experiences of failure and the anxiety generated by those failures may make them appear to be
fewer goals directed and lacking in motivation. The result of failure is often learned helplessness. The history of
failure is likely to lead to dependence on external sources of reinforcement or reward rather than on internal
sources of reward. They are less likely to self-starters motivated by self-approval.
Academic Achievement: The cognitive difficulties of children with mild to moderate intellectual disabilities
lead to persistent problems in academic achievement, unless intensive and extensive supports are provided.
Physical characteristics: Children with intellectual disabilities with differing biological etiologies, may exhibit
coexisting problems, such as physical, motor, orthopedic, visual and auditory impairments, and health problems.
8. Physical disability/Orthopedic Impairment and Health impairment
Physical disability is a condition that interferes with the individual‘s ability to use his or her body. Many but not all,
physical disabilities are orthopedic impairments. (The term orthopedic impairment generally refers to conditions of
muscular or skeletal system and sometimes to physical disabling conditions of the nervous system).
Health impairment is a condition that requires ongoing medical attention. It includes asthma, heart defects, cancer,
diabetes, hemophilia. HIV/AIDS, etc.
Classification and Characteristics
How can you classify physical impairment?
Physical disabilities:- based on the impact of physical disability on mobility and motor skills, it is divided into three.
These are:-
A. Mild physical disability:- these individuals are able to walk without aids and may make normal developmental
progress.
B. Moderate physical disability:- individuals can walk with braces and crutches and may have difficulty with fine-
motor skills and speech production.
C. Severe physical disability:-these are individuals who are wheel-chair dependent and may need special help to
achieve regular development.

The physical disability could be broadly classified in to two

I. The neurological system (the brain ,spinal cord & nerve) related problems.
II. Musculo skeletal system (the muscles, bones and joints) are deficient due to various causes.
I. Neurological system:-with a neurological condition like cerebral palsy or a traumatic brain injury, the brain
either sends the wrong instructions or interprets feedback incorrectly. In both cases, the result is poorly
coordinated movement. With the spinal cord injury or deformity, the path ways between the brain and the
muscles are interrupted, so messages are transmitted but never received. The result is muscle paralysis and loss of
sensation beyond the point where the spinal cord or the nerve is damaged. These individuals may have motor
skill deficits that can range from mild in coordination to paralysis of the entire body. The most severely affected
children are totally dependent on other people or sophisticated equipment to carry out academic and self-care
task.

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 Additional problems that can be associated with cerebral palsy include learning disabilities, mental retardation.
Seizures, speech impairments, eating problems, sensory impairments, and joint and bone deformities such as
spinal curvatures and contractures (permanently fixed, tight muscles and joints). Approximately 40 percent of
those with cerebral palsy have normal intelligence; the remainders have from mild to severe retardation. This is
an extremely heterogeneous group having unique abilities and needs.
Epilepsy:-is disorder that occurs when the brain cells are not working properly and is often called a seizure
disorder.
-Some children and youth will epilepsy have only a momentary loss of attention (petit mal seizures);
others fall to the floor and then move uncontrollably
-Fortunately, once epilepsy is diagnosed, it can usually be controlled with medication and does not
interfere with performance in school. Most individuals with epilepsy have normal intelligence.
- Epilepsy is a condition that affects 1 to 2 percent of the population. It is characterized by recurring
seizures, which are spontaneous abnormal discharge of electrical impulses of the brain.
Spinal bifida and spinal cord injury:- damage to the spinal cord leads to paralysis and loss of sensation in the
affected areas of the body. The spinal bifida is a birth defect of the backbone (spinal column). The cause is
unknown but it usually occurs in the first twenty-six days of pregnancy.
II. Musculoskeletal system: - it includes the muscles and their supporting framework and the skeleton.
2. Progressive muscle weakness (muscular dystrophy);
3. Inflammation of the joints (arthritis), or
4. Loss of various parts of the body (amputation)
The list of the impairment and associated with musculoskeletal malformation are the following:
A. Muscular dystrophy:- is an inherited condition accruing mainly in males, in which the muscles weaken
and deteriorate. The weakness usually appears around 3 to 4 years of age and worsens progressively. By
age 11 most victims can to longer walk. Death usually comes between the ages of 25 and 35 from
respiratory failure or cardiac arrest.
B. Arthritis:-is an inflammation of the joints. Symptoms include swollen and stiff joints, fever, and pain in
the joints during acute periods. Prolonged inflammation can lead joint deformities that can eventually
affect mobility.
C. Amputation:- a small number of children have missing limbs because of congenital abnormalities or
injuiry or disease (malignant bone tumors in the limbs). These children can use customized prosthetic
devices (artificial hands, arms, or legs) to replace limp functions and increase independence in daily
activities.
Other muscle-skeletal disorders are:-
D. Marfan syndrome is a genetic disorder in which the muscles are poorly developed and the spine is
curved. Individuals with marfan syndrome may have either long, thin limbs, prominent shoulder blades,
spinal curvature, flat feet, or long fingers & thumbs. The heart and blood vessels are usually affected.
The greatest danger is damage to aorta, which can lead to heart failure. Individuals with marfan
syndrome need to avoid heavy exercise and lifting heavy objects.
E. Achondroplasis:- is a genetic disorder that affects 1 in 10,000 births. Children with this disorder usually
develop a normal torso but have a straight upper back and a curved lower back (sway back). These
children are at risk of sudden death during sleep from compression of the spinal cord interfering with
their breathing. The disability may be lessened through the use of the back braces or by surgery.
F. Polio:- is viral disease that invade the brain and cause severe paralysis of the total body system or In its
mild form results in partial paralysis. Post-polio muscles that were previously damaged weaken, and in
some persons, other muscles that were not previously affected weaken as well.
G. Club foot:- is a major orthopedic problem affecting about 9,000 infants each year.
This term is used to describe various ankle or foot deformities, i.e
 Twisting inward (equino varus), the most severe form
 Sharply angled at the heel (calcanel vaigus), most common
 The front part of the foot turned inward.
These conditions can be treated with physical therapy, and a cast on the foot can solve the problem in most
instances. In more severe cases, surgery is necessary. With early treatment, most children can wear regular shoes
and take part in all school activities.

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 H. Cleft lip and cleft palate:- are openings in the lip or roof of the mouth, respectively, that fail to close
before birth, the cause is unknown. Most cleft problems can be repaired through surgery.
Health Impairments
What are the common health problems of students?
Any disease that interferes with learning can make students eligible for special services. These disease caused
problems are as follow.
1. Heart disease:- this is common among young people. It is caused by improper circulation of blood by
the heart some of the disorders are congenital (present at birth); others are the product of inflammatory
heart disease. Some students have heart value disorders; others have disorders of the blood vessels. His
time heart implantation helps children to get cured.
2. Cystic fibrosis:- is a hereditary disease that affects the lungs and pancreas. It leads to recurrent
respiratory and digestive problems including abnormal amounts of thick mucus, sweet and saliva. The
disease is so progressive and few who have it survive beyond age 20. Children with such disease often
spend significant timeout of school.
3. Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS):- is a very severe disease caused by human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and transmitted primarily through exchange of bodily fluids in
transfusions or unprotected sex, and by contaminated needles in addictive drug use.
4. Hemophilia:- is a hereditary disease in which the blood clots very slowly or not all. The disorder is
transmitted by sex-linked recessive gene and nearly always occurs in males.
5. Asthma: is a chronic respiratory condition characterized by repeared eplosde of breathing difficulties
especially while exhaling.
6. Diabetes: Developmental or hereditary disorder characterized by inadequate secretion or use of insulin
7. Nephrosis & Nephritis Kidney disorders or diseases caused by infections, poisoning, burns, accidents or
other diseases
8. Sickle-cell anemia Hereditary and chronic blood disease (occurring primarly in African Americans)
characterized by red blood cells that are distored and that do not circulate properly
9. Leukemia: Disease characterized by excessive production of white blood Cells
10. Lead poisoning Disorder caused by ingesting lead-based paint chips or other substances containing lead
11. Rheumatic fever Disease characterized by painful swelling and inflammation of the
joints that can spread to the hear and central nervous system.
12. Tuberculosis Infectious disease that commonly affects the lungs and may affect other tissues of the
body.
13. Cancer Abnormal growth of cells that can affect any organ system

9. VULNERABILITY
Vulnerable means being at risk of being harmed. Everyone can be harmed, so being vulnerable is part of being human. In
principle, everyone is vulnerable to some adverse event or circumstance, but some people are more vulnerable than
others. For instance, people with disabilities are more likely as a group to experience greater vulnerability. They are also
often more severely affected by the vulnerability they experience. Based on the existing literature, vulnerability can be
generally defined as a complex phenomenon that refers to the following dimensions:
1. Economic difficulties/lack of financial resources: poverty, low living standards, housing problems (e.g. too damp,
too expensive, too cold or difficult to heat) etc.;
2. Social exclusion: limited access to facilities such as transportation, schools, libraries or medical services;
3. Lack of social support from social networks: no assistance from family members, friends, neighbors or colleagues
(referring to practical help as well as emotional support) like highly gifted individuals;
4. Stigmatization: being a victim of stereotypes, being devalued, confronted with disgraceful behavior because of
belonging to a particular social or ethnic group;
5. Health difficulties: disadvantages resulting from poor mental health, physical health or disabilities;
6. Being a victim of crime: in family context especially of violence.
Causes of Vulnerability
Vulnerability may be causes by rapid population growth, poverty and hunger, poor health, low levels of education, gender
inequality, fragile and hazardous location, and lack of access to resources and services, including knowledge and
technological means, disintegration of social patterns (social vulnerability). Other causes includes; lack of access to
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information and knowledge, lack of public awareness, limited access to political power and representation (political
vulnerability), (Aysan,1993). When people are socially disadvantaged or lack political voice, their vulnerability is
exacerbated further. The economic vulnerability is related to a number of interacting elements, including its importance in
the overall national economy, trade and foreign-exchange earnings, aid and investments, international prices of
commodities and inputs, and production and consumption patterns. Environmental vulnerability concerns land
degradation, earthquake, flood, hurricane, drought, storms (Monsoon rain, El Niño), water scarcity, deforestation, and the
other threats to biodiversity.
Characteristics of Vulnerable People
The following are thought to be characteristics of vulnerable people (with examples of groups of potentially vulnerable
people):
1. Less physically or mentally capable (infants, older adults, people with disabilities)
2. Fewer material and/or financial resources (low-income households, homeless)
3. Less knowledge or experience (children, illiterate, foreigners, tourists)
4. Restricted by society to grow and develop according to their needs and potentials
People who are helped by others (who are then restricted by commitments) are still vulnerable people,
which includes the following extracted from various researches.
A. Women: particularly women in developing nations and those who are living in rural areas are
vulnerable for many backward traditional practices. These women are oppressed by the culture and do
not get access to education and employment.
B. Children: Significant number of children are vulnerable and at risk for development. Children are
vulnerable for psychological and physical abuse This include illegally working children, children who
are pregnant or become mothers, children born out of marriage, children from a single-parent,
delinquent children, homeless children, HIV- infected children, uneducated children, institutionalized
children, married children, mentally ill children, migrant children, orphans, sexually exploited
children, street children, war-affected children…etc.
C. Minorities: some people are vulnerable due to their minority background. Particularly, ethnic (cultural
and linguistic minority), religious minority. These people are political and socially discriminated.
D. Poverty: People are vulnerable for many undesirable phenomena due to poverty. This may be resulted
in, poor households and large households, inequality, absences of access to health services, important
resources for life, lack of access to education, information, financial and natural resources and lack of
social networks.
E. Disabilities: People with disabilities very much vulnerable for many kind of risks. This includes
abuses, poverty, illiteracy, health problems, psychological and social problems.
A. Age: Old people or very young children are vulnerable for all kinds evils.
B. Illiteracy and less education: People with high rates of illiteracy and lack quality educational
opportunities are vulnerable for absence all kinds of developments.
C. Sickness: Uncured health problems for example people living with HIV/AIDS are much
vulnerable for psychosocial problems, poverty and health.
D. Gifted and Talentedness: Gifted and talented children are vulnerable for socio- emotional
developments. Due to lack of psychological support they may feel isolation as they are pulled
from their regular classrooms and given instruction in separate settings and due to myths and
expectations of themselves and the public.

Chapter Summary
Persons with disabilities, health impairments and vulnerable people are people who should be productive and able to live
independent life. Their impairment is not something that has disabled them; rather, the social system is the major
disabling factor. Disabilities do not only affect an impaired persons; it affect the whole nation, when this people are
neglected from education and employment and when they are not actively participate in the social, political and economic
activities. These situations make them to lead dependent lives which in turn affect the life of the nation. Hence,
inclusiveness is an outlet for creating a society of productivity who leads independent life

11
 Chapter 2: Concept of Inclusion
2.1. Definition of Inclusion
Inclusion in education/service refers to ―an ongoing process aimed at offering quality
education/services for all while respecting diversity and the different needs and abilities, characteristics and
learning expectations of the students and communities and eliminating all forms of discrimination (UNESCO,
2008). Inclusive services at any level are quality provisions without discrimination or partiality and meeting
the diverse needs of people.
Inclusion is seen as a process of addressing and responding to the diversity of needs of all persons through
increasing participation in learning, employment, services, cultures and communities, and reducing exclusion
at all social contexts. It involves changes and modifications in content, approaches, structures and strategies,
with a common vision which covers all people, a conviction that it is the responsibility of the social system to
educate all children (UNESCO 2005), employ and provide social services. Besides, inclusion is defined as
having a wide range of strategies, activities and processes that seek to make a reality of the universal right to
quality, relevant and appropriate education and services. It acknowledges that learning begins at birth and
continues throughout life, and includes learning in the home, the community, and in formal, informal and non-
formal situations. It seeks to enable communities, systems and structures in all cultures and contexts to combat
discrimination, celebrate diversity, promote participation and overcome barriers to learning and participation
for all people. It is part of a wider strategy promoting inclusive development, with the goal of creating a world
where there is peace, tolerance, and sustainable use of resources, social justice, and where the basic needs and
rights of all are met. This definition has the following components:
1) Concepts about learners
 Education is a fundamental human right for all people
 Learning begins at birth and continues throughout life
 All children have a right to education within their own community
 Everyone can learn, and any child can experience difficulties in learning
 All learners need their learning supported child-focused teaching benefits all children.
2) Concepts about the education system and schools
 It is broader than formal schooling
 it is flexible, responsive educational systems
 It creates enabling and welcoming educational environments
 It promotes school improvement – makes effective schools
 It involves whole school approach and collaboration between partners.

3) Concepts about diversity and discrimination

 It enables responding to/embracing diversity as a resource not as a problem
 It prepares learners for an inclusive society that respects and values difference.
4) Concepts about processes to promote inclusion
 It helps to identifying and overcoming barriers to participation and exclusionary pressures
 It increases real participation of all collaboration, partnership between all stakeholders
 It promotes participatory methodology, action research, collaborative enquiry and other related
activities
5) Concepts about resources
 promotes combating discrimination and exclusionary pressures at any social sectors
 Promotes unlocking and fully using local resources redistributing existing resources
 It helps to perceive people (children, parents, teachers, members of marginalized groups,
etc) as key resources
 It helps to use appropriate resources and support within schools and at local levels for the
needs of different children, e.g. mother tongue tuition, Braille, assistive devices.


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McLeskey and Waldron (2000) have identified inclusion and non-inclusive practices. According to them
inclusion includes the following components:
 Students with disabilities and vulnerability attend their neighborhood schools
 Each student is in an age-appropriate general education classroom
 Every student is accepted and regarded as a full and valued member of the class and the school
community.
 Special education supports are provided to each student with a disability within the context of the
general education classroom.
 All students receive an education that addresses their individual needs
 No student is excluded based on type or degree of disability.
 All members of the school (e.g., administration, staff, students, and parents) promote
cooperative/collaborative teaching arrangements
 There is school-based planning, problem-solving, and ownership of all students and programs
 On the other hand, they argue that inclusion does not mean:
 Placing students with disabilities into general education classrooms without careful planning and adequate
support.
 Reducing services or funding for special education services.
 Placing all students who have disabilities or who are at risk in one or a few designated classrooms.
 Teachers spending a disproportionate amount of time teaching or adapting the curriculum for students with
disabilities.
 Isolating students with disabilities socially, physically, or academically within the general education school or
classroom.
 Endangering the achievement of general education students through slower instruction or a less
challenging curriculum.
 Relegating special education teachers to the role of assistants in the general education classroom.
 Requiring general and special education teachers to team together without careful planning and well-
defined responsibilities.

Principles of Inclusion
The fundamental principle of inclusion is that all persons should learn, work and live together
wherever possible, regardless of any difficulties or differences they may have. Inclusive education
extends beyond special needs arising from disabilities, and includes consideration of other sources of
disadvantage and marginalization, such as gender, poverty, language, ethnicity, and geographic
isolation. The complex inter-relationships that exist among these factors and their interactions with
disability must also be a focus of attention.
Besides, inclusion begins with the premise that all persons have unique characteristics, interests,
abilities and particular learning needs and, further, that all persons have equal access education,
employment and services. Inclusion implies transition from separate, segregated learning and
working environments for persons with disabilities to community based systems. Moreover, effective
transitions from segregated services to inclusive system requires careful planning and structural
changes to ensure that persons with disabilities are provided with appropriate accommodation and
supports that ensure an inclusive learning and

13
working environment. Furthermore, UNESCO (2005) has provided four major inclusion principles
that support inclusive practice. These include:
1. Inclusion is a process. It has to be seen as a never-ending search to find better ways of
responding to diversity. It is about learning how to live with difference and learning
how to learn from difference. Differences come to be seen more positively as a
stimulus for fostering learning amongst children and adults.
2. Inclusion is concerned with the identification and removal of barriers that hinders the
development of persons with disabilities. It involves collecting, collating and
evaluating information from a wide variety of sources in order to plan for
improvements in policy and practice. It is about using evidence of various kinds to
stimulate creativity and problem - solving.
3. Inclusion is about the presence, participation and achievement of all persons.
‗Presence is concerned with where persons are provided and how reliably and
punctually they attend; ‗participation‘ relates to the quality of their experiences and
must incorporate the views of learners/and or workers and ‗achievement‘ is about the
outcomes of learning across the curriculum, not just test and exam results.
4. Inclusion invokes a particular emphasis on those who may be at risk of
marginalization, exclusion or underachievement. This indicates the moral
responsibility to ensure that those ‗at risk‘ are carefully monitored, and that steps are
taken to ensure their presence, participation and achievement.
2. Rationale for Inclusion

Implementation of inclusion has number of rationales. The major ones include: educational, social,
legal, economic and inclusive society building foundations
Rationales for Inclusion and Their Respective Descriptions
Educational Foundations

 Children do better academically, psychologically and socially in inclusive

settings.
 A more efficient use of education resources.
 Decreases dropouts and repetitions
 Teachers competency( knowledge, skills, collaboration, satisfaction
Social Foundation
 Segregation teaches individuals to be fearful, ignorant and breeds prejudice.
 All individuals need an education that will help them develop relationships
and prepare them for life in the wider community.

14
  Only inclusion has the potential to reduce fear and to build friendship, respect
and understanding.
Legal Foundations
 All individuals have the right to learn and live together.
 Human being shouldn‘t be devalued or discriminated against by being
excluded or sent away because of their disability.
 There are no legitimate reasons to separate children for their education
Economic Foundation
 Inclusive education has economic benefit, both for individual and for society.
 Inclusive education is more cost-effective than the creation of special schools
across the country.
 Children with disabilities go to local schools
 Reduce wastage of repetition and dropout
 Children with disabilities live with their family use community infrastructure
 Better employment and job creation opportunities for people with disabilities
Foundations for Building Inclusive Society
 Formation of mutual understanding and appreciation of diversity
 Building up empathy, tolerance and cooperation
 Promotion of sustainable development

Factors that Influenced Development of Inclusion

Inclusiveness originated from three major ideas. These include: inclusive education is a basic human right;
quality education results from inclusion of students with diverse needs and ability differences, and there is no
clear demarcation between the characteristics of students with and without disabilities and vulnerabilities.
Therefore, separate provisions for such students cannot be justified. Moreover, inclusion has got the world‘s
attention because it is supposed to solve the world‘s major problems occurring in social, economic,
religious, educational and other areas of the world. For instance, it is supposed to : counteract-social, political,
economical and educational challenges that happen due to globalization impact; enhance psychosocial,
academic and other benefits to students with and without special needs education; help all citizens exercise
educational and human rights; enhance quality education for all in regular class rooms through inclusion;
create sustainable environmental development that is suitable for all human beings; create democratic and
productive society that promote sustainable development; build an attitude of respecting and valuing of
differences in human beings; and ultimately build an inclusive society.
Inclusive education is facilitated by many influencing actors. Some of the major drivers include:
1. Communities: pre-colonial and indigenous approaches to education and community-based programs
movement that favor inclusion of their community members.
2. Activists and advocates: the combined voices of primary stakeholders – representatives of groups of
learners often excluded and marginalized from education (e.g. disabled activists; parents advocating
for their children; child rights advocates; and those advocating for women/girls and minority ethnic
groups).
3. The quality education and school improvement movement: in both North and South, the issues of
quality, access and inclusion are strongly linked, and contribute to the understanding and practice of
inclusive education as being the responsibility of education systems and schools.
4. Special educational needs movement: the new thinking ‘of the special needs education movement –
as demonstrated in the Salamanca Statement – has been a positive influence on inclusive education,
enabling schools and systems to really respond to a wide range of diversity.
5. Involvement of International agencies: the UN is a major influence on the development of inclusive
education policy and practice. Major donors have formed a partnership – the Fast Track Initiative – to
speed progress towards the EFA goals. E.g. UNESCO
6. Involvement of NGOs movements, networks and campaigns: a wide range of civil society
initiatives, such as the Global Campaign for Education, seek to bring policy and practice together and
involve all stakeholders based on different situations
15
 7. Other factors: the current world situation and practical experiences in education. The current world
situation presents challenges such as the spread of HIV/AIDS, political instability, trends in resource
distribution, diversity of population, and social inclusion. This necessitates implementation of
inclusion to solve the problems. On the other hand, practical experiences in education offers lessons
learned from failure and success in mainstream, special and inclusive education. Moreover, practical
demonstrations of successful inclusive education in different cultures and contexts are a strong
influence on its development
Benefits of Inclusion
It is now understood that inclusion benefits communities, families, teachers, and students by ensuring that
children with disabilities attend school with their peers and providing them with adequate support to succeed
both academically and socially.
1. Benefits for Students with Special Needs Education
In inclusive settings people will develop:
 Appropriate models of behavior. They can observe and imitate socially acceptable behaviors of the
students without special needs
 Increased social initiations, interactions, relationships and networks
 Gain peer role models for academic, social and behavior skills
 Increased achievement of individualized educational program (IEP) goals
 Greater access to general curriculum
 Enhanced skill acquisition and generalization in their learning
 improved academic achievement which leads to quality education service s
 Attending inclusive schools increases the probability that students with SEN will continue to
participate in a variety of integrated settings throughout their lives (increased inclusion in future
environments that contribute building of inclusive society).
 Improved school staff collaboration to meet these students‘ needs and ability differences
 Increased parental participation to meet these students‘ needs and ability differences
 Enhanced families integration into the community

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 2. Benefits for Teachers and Parents/Family
Inclusive education has benefit to teachers. The benefit includes: developing their knowledge and skills that
meet diverse students‘needs and ability differences to enhancing their skills to work with their stakeholders;
and gaining satisfaction in their profession and other aspects.
Similarly, parents/family benefit from inclusive education. For example, parents benefit from implementation
of inclusive education in developing their positive attitude towards their children‘s education, positive feeling
toward their participation, and appreciation to differences among humankinds and so on. For detailed
information, see the table below. when they participate in inclusive education of their children

Benefits for Teachers Benefits for Parents/Family

 They have more opportunities to learn new ways to
teach different kinds of students.  Learn more about how their children are
 They gain new knowledge, such as the different ways being educated in schools with their peers
children learn and can be taught. in an inclusive environment
 They develop more positive attitudes and approaches  Become personally involved and feel a
towards different people with diverse needs. greater sense of accomplishment in helping
 They have greater opportunities to explore new ideas their children to learn.
by communicating more often with others from within  Feel valued and consider themselves as
and outside their school, such as in school clusters or equal partners in providing quality learning
teacher networks, or with parents and community opportunities for children.
members.  Learn how to deal better with their children
 They can encourage their students to be more at home by using techniques that the
interested, more creative and more attentive teachers use in school.
 They can experience greater job satisfaction and a  Find out ways to interact with others in the
higher sense of accomplishment when ALL children community, as well as to understand and
are succeeding in school to the best of their abilities. help solve each other‘s problems.
 Know that their children—and ALL
 They get opportunities to exchange information about children—are receiving a quality
instructional activities and teaching education.

strategies, thus expanding the skills of both general

and special educators  Experience positive attitude about
 They benefit from develop Developing teamwork and themselves and their children by seeing
collaborative problem-solving skills to creatively their children accepted by others,
address challenges regarding student learning successful in the inclusive setting, and
 Develop positive attitude that help them promoting the belonging to the community where they
recognition and appreciation that all students have live
strengths and are contributing members of the school
community as well as the society

2.5. Benefits for Society

Inclusion goes beyond education and should involve consideration of employment, recreation, health and
living conditions. It should therefore involve transformations across all government and other agencies at all
levels of society. When students with special needs and without special needs are educated through quality
inclusive education, it not only benefits students, teachers and parents it also benefits the society. Some of the
major benefits may include:
Introduction of students with disabilities and vulnerabilities into mainstream schools bring in the students into

17
local communities and neighborhoods and helps break down barriers and prejudice that prevail in the society
towards persons with disability. Communities become more accepting of difference, and everyone benefits
from a friendlier, open environment that values and appreciates differences in human beings. Meaningful
participation in the economic, social, political and cultural life of communities own cost effective non-
segregated schooling system that services both students with and without special needs education.
Ultimate Goal of Inclusion

The goal of inclusive education is to create schools where everyone belongs. By creating inclusive schools, we
ensure that there‘s a welcoming place in the community for everyone after their school year‘s end. Students educated
together have a greater understanding of difference and diversity. Students educated together have fewer fears about
difference and disability. An inclusive school culture creates better long-term outcomes for all students. Typical students
who are educated alongside peers with developmental disabilities understand more about the ways that they‘re all alike.
These are the students who will be our children‘s peer group and friends. These students hold the promise of creating
inclusive communities in the future for all our children. These students will be the teachers, principals, doctors, lawyers,
and parents who build communities where everyone belongs.
Inclusive society is a necessary precondition for inclusive growth is a society which does not exclude or
discriminate against its citizens on the basis of disability, caste, race, gender, family or community, a society
which levels the playing field for investment‘ and leaves no one behind. Thus, Inclusive growth which is
equitable that offers equality of opportunity to all as well as protection in market and employment transitions
results from inclusive society.

5. Features of Inclusive Environment

Brain storming questions:
Dear learners, what does inclusive environment mean?
Do you think it is possible to create an inclusive environment?
What could be the major components of inclusive environment interms of inclusive education?
An inclusive environment is one in which members feel respected by and connected to one another. An
inclusive environment is an environment that welcomes all people, regardless of their disability and other
vulnerabilities. It recognizes and uses their skills and strengthens their abilities. An inclusive service
environment is respectful, supportive, and equalizing. An inclusive environment reaches out to and includes
individuals with disabilities and vulnerabilities at all levels — from first time participants to board members.
It has the following major characteristics:
 it ensures the respect and dignity of individuals with disabilities
 it meets current accessibility standards to the greatest extent possible to all people with special needs
 Provides accommodations willingly and proactively Persons with disabilities are welcomed and are valued for their
contributions as individuals.
2.6. Inclusive Environments
An inclusive environment is a place that is adjusted to individuals‘ needs and not vice versa – that individuals are
adjusted to the environmental needs. It acknowledges that individual differences among individuals are a source of
richness and diversity, and not a problem, and that various needs and the individual pace of learning and development can
be met successfully with a wide range of flexible approaches. Besides, the environment should involve continuous
process of changes directed towards strengthening and encouraging different ways of participation of all members of the
community.
An inclusive environment is also directed towards developing culture, policy and practice which meet pupils‘
diversities, towards identifying and removing obstacles in learning and participating, towards developing a
suitable provisions and supporting individuals.
Therefore, successful environment has the following characteristics:
 It develops whole-school/environment processes that promote inclusiveness and quality provisions
and practice that are responsive to the individual needs and diversities
 It recognizes and responds to the diverse needs of their individuals and ensuring quality provisions for
all through appropriate accommodations, organizational arrangements, resource use and partnerships
with their community.
 It is committed to serve all individuals together regardless of differences. It is also deeply committed to
18
 the belief that all persons can learn, work and be productive.
 It involves restructuring environment, culture, policy, and practice.
 It promoting pro-social activities
 It makes provides services and facilities equally accessible to all people
 It involves mobilizing resources within the community
 It is alert to and uses a range of multi-skilled personnel to assist people in their learning and working
environment.
 It strives to create strong links with, clinicians, caregivers, and staff in local schools, work place,
disability services providers and relevant support agencies within the wider community. It develops
social relationships as an equal member of the class. It is also the classroom responsive to the diversity
of individuals‘ academic, social and personal learning needs.
Barriers to Inclusion
 Though many countries seem committed to inclusion their rhetoric, and even in their legislation and
policies, practices often fall short. Reasons for the policy-practice gap in inclusion are diverse. The
major barriers include:
 Problems related with societal values and beliefs- particularly the community and policy makers
negative attitude towards students with disability and vulnerabilities. Inclusion cannot flourish in a
society that has prejudice and negative attitude towards persons with disability.
 Economic factors- this is mainly related with poverty of family, community and society at large
 Lack of taking measures to ensure conformity of implementation of inclusion practice with policies
 Lack of stakeholders taking responsibility in their cooperation as well as collaboration for inclusion
 Conservative traditions among the community members about inclusion
 Lack of knowledge and skills among teachers regarding inclusive education
 Rigid curricula, teaching method and examination systems that do not consider students with dives
needs and ability differences.
 Fragile democratic institutions that could not promote inclusion
 Inadequate resources and inaccessibility of social and physical environments
 Large class sizes that make teachers and stakeholders meet students‘ diverse needs
 Globalization and free market policy that make students engage in fierce completion, individualism and
individuals‘excellence rather than teaching through cooperation, collaboration and group excellence.
 Using inclusive models that may be imported from other countries.
Chapter summary
Inclusion is defined from the concept of education process of education that is aimed at meeting
students‘diverse needs in regular classrooms. It focuses not only students with special educational needs but
also students without special needs. It is based on the concept of respecting diversity and the different needs
and abilities, characteristics and learning expectations of the students and communities and eliminating all
forms of discrimination in educational, social, economic and other aspects of life. The concept of inclusive
education originated from three major ideas. These include: inclusive education is a basic human right; quality
education results from inclusion of students with diverse needs and ability differences, and there is no clear
demarcation between the characteristics of students with and without disabilities and vulnerabilities. Its
philosophy centers on enabling communities, systems and structures in all cultures and contexts to fight
discrimination, celebrate diversity, promote participation and overcome barriers to learning and participation
for all people (persons with and without special educational needs). It is part of a wider strategy promoting
inclusive development, with the goal of creating a world where there is peace, tolerance, and sustainable use
of resources, social justice, and where the basic needs and rights of all persons are met.
.

19
 Chapter 3: Identification and Differentiated services
Chapter Overview
The onset of disability is accompanied by a complex series of shocks to the individual and to everyone around
him. The impact of disability and vulnerability take many form. The immediate effects are often physical
pain, limitation of mobility, disorientation, confusion, uncertainty and a disruption of roles and patterns of
social interaction. Peoples with disabilities and vulnerabilities have survival (physiological), safety, social,
esteem, and self- actualization (fulfillment) needs like persons without disabilities.
This chapter begins with the overview of the impacts of disability on daily life of peoples with disabilities and
vulnerabilities and their needs for inclusive service provisions. It describes diverse needs of persons with
disabilities and vulnerabilities followed by differentiated intervention and rehabilitation approaches. The
chapter further discusses inclusiveness from different perspectives such as; health services provision,
accessibility of technologies, employment and economic independence, disability and rural life and access to
education for peoples with disabilities and vulnerabilities in brief.

Impact of Disability and Vulnerability on daily life

Factors related to the person
People respond to disabilities in different ways. Some react negatively and thus their quality of life is
negatively affected. Others choose to focus on their abilities as opposed to their disabilities and continue to
live a productive life. There are several factors that affect the impact a disability has on an individual. The
following are often considered the most significant factors in determining a disability's impact on an
individual.
1. The Nature of the Disability: Disability can be acquired (a result of an accident, or acquired disease)
or congenital (present at birth). If the disability is acquired, it is more likely to cause a negative
reaction than a congenital disability. Congenital disabilities are disabilities that have always been
present, thus requiring less of an adjustment than an acquired disability.
2. The Individual’s Personality - the individual personality can be typically positive or negative,
dependent or independent, goal-oriented or laissez-faire. Someone with a positive outlook is more
likely to embrace a disability then someone with a negative outlook. Someone who is independent will
continue to be independent and someone who is goal- oriented will continue to set and pursue goals.
3. The Meaning of the Disability to the Individual - Does the individual define himself/herself by
his/her looks or physical characteristics? If so, he/she is more likely to feel defined by his/her disability
and thus it will have a negative impact.
4. The Individual’s Current Life Circumstances - The individual‘s independence or dependence on
others (parents). The economic status of the individual or the individual's caregivers, the individual's
education level. If the individual is happy with their current life circumstance, they are more likely to
embrace their disability, whereas if they are not happy with their circumstances, they often blame their
disability.
5. The Individual's Support System - The individual‘s support from family, a significant other, friends,
or social groups. If so, he/she will have an easier time coping with a disability and thus will not be
affected negatively by their disability.
Common effects of a disability may include but not limited to health conditions of the person; mental health
issues including anxiety and depression; loss of freedom and independence; frustration and anger at having to
rely on other people; practical problems including transport, choice of activities, accessing buildings;
unemployment; problems with learning and academic study; loss of self-esteem and confidence, especially
in social situations. But all these negative effects are due to restricted environments, not due to impairments.
The disability experience resulting from the interaction of health conditions, personal factors, and
environmental factors varies greatly. Persons with disabilities are diverse and heterogeneous, while
stereotypical views of disability emphasize wheelchair users and a few other ―classic‖ groups such as blind
people and deaf people. Disability encompasses the child born with a congenital condition such as cerebral
palsy or the young soldier who loses his leg to a land-mine, or the middle-aged woman with severe arthritis,
or the older person with dementia, among many others. Health conditions can be visible or invisible;
temporary or long term; static, episodic, or degenerating; painful or inconsequential. Note that many people
with disabilities do not consider themselves to be unhealthy.

20
Generalizations about ―disability‖ or ―people with disabilities‖ can mislead. Persons with disabilities have
diverse personal factors with differences in gender, age, language, socioeconomic status, sexuality, ethnicity,
or cultural heritage. Each has his or her personal preferences and responses to disability. Also while disability
correlates with disadvantage, not all people with disabilities are equally disadvantaged. Women with
disabilities experience the combined disadvantages associated with gender as well as disability, and may be
less likely to marry than non- disabled women. People who experience mental health conditions or intellectual
impairments appear to be more disadvantaged in many settings than those who experience physical or sensory
impairments. People with more severe impairments often experience greater disadvantage. Conversely, wealth
and status can help overcome activity limitations and participation restrictions.

People with disabilities and vulnerabilities live with challenges that impact their abilities to conduct
Activities of Daily Living (ADL). Disability and vulnerabilities can limit or restrict one or more ADLs,
including moving from one place to another (e.g., navigation, locomotion, transfer), maintaining a position
(e.g., standing, sitting, sleeping), interacting with the environment (e.g., controlling systems, gripping
objects), communicating (e.g.,speaking, writing, hand gestures), feeding (chewing, swallowing, etc.), and
perceiving the external world (by movement of the eyes, the head, etc.), due to inaccessible environment.
Many older persons face one or more impairments. Their situation is often similar to that of people with
disabilities. Their needs are similar to those people with multiple disabilities with a decrease in the muscular,
vision, hearing and cognitive capacities.
Economic Factors and Disability
There is clear evidence that people with few economic assets are more likely to acquire pathologies that may be disabling.
This is true even in advanced economies and in economies with greater levels of income equality. The impact of absolute
or relative economic deprivation on the onset of pathology crosscuts conditions with radically different etiologies,
encompassing infectious diseases and most common chronic conditions. Similarly, economic status affects whether
pathology will proceed to impairment. Examples include such phenomena as a complete lack of access to or a delay in
presentation for medical care for treatable conditions (e.g., untreated breast cancer is more likely to require radical
mastectomy) or inadequate access to state-of-the-art care (e.g., persons with rheumatoid arthritis may experience a
worsened range of motion and joint function because disease- modifying drugs are not used by most primary care
physicians). In turn, a lack of resources can adversely affect the ability of an individual to function with a disabling
condition. For example, someone with an amputated leg who has little money or poor health insurance may not be able to
obtain a proper prosthesis, in which case the absence of the limb may then force the individual to withdraw from jobs that
require these capacities.
Similarly, economic resources can limit the options and abilities of someone who requires personal assistance
services or certain physical accommodations. The individual also may not be able to access the appropriate
rehabilitation services to reduce the degree of potential disability either because they cannot afford the
services themselves or cannot afford the cost of specialized transportation services.
The economic status of the community may have a more profound impact than the status of the individual on
the probability that disability will result from impairment or other disabling conditions. Research on
employment among persons with disabilities indicates, for example, that such persons in communities
undergoing rapid economic expansion will be much more likely to secure jobs than those in communities with
depressed or contracting labor markets. Similarly, wealthy communities are more able to provide
environmental supports such as accessible public transportation and public buildings or support payments for
personal assistance benefits.

Community can be defined in terms of the microsystem (the local area of the person with the disabling
conditions), the mesosystem (the area beyond the immediate neighborhood, perhaps encompassing the town),
and the macrosystem (a region or nation). Clearly, the economic status of the region or nation as a whole may
play a more important role than the immediate microenvironment for certain kinds of disabling conditions.
For example, access to employment among people with disabling conditions is determined by a combination
of the national and regional labor markets, but the impact of differences across small neighborhoods is
unlikely to be very great. In contrast, the economic status of a neighborhood will play a larger role in
determining whether there are physical accommodations in the built environment that would facilitate
mobility for people with impairments or functional limitations, or both.

Finally, economic factors also can affect disability by creating incentives to define one as disabled. For
21
example, disability compensation programs often pay nearly as much as many of the jobs available to people
with disabling conditions, especially given that such programs also provide health insurance and many lower-
paying jobs do not. Moreover, disability compensation programs often make an attempt to return to work
risky, since health insurance is withdrawn soon after earnings begin and procuring a job with good health
insurance benefits is often difficult in the presence of disabling conditions. Thus, disability compensation
programs are said to significantly reduce the number of people with impairments who work by creating
incentives to leave the labor force and also creating disincentives to return to work.
Political Factors and Disability
The political system, through its role in designing public policy, can and does have a profound impact on the
extent to which impairents and other potentially disabling conditions will result in disability. If the political
system is well enforced it will profoundly improve the prospects of people with disabling conditions for
achieving a much fuller participation in society, in effect reducing the font of disability in work and every
other domain of human activity. The extent to which the built environment impedes people with disabling
conditions is a function of public funds spent to make buildings and transportation systems accessible and
public laws requiring the private sector to make these accommodations in nonpublic buildings. The extent to
which people with impairments and functional limitations will participate in the labor force is a function of the
funds spent in training programs, in the way that health care is financed, and in the ways that job
accommodations are mandated and paid for.
Similarly, for those with severe disabling conditions, access to personal assistance services may be required
for participation in almost all activities, and such access is dependent on the availability of funding for such
services through either direct payment or tax credits. Thus, the potential mechanisms of public policy are
diverse, ranging from the direct effects of funds from the public purse, to creating tax incentives so that
private parties may finance efforts themselves, to the passage of civil rights legislation and providing adequate
enforcement. The sum of the mechanisms used can and does have a profound impact on the functioning of
people with disabling conditions.

Factors Psychological of Disability

This section focuses on the impact of psychological factors on how disability and disabling conditions are
perceived and experienced. The argument in support of the influence of the psychological environment is
congruent with the key assumption in this chapter that the physical and social environments are fundamentally
important to the expression of disability.
Several constructs can be used to describe one's psychological environment, including personal resources,
personality traits, and cognition. These constructs affect both the expression of disability and an individual's
ability to adapt to and react to it. An exhaustive review of the literature on the impact of psychological factors
on disability is beyond the scope of this chapter. However, for illustrative purposes four psychological
constructs will be briefly discussed: three cognitive processes (self-efficacy beliefs, psychological control, and
coping patterns) and one personality disposition (optimism). Each section provides examples illustrating the
influence of these constructs on the experience of disability.

a) Social Cognitive Processes

Psychological control, or control beliefs, is akin to self-efficacy beliefs in that they are thoughts, feelings, and
beliefs regarding one's ability to exert control or change a situation. Self-generated feelings of control improve
outcomes for diverse groups of individuals with physical disabilities and chronic illnesses. The onset of a
disabling condition is often followed by a loss or a potential loss of control. What is most critical for adaptive
functioning is how a person responds to this and what efforts the person puts forth to regain control.
Perceptions of control will influence whether disabling environmental conditions are seen as stressful and
consequently whether it becomes disabling. The individuals control over themselves depends on the provision
of the environments: accessibility or inaccessibility
b) Coping Patterns
Coping patterns refer to behavioral and cognitive efforts to manage specific internal or external demands that
tax or exceed a person's resources to adjust. Generally, coping has been studied within the context of stress.
Having a disabling condition may create stress and demand additional efforts because of interpersonal or
environmental conditions that are not supportive. Several coping strategies may be used when a person

22
confronts a stressful situation. These strategies may include the following: seeking information, cognitive
restructuring, emotional expression, catastrophizing, wish-fulfilling fantasizing, threat minimization,
relaxation, distraction, and self-blame. The effects of certain coping efforts on adaptive and functional
outcomes benefits individuals with disabling conditions. In general, among people with disabling conditions,
there is evidence that passive, avoidant, emotion- focused cognitive strategies (e.g., catastrophizing and
wishful thinking) are associated with poorer outcomes, whereas active, problem-focused attempts to redefine
thoughts to become more positive are associated with favorable outcomes. An adaptive coping pattern would
involve the use of primary and secondary control strategies. What seems useful is the flexibility to change
strategies and to have several strategies available.
Active coping is a significant predictor of mental health and employment-related outcomes. Under conditions
in which individuals with disabling conditions use active and problem-solving coping strategies to manage
their life circumstances, there will be better functional outcomes across several dimensions (e.g., activities of
daily living, and employment) than when passive coping strategies are used. An important component in the
coping process is appraisal. Appraisals involve beliefs about one's ability to deal with a situation. Take, for
example, two people with identical levels of impairment. The appraisal that the impairment is disabling will
result in more disability than the appraisal that the impairment is not disabling, regardless of the objective type
and level of impairment.
Appraisal is related to self-efficacy in the sense that one's thoughts and cognition control how one reacts to a
potentially negative situation. When a person feels that he or she can execute a desired outcome (e.g., learn
how to use crutches for mobility), the person is more likely to do just that. Similarly, under conditions in
which an individual appraises his or her disabling conditions and other life circumstances as manageable, the
person will use coping strategies that will lead to a manageable life (i.e., better functional outcomes).

c) Personality Disposition
Optimism is a personality disposition that is included in this chapter as an example of a personality disposition
or trait that can mediate how disabling conditions are experienced. Several other interrelated personality
factors could be discussed (e.g., self-esteem, hostility, and Type A personality). Optimism (in contrast to
pessimism) is used for illustrative purposes because it relates to many other personality traits. Optimism is the
general tendency to view the world, others, and oneself favorably. People with an optimistic orientation rather
than a pessimistic orientation are far better across several dimensions. Optimists tend to have better self-
esteem and less hostility toward others and tend to use more adaptive coping strategies than pessimists.
Optimism is a significant predictor of coping efforts and of recovery from surgery. Individuals with optimistic
orientations have a faster rate of recovery during hospitalization and a faster rate of return to normal life
activities after discharge. There was also a strong relationship between optimism and postsurgical quality of
life, with optimists doing better than pessimists. Optimism may reduce symptoms and improve adjustment to
illness, because it is associated with the use of effective coping strategies. This same analogy can be extended
to impairment. Optimistic individuals are more likely to cope with impairment by using the active adaptive
coping strategies discussed earlier. These in turn will lead to reduced disability.
The four constructs of the psychological environment (i.e., self-efficacy beliefs, psychological control, coping
patterns, and optimism) were highlighted to illustrate the influence of these factors on disability and the
enabling-disabling process. These psychological constructs are interrelated and are influenced to a large extent
by the external social and physical environments. The reason for the inclusion of the psychological
environment in this topic is to assert that just as the physical and social environments can be changed to
support people with disabling conditions, so can the psychological environment. Psychological interventions
directed at altering cognition lead to improved outcomes (i.e., achievement, interpersonal relationships, work
productivity, and health) across diverse populations and dimensions.

The Family and Disability

The family can be either an enabling or a disabling factor for a person with a disabling condition. Although
most people have a wide network of friends, the networks of people with disabilities are more likely to be
dominated by family members. Even among people with disabilities who maintain a large network of friends,
family relationships often are most central and families often provide the main sources of support. This
support may be instrumental (errand-running), informational (providing advice or referrals), or emotional
(giving love and support).
Families can be enabling to people with functional limitations by providing such tangible services as
23
housekeeping and transportation and by providing personal assistance in activities of daily living. Families
can also provide economic support to help with the purchase of assistive technologies and to pay for personal
assistance. Perhaps most importantly, they can provide emotional support. Emotional support is positively
related to well-being across a number of conditions. In all of these areas, friends and neighbors can
supplement the support provided by the family.

It is important to note, however, that families may also be disabling. Some families promote dependency.
Others fatalistically accept functional limitations and conditions that are amenable to change with a supportive
environment. In both of these situations, the person with the potentially disabling condition is not allowed to
develop to his or her fullest potential. Families may also not provide needed environmental services and
resources. For example, families of deaf children frequently do not learn to sign, in the process impeding their
children's ability to communicate as effectively as possible. Similarly, some well- meaning families
prematurely take over the household chores of people with angina, thereby limiting the opportunity for
healthy exercise that can lead to recovery
Needs of Persons with Disabilities and Vulnerabilities
Dear students,

 What needs do you think persons with disabilities may have?

Needs of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities depends on different factors.
People with disabilities do not all share a single experience, even of the same impairment; likewise,
professionals in the same discipline (sector)do not follow a single approach or hold the same values. Exciting
new directions will arise from individual professionals (sectors) working with persons with disabilities and
vulnerabilities on particular briefs. This will produce different responses each time, complementary and even
contradictory directions, but this richness is needed.
Analyzing the human beings, Maslow has identified five categories of needs, with different priority levels
(Fig. 3.1), in the following order: survival (physiological), safety, social needs, esteem, and self-actualization
(fulfillment). Maslow‘s model is also valid for persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities, whose needs are
similar to those of ordinary persons. Nevertheless, many of these needs are not fulfilled, so disabilities and
vulnerabilities seek to fulfill these needs and reach a state of wellbeing. Initially, disabilities and
vulnerabilities attempt to fulfill the first level of needs (survival). The survival needs are formed by the
physiological needs and include the biological requirements for feeding, performing hygiene, sleeping, ADL,
and so on. When disabilities and vulnerabilities fulfill their survival needs, they will look for situations that
keep them safe, before moving up the chain and fulfill their needs to be part of society and to achieve. As an
example of needs in terms of safety, consider a person with visual impairment who wishes to cross the street
safely. In contrast, for the elderly, at risk and street children safety might represent the ability to obtain
emergency help after falling and not being able to stand again. Social need is a key element that disabilities
and vulnerabilities would like to develop continuously. For example, a person with a hearing impairment
suffers from a diminution of social contact, while someone with a motor disability feels excluded from social
activities.
The third level of the pyramid relates to esteem, both self-esteem and being favorably recognized by others.
Esteem is often related to the capability of achieving things, contributing to a work activity and being
autonomous. In particular, disabilities and vulnerabilities in a dependent situation feel the need for increased
autonomy, as well as the opportunity to prove their worth to themselves and others through work or other
activities.

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 Fig.3.1 Abraham‘s Maslow Hierarchy

Persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities have socio-emotional, psychological, physical

and social environmental and economic needs in general. The following list but not last are basic
needs of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities to ensure equality for all within our society.

Dear student,
List the needs of a person with disability living in your neighbor as much as you can.

a) Full access to the Environment (towns, countryside & buildings)

b) An accessible Transport system
c) Technical aids and equipment
d) Accessible/adapted housing
e) Personal Assistance and support
f) Inclusive Education and Training
g) An adequate Income
h) Equal opportunities for Employment
i) Appropriate and accessible Information
j) Advocacy (towards self-advocacy)
k) Counseling
l) Appropriate and Accessible Health Care

Social Needs of Persons with Disabilities and Vulnerabilities

Social protection plays a key role in realizing the rights of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities of all
25
ages: providing them with an adequate standard of living, a basic level of income security; thus reducing
levels of poverty and vulnerability. Moreover, mainstream and/or specific social protection schemes
concerning persons with disabilities can have a major role in promoting their independence and inclusion by
meeting their specific needs and supporting their social participation in a non-discriminatory manner. These
social protection measures may include poverty reduction schemes; cash transfer programs, social and health
insurance, public work programs, housing programs, disability pensions and mobility grants. Social protection
from a rights-based approach must accommodate the needs of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities.
Traditional disability-related social welfare schemes have mainly focused on poverty rather than taking into
account specific challenges faced by persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities; particularly active
participation in education, access to health and employment. Previous methods of addressing benefits for
persons with disabilities have shown limited progress in overcoming the deeply-rooted social structures and
practices that hinder opportunities for persons with disabilities. Consequently, social protection needs to move
beyond traditional welfare approaches to intervention systems that promote active citizenship, social inclusion
and community participation while avoiding paternalism and dependence.
The right of persons with disabilities to social protection is recognized by the 1948 Universal Declaration of
Human Rights (UDHR), the 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)
and, more specifically, the 2006 UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD). Article
28 of the CRPD in particular recognizes the right of persons with disabilities to an adequate standard of living
and to social protection, ensuring the enjoyment of both rights without discrimination on the basis of ability.
Therefore, States parties should take appropriate measures to ensure that they receive equal access to
mainstream social protection programs and services —including basic services, social security systems,
poverty reduction programs and housing programs— but also specific programs and services for disability-
related needs and expenses.
Furthermore, the Social Protection Floors Recommendation (No. 202) recognizes the importance of national
social protection floors to provide basic social security guarantees to all persons, including persons with
disabilities and vulnerabilities, across the life cycle (with priority given to poverty, vulnerability, and social
exclusion).

Gender and disability

The importance of work and the daily activities required of living in the country are paramount in considering gender. For
Dear students, what impact does rural living have on women with disabilities?
the male and female with disabilities and vulnerable groups, work is universally seen as important, whether paid work or
voluntary. When the work interests of men with disabilities are similar to those of others around them, their identity as a
man‘ becomes more valuable to the community. However, there are issues around how masculinity in rural areas is
constituted. Finding ways to express this through involvement in common activities can be difficult. Many of male and
females with disabilities have creativity and skill in finding ways to do things and consequently being able to build
friendships with other men in their communities.
Work, particularly paid work, is also important for many of the female contributors. Sustaining this in the face of
community views about disability is at times difficult, particularly when it is balanced with expectations of traditional
women‘s roles of home making and childcare. Being excluded from these latter tasks because of others‘ protective or
controlling views is particularly difficult for some women in asserting their identities as women and exploring these types
of gendered practices.

Identity and disability

The relational nature of identity seems to be of central importance to people with disabilities and a rural
environment in some instances provides a different way for people to be perceived by others and by
themselves. People with disabilities are not primarily clients or service users but rather are known members of
their communities with a shared and, at times, intergenerational history. The formality of the service system is
counterpointed by the relationships people formed with those who share a rural life.
Identity marked by disability is complex and multilayered; relationships, outside of paid, formalized service
settings. Services are facilitators of a rural life, rather than the focus of rural life itself. New technologies,
determination and interests shape differing identities for people who are active agents in their own lives.
This is not to argue that rural living is an idyll for people with disabilities. For some, their interests and
26
aspirations are elsewhere and they may be constrained by the necessity of living rurally either because of the
needed support from families or a personal need for the refuge of rural living in times of difficulty. Such
difficulties are often generated by broader structural relations of being socially identified as disabled‘, such as
with the onset of new austerity measures.
Disability as part of an individual‘s identity is seen by some as a struggle. This is often twofold: internally to
individuals and their sense of self and, too often, in the way they are perceived and constructed by those
around them. An acquired disability is experienced as challenging the nature of one‘s internal pre-established
identity and as a struggle to change the perceptions and attitudes of others and the physical environment in
which a person lives. Relations with family, friends and communities often provided a contradictory
landscape, where a person has to negotiate his or her new disabled identity yet, at the same time, is able to
draw upon previous shared experiences to become re-embedded in friendships and communities. Finding
ways to gain value‘ in the local community with a disability is an ongoing and, too often, difficult journey. It
is these very journeys that create one‘s identity and the relational nature of this identity to the rural landscape.
Belongingness and disability
Belonging is a complex concept involving an attachment to place, relationships with others, a sense of safety,
common values and a shared and/or developing history. Belonging is also an internal sense of being at home
in one‘s own body and mind. Persons with disabilities and vulnerable groups have struggled to come to terms
with a body and mind which seem unfamiliar to them, in which they have to make adjustments or
accommodations both for themselves and in terms of their relationships with others. This internal negotiation
and navigation shape their engagement with their social worlds, particularly in rural communities
Persons with disabilities in rural areas should have a strong attachment to place, somewhere familiar and
known where they can feel safe, find their ways alone, exercise autonomy and express their embodied selves.
The possibility of making change happen in an environment, where one‘s voice is heard, is also seen as a part
of belonging in a community. While this is sometimes a struggle, there is a sense that people can use their
personal contacts and friends to get change to happen when it is needed.
Family relationships as a means of connecting to community and being known by others, and knowing others
outside the family are important. Different kinds of relationship contributed to this sense of belonging,
ranging from the more superficial nodding acquaintances to specific informal support from known others, to
the intimacy of close friends and kin.
Historically for people with disabilities, rurality was once the site of exclusion, rather than belonging, where
identity and gender were disregarded in favor of ensuring protection of people with disabilities and of the
society in which they lived. The idea of belonging in a rural landscape was promoted by people with a vested
interest in segregation.
People with disabilities and marginalized groups feel isolated. Some persons with disabilities have actively
sought to migrate to urban environments, to escape from the confines and constraints of small rural
environments and to build broader social networks away from the farm.

3.2.1.4 Intersectionality
Social structures and norms surrounding age are particularly significant, shaping the kind of lives people have
and their experience of gender and identity. They have particular implications for people‘s attachment to place
and their aspirations and desires for the future. Age matters, too, in terms of the support that family and
services can offer in a rural environment and the types of age-appropriate ‘opportunities that can be facilitated
in the person‘s home, family and community. Being a particular age‘ in a rural landscape has implications for
the types of social relationship that are openly facilitated and enabled.
The wider contextual values and economic and social changes have also impact on the life of persons with
disabilities. Religious values that shape the way disability is constituted in some countries are a powerful
influence on the way people with disabilities are able to live their lives. These values intersect with societal
expectations of gender roles. Many peoples with disabilities are subjected to being viewed as objects of pity
and prevailing myths about their capacities, socially and individually. These social myths are key sites of
struggle and, as suggested earlier, are deeply intertwined with a person‘s own subjective understandings of
gendered identities and sense of belonging as a person with a disability.
Economic changes which have led to mass migration from the rural to the urban and increased the emphasis
on citizens‘ economic contribution to society have also had an impact on rural living for some people. Further,
structural changes, such as austerity and welfare retraction, in some countries have created unique pressures
on some people with disabilities living in rural areas. These places may provide a space to hide‘, a place
27
where one is known and familiar, and where one is sheltered from the negative attitudes that accompany
government cutbacks. Such prevailing economic constraints also lead to new forms of isolation. The constant
pressure to present‘ in an acceptable way to the people one knows and, at the same time, to continue to qualify
for the benefits one needs has added a new form of stress to rural living not previously experienced by many
people with disabilities. The experience of having a disability and not being on welfare is significantly
different to that of people with disabilities whose economic security depends on what has become highly
stigmatized support. The management of the self and of rural social relationships intersects deeply with these
broader structural changes, and navigating such structural continuities and disruptions is a critical influence on
the lives of people with disabilities.
Poverty has impact on living a decent life with a disability in a rural landscape, a life that they have defined
and desired. In a number of cases this is centered on the need for paid work and the difficulties in finding it
where employment is often scarce or highly exclusionary due to farming practices. Some contributors
emphasize the importance of familial social networks and the additional support these provide, alongside
belonging to a community where one is known, in enabling people with disabilities to counter the negative
aspects of poverty. Given the changing welfare environment, including the growing insecurity of disability
support landscapes, many of the contributors express fears of the future. Particular concerns are the very real
possibility of a time when services or family support may not be available, alongside the impact of diminished
access to social security with the onset of austerity.
The Health Care Needs of Persons with Disabilities and Vulnerabilities
People with disabilities report seeking more health care than people without disabilities and have greater
unmet needs. For example, a recent survey of people with serious mental disorders, showed that between 35%
and 50% of people in developed countries, and between 76% and 85% in developing countries, received no
treatment in the year prior to the study.
Health promotion and prevention activities seldom target people with disabilities. For example women with
disabilities receive less screening for breast and cervical cancer than women without disabilities. People with
intellectual impairments and diabetes are less likely to have their weight checked. Adolescents and adults with
disabilities are more likely to be excluded from sex education programs.

Dear students, how are the lives of people with disabilities affected by lack of health
care service?

People with disabilities are particularly vulnerable to deficiencies in health care services. Depending on the
group and setting, persons with disabilities may experience greater vulnerability to secondary conditions, co-
morbid conditions, age-related conditions, engaging in health risk behaviors and higher rates of premature
death.

A) Secondary conditions: conditions occur in addition to (and are related to) a primary health condition,
and are both predictable and therefore preventable. Examples include pressure ulcers, urinary tract
infections, osteoporosis and pain.
B) Co-morbid conditions: conditions occur in addition to (and are unrelated to) a primary health condition
associated with disability. For example the prevalence of diabetes in people with schizophrenia is
around 15% compared to a rate of 2-3% for the general population.
C) Age-related conditions: The ageing process for some groups of people with disabilities begins earlier
than usual. For example some people with developmental disabilities show signs of premature ageing in
their 40s and 50s.
D) Engaging in health risk behaviors: Some studies have indicated that people with disabilities have
higher rates of risky behaviors such as smoking, poor diet and physical inactivity.
Barriers to Health Care for Persons with Disabilities and Vulnerable Groups
People with disabilities encounter a range of barriers when they attempt to access health care including the
following.
a) Prohibitive costs: Affordability of health services and transportation are two main reasons why people
with disabilities do not receive needed health care in low-income countries - 32-33% of non-disabled
people are unable to afford health care compared to 51-53% of people with disabilities.
28
 b) Limited availability of services: The lack of appropriate services for people with disabilities is a
significant barrier to health care. For example, studies indicate that the lack of services especially in the
rural area is the second most significant barrier to using health facilities.
c) Physical barriers: Uneven access to buildings (hospitals, health centers), inaccessible medical
equipment, poor signage, narrow doorways, internal steps, inadequate bathroom facilities, and
inaccessible parking areas create barriers to health care facilities. For example, women with mobility
difficulties are often unable to access breast and cervical cancer screening because examination tables
are not height-adjustable and mammography equipment only accommodates women who are able to
stand.
d) Inadequate skills and knowledge of health workers: People with disabilities were more than twice as
likely to report finding health care provider skills inadequate to meet their needs, four times more likely
to report being treated badly and nearly three times more likely to report being denied care.

Addressing for Inclusive Barriers to Health Care

Governments and professionals can improve health outcomes for people with disabilities by improving access
to quality, affordable health care services, which make the best use of available resources. As several factors
interact to inhibit access to health care, reforms in all the interacting components of the health care system are
required.

a) Policy and legislation: Assess existing policies and services, identify priorities to reduce health
inequalities and plan improvements for access and inclusion. Make changes to comply with the CRPD.
Establish health care standards related to care of persons with disabilities with enforcement
mechanisms.
b) Financing: Where private health insurance dominates health care financing, ensure that people with
disabilities are covered and consider measures to make the premiums affordable. Ensure that people
with disabilities benefit equally from public health care programs. Use financial incentives to
encourage health-care providers to make services accessible and provide comprehensive assessments,
treatment, and follow- ups Service delivery: Provide a broad range of modifications and adjustments
(reasonable accommodation) to facilitate access to health care services. For example changing the
physical layout of clinics to provide access for people with mobility difficulties or communicating
health information in accessible formats such as Braille. Empower people with disabilities to maximize
their health by providing information, training, and peer support. Promote community-based
rehabilitation (CBR) to facilitate access for disabled people to existing services. Identify groups that
require alternative service delivery models, for example, targeted services or care coordination to
improve access to health care.
c) Human resources: Integrate disability inclusion education into undergraduate and continuing
education for all health-care professionals. Train community workers so that they can play a role in
preventive health care services. Provide evidence-based guidelines for assessment and treatment.

Disability, vulnerability and the Environment

Dear students,

 How specific nature of environment increases or decreases the degree of

disability?
 How society‘s attitudes affect the services provision for persons with disabilities?
 How can you decrease the impact of disability in your specific profession to make
the life of persons with disabilities simple?

The prevailing understanding about the cause of disability has undergone profound change worldwide.
Previous models of absolute determinism that viewed pathology and disability interchangeably and that
excluded consideration of the environment have been replaced by models in which disability is seen to result

29
from the interaction between the characteristics of individuals with disabilities and the characteristics of their
environment. Cultural norms affect the way that the physical and social environments of the individual are
constituted and then focus on a few—but not all—of the elements of the environment to provide examples of
how the environment affects the degree of disability. The amount of disability is not determined by levels of
pathologies, impairments, or functional limitations, but instead is a function of the kind of services provided
to people with disabling conditions and the extent to which the physical, built environment is accommodating
or not accommodating to the particular disabling condition. Because societies differ in their willingness to
provide the available technology and, indeed, their willingness to provide the resources to improve that
technology, disability ultimately must been seen as a function of society, not of a physical or medical process.
Disability is not inherent in an individual but is, rather, a relational concept—a function of the interaction of
the person with the social and physical environments. The amount of disability that a person experiences,
depends on both the existence of a potentially disabling condition (or limitation) and the environment in
which the person lives. For any given limitation (i.e., potential disability), the amount of actual disability
experienced by a person will depend on the nature of the environment, that is, whether the environment is
positive and enabling (and serves to compensate for the condition, ameliorate the limitation, or facilitate one's
functional activities) or negative and disabling (and serves to worsen the condition, enhance the limitation, or
restrict one's functional activities). Human competencies interact with the environment in a dynamic
reciprocal relationship that shapes performance. When functional limitations exist, social participation is
possible only when environmental support is present. If there is no environmental support, the distance
between what the people can do and what the environment affords creates a barrier that limits social
participation.

The physical and social environments comprise factors external to the individual, including family,
institutions, community, geography, and the political climate. Added to this conceptualization of environment
is one's intrapersonal or psychological environment, which includes internal states, beliefs, cognition,
expectancies and other mental states. Thus, environmental factors must be seen to include the natural
environment, the human made environment, culture, the economic system, the political system, and
psychological factors.

Dear students, list some of disabling and enabling environment as much as you can?

Some Enabling and Disabling Factors in the Physical Environment

Type of Type of Environment
Factor
Natural Environment Built Environment
Dry climate Ramps
Enabling

Flat terrain Adequate lighting

Clear paths Braille signage
Snow Steps
Disabling

Rocky terrain Low-wattage lighting

High humidity Absence of flashing light alerting systems

The environmental mat may be conceived of as having two major parts: the physical environment and the
social and psychological environments. The physical environment may be further subdivided conceptually
into the natural environment and the built environment. Both affect the extent to which a disabling condition
will be experienced by the person as a disability.
Three types of attributes of the physical environment need to be in place to support human performance. The
first attribute is object availability. Objects must be in a location that is useful, at a level where they can be
retrieved, and must be organized to support the performance of the activity. Neither a sink that is too high for
a wheelchair user nor a telecommunications device for the deaf (TDD) that is kept at a hotel reception desk is
30
available. The second attribute is accessibility. Accessibility is related to the ability of people to get to a place
or to use a device. Accessibility permits a wheelchair user to ride a bus or a Braille user to read a document.
The third attribute is the availability of sensory stimulation regarding the environment. Sensory stimulation,
which can include visual, tactile, or auditory cues, serves as a signal to promote responses. Examples of such
cues could include beeping microwaves, which elicit responses from people without hearing impairments, or
bumpy surfaces on subway platforms, which tell users with visual impairments to change their location.

A) The Natural Environment

The natural environment may have a major impact on whether a limitation is disabling. For example, a person
who has severe allergies to ragweed or mold, which can trigger disabling asthma, can be free of that condition
in climates where those substances do not grow. The physical conditions still exist, but in one environment
they may become disabling and in another environment they might not. Another example might be that a
person who has limited walking ability will be less disabled in a flat geographical location than he disabled in
both places during the winter than during the summer. Thus, the natural environment, including topography
and climate, affect whether or to what degree a functional limitation will be disabling.

B) The human made Environment

The physical environment is a complex interaction of built-in objects. Built objects are created and
constructed by humans and vary widely in terms of their complexity, size, and purpose. Built objects are
created for utilitarian reasons and also for an outlet for creativity. For instance, built objects such as
dishwashers and computers have the potential to enhance human performance or to create barriers.

Rural environment, Disability and Vulnerability

Dear students;
What does rural living mean for people with disabilities?
How far does living rurally facilitate or create barriers to people with disabilities belonging in
their community?
Dear students, this topic focus on rural environment and life of persons with disabilities,
vulnerabilities and marginalized groups, how rural landscapes, infrastructure and communities shaped social
understandings of disability, and how these understandings might uniquely shape opportunities a better life of
this group of people. People with disabilities, vulnerabilities and marginalized groups have no voices about
their lives and what rural living means to them. Physical landscapes are infused with social meaning and that
the feelings we have for particular places are built up through an accumulation of experiences that invoke
strong emotional responses. Rurality must be considered as more than an issue of context or setting. Instead,
rurality professionals in rural should prioritize the voices and experiences of those who live rurally, and that
the specific characteristics or aspects of the particular rural communities to which they belong.
Since larger population of Ethiopia (more than 85%) are agricultural community, life and aspirations of
disabilities and vulnerable groups highlight both the pull and the push of rural living without appropriate
services and supports.
Persons with disabilities, vulnerable and marginalized groups living in rural areas have double disadvantaged
due to their impairments and vulnerabilities and unfavorable physical and social environment. Professional
who are working in rural areas should work in collaboration accordingly. More specifically, these group of
people have been excluded from agricultural works (productivity) due its nature high demand to labour and
lack of technologies and well organized support from professional.
Creating Welcoming (Inclusive) Environment
External environmental modifications can take many forms. These can include assistive devices, alterations of
a physical structure, object modification, and task modification. The role of environmental modification as a
prevention strategy has not been systematically evaluated, and its role in preventing secondary conditions and
disability that accompany a poor fit between human abilities and the environment should be studied.
Environmental strategies may ease the burden of care experienced by a family member who has the
responsibility of providing the day-to-day support for an individual who does not have the capacity for social

31
participation and independent living in the community. These environmental modifications may well be an
effort at primary prevention because the equipment may provide a safety net and prevent disabling conditions
that can occur through lifting and transfer of individuals who may not be able to do it by themselves.
Rehabilitation must place emphasis on addressing the environmental needs of people with disabling
conditions. Environmental strategies can be effective in helping people function independently and not be
limited in their social participation, in work, leisure or social interactions as a spouse, parent, friend, or
coworker.
Examples of Environmental Modification

1. Mobility aids
 Hand Orthosis
 Mouth stick
 Prosthetic limb
 Wheelchair (manual and/or motorized)
 Canes
 Crutches
 Braces

2. Communication aids
 Telephone amplifier or TDD
 Voice-activated computer
 Closed or real-time captioning
 Computer-assisted note taker
 Print enlarger
 Reading machines
 Books on tape
 Sign language or oral interpreters
 Braille writer
 Cochlear implant
 Communication boards FM, audio-induction loop, or infrared systems
3. Accessible structural elements
 Ramps Elevators
 Wide doors
 Safety bars
 Nonskid floors
 Sound-reflective building materials
 Enhanced lighting
 Electrical sockets that meet appropriate reach ranges
 Hardwired flashing alerting systems Increased textural contrast

4. Accessible features

 Built up handles
 Voice-activated computer
 Automobile hand controls

5. Job accommodations
 Simplification of task
 Flexible work hours
32
  Rest breaks
 Splitting job into parts
 Relegate nonessential functions to others

6. Differential use of personnel

 Personal care assistants

 Note takers
 Secretaries Editors
 Sign language interpreters

Impact of the Social and Psychological Environments on the Enabling-Disabling Process

The social environment is conceptualized to include cultural, political, and economic factors. The
psychological environment is the intrapersonal environment. This section examines how both affect the
disabling process.
Culture and the Disabling Process
Culture affects the enabling-disabling process at each stage; it also affects the transition from one stage to
another. This section defines culture and then considers the ways in which it affects each stage of the process.
Definition of Culture
Definition of culture includes both material culture (things and the rules for producing them) and nonmaterial culture
(norms or rules, values, symbols, language, ideational systems such as science or religion, and arts such as dance, crafts,
and humor). Nonmaterial culture is so comprehensive that it includes everything from conceptions of how many days a
week has or how one should react to pain to when one should seek medical care or whether a hermaphroditic person is an
abomination, a saint, or a mistake. Cultures also specify punishments for rule-breaking, exceptions to rules, and occasions
when exceptions are permitted. The role of nonmaterial culture for humans has been compared to the role of instincts for
animals or to the role of a road map for a traveler. It provides the knowledge that permits people to be able to function in
both old and new situations.
Both the material and nonmaterial aspects of cultures and subcultures are relevant to the enabling-disabling
process. However, for our purpose we will focus primarily on the role of nonmaterial culture in that process.
Cultures have an impact on the types of pathologies that will occur as well as on their recognition as
pathologies.

Dear students discuss the relationship between culture, social structure, and the types of disabilities
that arise from the types of pathologies in your community and how it affects persons with disabilities
in their daily life.
However, if a pathology is not recognized by the culture (in medical terms, diagnosed), the person does not
begin to progress toward disability (or cure).

33
Enabling and Disabling Factors

Element of Social and Psychological Environment

Culture Psychologic Political Economic

al

F
p
y

o
e

r
f

t
Expecting Having an Mandating relay Tax credits
people with active systems in all to hire
disabling coping states people with
conditions to strategy disabling
be conditions
productive
Expecting Cognitive Banning Targeted
everyone to restructurig discrimination earned
know sign against people income tax
language who can perform credits
Enabling

the essential
functions of the
job
Stigmatizing Segregating Economic
people with Catastrophi- children with disincentive
disabling zing mobility s to get off
conditions impairments in Social
schools Security
Disability
Income
benefits
Valuing Denial Voting against No
physical paratransit subsidies or
beauty system tax credits
for
Disabling

purchasing
assistive
technology

Pathway from Pathology to Impairment to Functional Limitation

Culture can affect the likelihood of the transition from pathology to impairment. A subculture, such as that of
well-educated society, in which health advice is valued, in which breast cancer screening timetables are
followed, and in which early detection is likely, is one in which breast tumors are less likely to move from
pathology to impairments. In a subculture in which this is not true, one would likely see more impairments
arising from the pathologies.
Cultures can also speed up or slow down the movement from pathology to impairment, either for the whole
culture or for subgroups for whom the pathway is more or less likely to be used. For example, some religions,
women are less likely to seek health care because it means a man must be available to escort them in public,
which is unlikely if the males are breadwinners and must give up income to escort them, and women are also
less likely to seek health care if the provider is male. Thus, their culture lessens the likelihood that their
pathology will be cured and therefore increases the likelihood that the pathology will become impairment.

Culture clearly has an impact on whether a particular impairment will become a functional limitation.
Impairments do not become limiting automatically. Rather, cultures affect the perception that the impairment
is in fact the cause of the limitation, and they affect the perception that the impairment is in fact limiting.

If a society believes that witchcraft is the reason that a woman cannot have children, medical facts about her
body become irrelevant. She may in fact have fibroids, but if that culture sees limitation as coming from the
actions of a person, there is no recognition of a linkage between the impairment and the functional limitation.
34
Rather, any enabling-disabling process must go through culturally prescribed processes relating to witches;
medically or technologically based enabling-disabling processes will not be acceptable.

If the culture does not recognize that impairment is limiting, then it is not. For example, hearing losses were
not equivalent to functional limitations in Martha's Vineyard, because "everyone there knew sign language".
Or, if everyone has a backache, it is not defined by the culture as limiting. There are many cross-cultural
examples. In a culture in which nose piercing is considered necessary for beauty, possible breathing problems
resulting from that pathology and impairment would be unlikely to be recognized as being limiting. Or, in a
perhaps more extreme case, female circumcision is an impairment that could lead to functional limitation
(inability to experience orgasm), but if the whole point is to prevent female sexual arousal and orgasm, then
the functional limitation will not be
recognized within that culture but will only be recognized by those who come from other cultures. In all these
examples, if the culture does not recognize the impairment, the rehabilitation process is irrelevant—there is no
need to rehabilitate a physical impairment if there is no recognized functional limitation associated with it.

Pathway from Functional Limitation to Disability

Here, the most important consideration is the ways in which the transition from functional limitation to
disability is affected by culture. A condition that is limiting must be defined as problematic—by the person
and by the culture—for it to become a disability. Whether a functional limitation is seen as being disabling
will depend on the culture. The culture defines the roles to be played and the actions and capacities necessary
to satisfy that role. If certain actions are not necessary for a role, then the person who is limited in ability to
perform those actions does not have a disability. For example, a professor who has arthritis in her hands but
who primarily lectures in the classroom, dictates material for a secretary to type, and manages research
assistants may not be disabled in her work role by the arthritis. In this case, the functional limitation would not
become a disability. For a secretary who would be unable to type, on the other hand, the functional limitation
would become a disability in the work sphere.

A disability can exist without functional limitation, as in the case of a person with a facial disfigurement living
in cultures such as that in the United States, whose standards of beauty cannot encompass such physical
anomalies. Culture is thus relevant to the existence of disabilities: it defines what is considered disabling.
Additionally, culture determines in which roles a person might be disabled by a particular functional
limitation. For example, a farmer in a small village may have no disability in work roles caused by a hearing
loss; however, that person may experience disabilities in family or other personal relationships. On the other
hand, a profoundly deaf, signing person married to another profoundly deaf, signing person may have no
disability in family-related areas, although there may be a disability in work-related areas. Thus, culture
affects not just whether there is a disability caused by the functional limitation but also where in the person's
life the disability will occur. Culture is therefore part of the mat; as such, it can protect a person from the
disabling process and can slow it down or speed it up. Culture, however, has a second function in the
disabling process.
Although there is a direct path from culture to disability, there is an also indirect path. The indirect function
acts by influencing other aspects of personal and social organization in a society. That is, the culture of a
society or a subculture influences the types of personality or intrapsychic processes that are acceptable and
influences the institutions that make up the social organization of a society. These institutions include the
economic system, the family system, the educational system, the health care system, and the political system.
In all these areas, culture sets the boundaries for what is debatable or negotiable and what is not. Each of these
societal institutions also affects the degree to which functional limitations will be experienced by individuals
as disabling.

All of the ways in which intra-psychic processes or societal institutions affect the enabling-disabling process
cannot be considered here. However, the remainder of this section presents some examples of how the
enabling-disabling process can be affected by three factors: economic, political, and psychological.

35
Disability Inclusive Intervention and Rehabilitation Services
A „One-size-fits-all‟ approach to provide services for persons with disabilities and vulnerability groups is no
longer enough.

Dear students,
 What do we mean intervention and rehabilitation?
 How one can make services inclusive in your sector?

Including people with disabilities in everyday activities and encouraging them to have roles similar to peoples
who do not have a disability is disability inclusion. This involves more than simply encouraging people; it
requires making sure that adequate policies and practices are in effect in a community or organization.
Inclusion should lead to increased participation in socially expected life roles and activities—such as being a
student, worker, friend, community member, patient, spouse, partner, or parent. Disability inclusion means
provision of differentiated services for persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities. Differentiated service
means a multiple service delivery model that can satisfy the most needs of persons with disabilities and
vulnerabilities. Socially expected activities may also include engaging in social activities, using public
resources such as transportation and libraries, moving about within communities, receiving adequate health
care, having relationships, and enjoying other day-to-day activities. To reach ambitious targets for the general
population, as well as targeted care for persons with disabilities and vulnerable groups, we need differentiated
service delivery.

Persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities are often excluded (either directly or indirectly) from development
processes and humanitarian action because of physical, attitudinal and institutional barriers. The effects of this
exclusion are increased inequality, discrimination and marginalization. To change this, a disability inclusion
approach must be implemented. The twin-track approach involves: (1) ensuring all mainstream programs and
services are inclusive and accessible to persons with disabilities, while at the same time (2) providing targeted
disability-specific support to persons with disabilities.
The two tracks reinforce each other. When mainstream programs and services, such as health and education
services, are disability-inclusive and aware, this can help facilitate both prevention of impairments, as well as
early identification of children and persons with disabilities who can then be referred to disability-specific
services. And the provision of disability-specific supports, such as assistive devices, can help facilitate more
effective inclusion of persons with disabilities in mainstream services.
Strategies to Disability inclusive intervention and rehabilitation Prevention
Prevention of conditions associated with disability and vulnerability is a development issue. Attention to
environmental factors – including nutrition, preventable diseases, safe water and sanitation, safety on roads
and in workplaces – can greatly reduce the incidence of health conditions leading to disability. A public health
approach distinguishes:
i) Primary prevention – actions to avoid or remove the cause of a health problem in an individual or a
population before it arises. It includes health promotion and specific protection (for example, HIV
education).
ii) Secondary prevention (early intervention) – actions to detect a health and disabling conditions at an
early stage in an individual or a population, facilitating cure, or reducing or preventing spread, or
reducing or preventing its long-term effects (for example, supporting women with intellectual disability
to access breast cancer screening).
iii) Tertiary prevention (rehabilitation) – actions to reduce the impact of an already established disease by
restoring function and reducing diseaserelated complications (for example, rehabilitation for children
with musculoskeletal impairment).
Primary prevention issues are consider as crucial to improved overall health of countries‘ populations.
Viewing disability as a human rights issue is not incompatible with prevention of health conditions as long as
prevention respects the rights and dignity of people with disabilities, for example, in the use of language and
imagery. Preventing disability and vulnerability should be regarded as a multidimensional strategy that
includes prevention of disabling barriers as well as prevention and treatment of underlying health conditions.

36
Implementing the Twin-track Approach
Implementing the twin-track approach involves:
Track 1: Mainstreaming disability as a cross-cutting issue within all key programs and services
(education, health, relief and social services, microfinance, infrastructure and camp improvement, protection,
and emergency response) to ensure these programs and services are inclusive, equitable, non-discriminatory,
and do not create or reinforce barriers.
This is done by: gathering information on the diverse needs of persons with disabilities during the assessment
stage; considering disability inclusion during the planning stage; making adaptations in the implementation
stage; and gathering the perspectives of persons with disabilities in the reporting and evaluation stage.
Track 2: Supporting the specific needs of vulnerable groups with disabilities to ensure they have equal
opportunities to participate in society. This is done by strengthening referral to both internal and external
pathways and ensuring that sector programs to provide rehabilitation, assistive devices and other disability-
specific services are accessible to persons with disabilities and vulnerable groups and adhere to protection
standards and inclusion principles. A Sector‘s organizational structures and human resources on disability
inclusion should aim to reflect this twin-track approach. In particular, each sector should have disability
program officers in all fields working to implement disability-specific support activities.
Implement Disability Inclusive Project/ Program
As a direct service provider, consultant and materials and equipment producers concerned with realizing
equity, quality services and protecting human rights, all sectorial strategies, program, projects and services
must be disability-inclusive. The sectors operations should be largely framed within broad programs, making
it very important to ensure that disability
inclusion is reflected in program strategies and design documents. This in turn will help to subsequently ensure disability
is also incorporated into the projects that are designed to contribute to the overall program objectives. However, persons
with disabilities are often not considered in crucial stages of most sectorial and developmental program and projects
because of lack of awareness about the characteristics of people with disabilities, vulnerability groups and disability
inclusion in practice.

The following tips will help to overcome the challenges as a key considerations for including persons with
disabilities in all program and project cycle management stages of Assessment, Planning, Implementation and
Monitoring, and Reporting/Evaluation.
A) Education and vocational training –Inclusive Educationrealize the universal right to education for all,
meaning all mainstream education services need to be supporting children and persons with disabilities.
B) Health – vulnerable groups and persons with disabilities have the same health-care needs as all other
peoples and health sector services can also play an important prevention and early identification role to
ensure children and persons with impairments have timely access to health services and referral
rehabilitation support.
C) Relief and social services – the two-way link between poverty and disability means that vulnerable
group and peoples with disabilities and their families need to be able to access relief support.
D) Infrastructure and camp improvement, shelter, water and sanitation and environmental health –
universal design concepts must be considered in all infrastructure and construction programs and
projects.
E) Livelihoods, employment and microfinance – vulnerable groups and people with disabilities face
numerous barriers to achieving an independent livelihood, it is crucial that specific sectors responsible
for livelihood programs and projects to make accessible to all vulnerable and people with disabilities.
F) Protection – marginalized groups and people with disabilities may face risks and vulnerabilities to
experiencing violence, exploitation, abuse, neglect and violation of rights and therefore need to be
specifically considered and included in protection programs and projects.
G) Humanitarian and emergency response – the disproportionate effect of emergency and humanitarian
situations on vulnerable groups and people with disabilities should be reflected in the design and
implementation of the humanitarian projects.

37
 Dear students,

What do you understand about the terms intervention and rehabilitation?

Implement effective Intervention and Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation interventions promote a comprehensive process to facilitate attainment of the optimal physical,
psychological, cognitive, behavioral, social, vocational, a vocational and educational status within the capacity
allowed by the anatomic or physiologic impairment, personal desires and life plans, and environmental
(dis)advantages for a person with a disability.
Consumers/patients, families, and professionals work together as a team to identify realistic goals and develop
strategies to achieve the highest possible functional outcome, in some cases in the face of a permanent
disability, impairment, or pathologic process. Although rehabilitation interventions are developed within
medical and health care models, treatments are not typically curative. Professionals have the knowledge and
background to anticipate outcomes from the interventions, with a certain degree of both optimism and
cynicism, drawn from past experiences.
Rehabilitation requires goal-based activities and, more recently, measurement of outcomes. The professionals,
usually with the patient/ consumer and/or family, develop goals of the interventions to help mark progress or
identify the need to reassess the treatment plan. Broad goals and anticipated outcomes should include
increased independence, prevention of further functional losses or additional medical conditions when
possible, improved quality of life, and effective and efficient use of health care systems. Consideration of
accessibility of environments and social participation can, and increasingly should, be included within the
scope of outcomes and goals for independence. A broad range of measurement tools have been developed for
use within rehabilitation, and these standardized tools, along with objective measures of performance (e.g.,
distance walked, ability to perform a task independently), are typically documented throughout the course of
the intervention. There are general underlying concepts and theories of rehabilitation interventions. Examples
of these theories and concepts include movement and motor control, human occupation models, education and
learning, health promotion and prevention of additional and secondary health conditions, neural control and
central nervous system plasticity, pain modulation, development and maturation, coping and adjustment,
biomechanics, linguistics and pragmatics, resiliency and self-reliance, auditory processing, and behavior
modification.
These concepts, alone or in combination, form the basis for interventions and treatment plans.
Advances in medical research now support or explain some of the theories or concepts. It has been
demonstrated, for example, that retraining reorganizes neural networks and circuits, that skill retraining must
be task specific and maintaining a skill is use- dependent, that central nervous system cells and chemical
messengers may be replaced, that neural circuits and connections can be regrown, and that all muscles can be
strengthened.
Medical rehabilitation is often considered separately, and is focused on recognition, diagnosis, and treatment
of health conditions; on reducing further impairment (e.g., treatment of ongoing shoulder adhesive capsulitis
in stroke, management of osteoarthritis of the remaining knee in above-knee amputation); and on preventing
or treating associated, secondary, or complicating conditions (e.g., neurogenic bladder management with
intermittent catheterization in spinal cord injury, diagnosis of cervical spinal stenosis in an adult with cerebral
palsy). Although medical rehabilitation does use rehabilitation interventions and espouses the principles of
rehabilitation, medical aspects are additive to rehabilitation interventions and principles, with common goals
of improved function and outcomes.
There is convincing evidence that the rehabilitation process and interventions improve the functional outcomes of people
with a variety of injuries, medical conditions, and disabilities. Assistive technology is often used in conjunction with
rehabilitation interventions; this topic is covered in the Assistive Technology and Science volume in this series.
Rehabilitation interventions are associated with social participation (e.g., access to education using rehabilitation
interventions) and career planning and employment (e.g., long- term goal of rehabilitation interventions). These topics are
covered in the Education and Employment and Work volumes. There are additional efforts not covered in this volume that
may also be a part of rehabilitation interventions and processes, which include the discrete areas of mental health and
addiction rehabilitation. These are important areas that have crossover with rehabilitation interventions, have defined sets
of standards and regulation, and have robust histories of development.
Rehabilitation was conceived within the more traditional model of medical care, but it is increasingly obvious
that disability issues are more than medically driven. The social justice and civil rights model of disability is
38
important to understand, and elements must be incorporated into rehabilitation interventions, especially as
they relate to accessibility of environments and services. Of all the medical specialties and programs,
rehabilitation is the one most based on quality of life and functioning within the community. Inequalities and
differences must be addressed within the structures of funding and spheres of influence. Increasingly,
insurance plans determine the availability of rehabilitation services, equipment and assistive devices, and
community-based resources; government funding is more limited for education, especially for those with
special needs; and businesses and workers‘ compensation programs are more restrictive with flexibility and
coverage policies.

Components of Rehabilitation Interventions

Rehabilitation is a process designed to optimize function and improve the quality of life of those with
disabilities. Consequently, it is not a simple process. It involves multiple participants, and it can take on many
forms. The following is a description of the individual components that, when combined, comprise the process
and activity of rehabilitation.

Multiple Disciplines
Rehabilitation interventions usually involve multiple disciplines. Although some focused interventions may be
identified by a single service—such as cognitive retraining by a psychologist or speech pathologist, and
audiologic rehabilitation through hearing-aid evaluation and dispensing—sole service does not engender the
rehabilitation concept of a team approach, and it is often differentiated as therapy or medical service rather
than rehabilitation. There are a variety of professionals who participate in and contribute to the rehabilitation
process within a team approach. The list is long, and it includes (although is not limited to) such professionals
as the following:
Physicians
The physician‘s role is to manage the medical and health conditions of the patient/consumer within the
rehabilitation process, providing diagnosis, treatment, or management of disability-specific issues. Often, the
physician leads the rehabilitation team, although other team members can assume the leadership role
depending on the targeted goal or predominant intervention. Because of the depth and breadth of their
knowledge and training, certified rehabilitation physicians or physiatrists usually are the best qualified to
anticipate outcomes from rehabilitation interventions and the process of rehabilitation. They also can provide
the diagnosis and treatment of additional medical conditions related to the specific disability or underlying
pathology, which will have an influence on performance and outcome.
Occupational Therapists
Occupational therapists (OTs) typically work with patients/consumers through functional activities in order to
increase their ability to participate in activities of daily living (ADLs) and instrumental activities of daily
living (IADLs), in school and work environments, using a variety of techniques. Typical techniques include
functional training, exercise, splinting, cognitive strategies, vision activities, computer programs and
activities, recommendation of specially designed or commercially available adaptive equipment, and
home/education/work site assessments and recommendations.
Physical Therapists
Physical therapists (PTs) assess movement dysfunction and use treatment interventions such as exercise,
functional training, manual therapy techniques, gait and balance training, assistive and adaptive devices and
equipment, and physical agents, including electrotherapy, massage, and manual traction. The outcome focus
of interventions is improved mobility, decreased pain, and reduced physical disability.
Speech and Language Therapist
Speech and language therapist assess, treat, and help to prevent disorders related to speech, language,
cognition, voice, communication, swallowing, and fluency. Rehabilitation interventions involve more than the
spoken word, including the cognitive aspects of communication and oral-motor function with swallowing.
Assistive technology using augmentative or alternative communication (AAC) devices (e.g., BIGmack
switch-activation devices, DynaVox dynamic display and digitized voice devices) is another focus area of
speech pathologists.
Audiologists
Audiologists identify, assess, manage, and interpret test results related to disorders of hearing, balance, and
other systems related to hearing. Hearing screens and more technologically advanced testing systems fall
under the areas of practice. Audiologic rehabilitation interventions include developing auditory and central
39
processing skills, evaluating and fitting for a variety of hearing aids and supports, training for use of hearing
prosthetics, including cochlear implants, and counseling for adjustment to hearing loss or newly acquired
hearing.
Although sign language is a technique used to assist with communication for those with hearing impairments,
competency is not required for audiologists.
Rehabilitation Nurses
The rehabilitation nurse usually takes the role of educator and taskmaster throughout rehabilitation, but these
professionals have most prominence within inpatient rehabilitation programs. They are expert at bladder
management, bowel management, and skin care, and they provide education to patients and families about
these important areas and also medications to be used at home after discharge. Activities developed within the
active therapeutic rehabilitation programs are routinely used and practiced, such as dressing, bathing, feeding,
toileting, transfers to and from wheelchairs, and mobility.
Social Workers
Social workers in health settings may provide case management or coordination for persons with complex
medical conditions and needs; help patients navigate the paths between different levels of care; refer patients
to legal, financial, housing, or employment services; assist patients with access to entitlement benefits,
transportation assistance, or community- based services; identify, assess, refer, or offer treatment for such
problems as depression, anxiety, or substance abuse; or provide education or support programming for health
or related social problems. Social workers work not only with the individual receiving rehabilitation services,
but with family members, to assist both the individual and family in reaching decisions and making emotional
or other adjustments.
Case Managers
Case management is a relatively new concept that has come about with the survival of patients/consumers
with complex medical problems and disabilities, and with the development of a more complex health care
system. Case managers possess skills and credentials within other health professions, such as nursing,
counseling, or therapies, although they usually have a nursing background. These professionals collaborate
with all service providers and link the needs and values of the patient/consumer with appropriate services and
providers within the continuum of health care. This process requires communication with the
patient/consumer and his or her family, the service providers, and the insurance companies.
Within the rehabilitation environment, case managers ensure that ongoing care is at an optimal level and
covered by insurance or other payer programs, during and following inpatient rehabilitation or throughout an
outpatient rehabilitation process. Coordination of services following the inpatient admission can be the most
difficult task. A hospital, rehabilitation program, or insurance company may employ case managers.
Rehabilitation Psychologists
Rehabilitation psychology is a specialized area of psychology that assists the individual (and family) with any
injury, illness, or disability that may be chronic, traumatic, and/or congenital in achieving optimal physical,
psychological, and interpersonal functioning (Scherer et al.,2004). This profession is an integral part of
rehabilitation, and it involves assessment and intervention that is tailored to the person‘s level of impairment
and is set within an interdisciplinary framework.
Neuropsychologists
Neuropsychology is another specialized area within psychology, and it is of particular importance in the care
of individuals who have sustained brain injuries. These professionals possess specialized skills in testing
procedures and methods that assess various aspects of cognition (e.g., memory, attention, language),
emotions, behaviors, personality, effort, motivation, and symptom validity. With this testing, the
neuropsychologist can determine whether the level and pattern of performance is consistent with the clinical
history, behavioral observations, and known or suspected neuropathology, and the degree to which the test
performance deviates from expected norms. Additional contexts encountered in brain injury survivors can
complicate the clinical presentation and impact neuropsychological test performance. The neuropsychologist
can identify emotional states arising from changing life circumstances (e.g., depression, anxiety), medical co-
morbidities (e.g., substance abuse, heart disease), and social-contextual factors (e.g., litigation, financial
distress), and can then explain their potential influence to the injured person, family members, and other
health care providers.
Therapeutic Recreation Specialists
Recreational therapists, also referred to as therapeutic recreation specialists, provide treatment services and
recreation activities for individuals with disabilities or illnesses. They use a variety of techniques to improve
40
and maintain the physical, mental, and emotional well- being of their clients, with the typical broad goals of
greater independence and integration into the community. Therapists promote community-based leisure
activities as a complement to other therapeutic interventions, and as a means to practice those clinic- or
hospital-based activities within a real-world context.
Rehabilitation Counselors
Rehabilitation counselors (previously known as vocational counselors) assist persons with both physical and
mental disabilities, and cover the vocational, psychological, social, and
medical aspects of disability, through a partnership with the individuals served. Rehabilitation counselors can
evaluate and coordinate the services needed, provide counseling to assist people in coping with limitations
caused by the disability, assist with exploration of future life activities and return-to-work plans, and provide
advocacy for needs.
Orthotists and Prosthetists
These professionals practice within a unique area of rehabilitation, combining technical and some clinical
skills. The orthotist fabricates and designs custom braces or orthotics to improve the function of those with
neuromuscular or musculoskeletal impairments, or to stabilize an injury or impairment through the healing
process. The prosthetist works with individuals with partial or total limb absence or amputation to enhance
their function by use of prosthesis (i.e., artificial limb, prosthetic device). The orthotist/prosthetist usually
works with a physician, therapist, or other member of the rehabilitation team to ensure an effective design to
meet the needs of the individual, especially regarding the ability to maneuver within the built environment and
be socially active.
Additional Rehabilitation Professionals
Other rehabilitation professionals who might be considered members of the team include nutritionist, spiritual
care, rehabilitation engineer, music therapist, dance therapist, child-life specialist, hospital-based school
teacher, massage therapist, kinesiologist, and trainer, among others.
Person with the Disability and His or Her Family
The person with the disability and his or her family members are partners in this team process. In fact, they
are key members of the team. Personal and family/support system goals, family/friend support, and
community resources are driving forces regarding goals and discharge planning within the rehabilitation
process. The process involves the best strategies of interventions based on standards of care, the evidence base
regarding outcomes related to interventions, the experience of the practitioners, and the personal and family
needs and contexts of the person with the disability. Professionals should be skillful in their communication to
consumers about anticipated outcomes and effectiveness of interventions.
Community-Based Rehabilitation
CBR was originally designed for developing countries where disability estimates were very high and the
countries were under severe economic constraints. It promotes collaboration among community leaders,
peoples with disabilities and their families and other concerned citizens to provide equal opportunities for all
peoples with disabilities in the community and to strengthen the role of their organization.
According to the view of World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO), CBR is a strategy that can address the need of peoples with disabilities within their community
which can be implemented through the combined efforts of peoples with disabilities themselves, their families,
organizations and communities, governmental and non-governmental organizations, health, education, vocational, social
and other services. Community based rehabilitation is a combination of two important words; community and
rehabilitation. Thus in order to get clear concept about the definition of CBR, let us first define the two terms separately.

Community-consists of people living together in some form of social organization sharing political,
economic, social and cultural characteristics in varying degrees.
Rehabilitation-includes all measures aimed at reducing the impact of disability for an individual enabling
him or her to achieve independence, social integration, a better quality of life and self actualization or refers to
measures which aim to enable persons with disabilities to attain and maintain maximum independence, full
physical, mental, social and vocational ability, and full inclusion and participation in all aspects of life.
Based on the above definition of key words, CBR is therefore, a systematized approach within general
community development whereby Persons with Disabilities are enabled to live a fulfilling life within their own
community, making maximum use of local resources and helping the community become aware of its
responsibility in ensuring the inclusion and equal participation of ―Persons with Disabilities‖ (PWDs). In
41
the process, PWDs are also made aware of their own role and responsibility, as they are part of the
community.

The idea of CBR is that people with disabilities should have the right to a good life. The help they need should
be available to them, at a low cost. It should be offered to them and their family in a way that suits their usual
way of living, whether in a village, a town or a
city. They should have education like everybody else. They should be able to take up jobs and earn their
living. They should be able to take a full part in all the activities of their village, or town or city.
The idea of CBR is that, even if people learn very slowly, or has problems seeing or hearing, or finds it hard to
move about, they should still be respected for being men and women, girls and boys. Nobody should be
looked down on or treated badly just because they have a disability. Houses, shops and schools should be built
in such a way that everyone can easily go in and out and make use of them. Information should be given to
people in a way they understand, not only in writing, which is hard for people who cannot read or see it.
Information should be given in spoken forms as well, so that everyone has a fair chance to use it. To do all
this would mean a lot of changes. But they would be good changes, because everyone could live a better life,
helping each other and respecting one another.
In addition, for the purpose of our discussion two important definitions will be given:
1. Community based rehabilitation is a strategy that can address the needs of peoples with disabilities with in
their communities (WHO, UNESCO, 2004).
2. Community based rehabilitation is a common sense strategy for enhancing the quality of life of peoples
with disabilities by improving services delivery in order to reach all in need by providing more equitable
opportunities and by promoting and protecting their rights .
3. The joint position paper by WHO, ILO, UNICEF and UNESCO of the 2004 define CBR in a rather flexible and broad
manner in the following way: Community based rehabilitation is a strategy within general community development for
rehabilitation, equalization of opportunities and social inclusion of all children and adults with disabilities. It is
implemented through the combined efforts of people with disabilities themselves, their families and communities, and
the appropriate health, education, vocational and social services.
This definition particularly advocates a broad approach for developing programs that involves the following
elements:
A. The participation of people with disabilities and their representatives at all stages of the development of
the program
B. The formulation and implementation of national policies to support the equal participation of people
with disabilities
C. The establishment of a system for program management

D. The multi-sectoral collaboration of governmental and nongovernmental sectors to support communities

as they assume responsibility for the inclusion of their members who experience disabilities.
E. CBR focuses on strengthening the capacity of peoples with disabilities, and their families.
F. CBR focuses on challenging negative views and barriers in society to enable equal rights and
opportunities
Currently, three main meanings are attached to the notion of CBR: People taking care of themselves, a
concept and an ideology and community based rehabilitation which will be described below.
1. People Taking Care of Themselves
Services for people with disabilities in most regions in developing countries are still limited to what people
can do for themselves. This is the "real" CBR: all the activities that people with disability, their family
members and other community members do in their own community for persons with disability, such as
general care, accommodating each other's needs {i.e.. family members adapting themselves to the situation of
the individual with disability, and vice-versa), education and health, using whatever they know, whatever they
have, in whatever daily circumstances they exist.
2. A Concept and an Ideology.
As a concept and an ideology, it promotes a decentralized approach to rehabilitation service-delivery,
whereby, it is assumed that community members are willing and able to mobilize local resources and to
provide appropriate services to people with disabilities. This concept has been 'fled out in many CBR
programs in the developing world, by the use of government staff and facilities, but has in most cases proved
42
to be unrealistic.
3. Community Based Rehabilitation: is mostly in a form of Non-Governmental Organizations
(NGOs). Recognizing the human and material limitations of people with disabilities, their family
members and other community members, CBR program tries to promote and facilitate community
based rehabilitation. Unfortunately, such CBR programs often consider 'local culture' as an
obstacle, rather than as a condition towards progress.

Major Objectives of Community Based Rehabilitation

The major objective of community based rehabilitation is to ensure that people with disabilities are
empowered to maximize their physical and mental abilities, have access to regular services and opportunities
and become active, contributing members of their communities and then societies. Thus, community based
rehabilitation promotes the human rights of people with disabilities through attitude changes within the
community. Community based rehabilitation aims to include people who have disabilities from all types of
impairments, including difficulty hearing, speaking, moving, learning or behaving. Community based
rehabilitation also includes all age groups: children, youth, adults and older people.

Implement Technologies for Disability

Inclusion Inclusiveness and Information Technology (ICT)
Inclusiveness and Information Technology examines the extent to which regulatory frameworks for
information and communication technologies (ICTs) safeguard the rights of persons with disabilities and
vulnerabilities as citizenship rights. Effective access to information is crucial in facilitating the participation of
citizens in civil society. Accessibility concerns in the information and communications technologies (ICTs)
sector have become particularly important, given the increased role played by ICTs in everyday life. For
persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities, technological developments such as the proliferation of the
Internet and the provision of services for accessing digital television such as audio description (video
description), closed signing, and the availability of subtitles (captions) in live broadcasts enabled by speech-to
text technologies can make an important contribution to facilitating independent living. Unfortunately,
persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities still face significant barriers in accessing ICTs. These barriers
include, inter alia, poorly designed Web sites (e.g., with graphics not readable by computerized screen readers,
with information that can be accessed only by the use of the mouse rather than the keyboard), limited
availability of subtitles on webcasts, the use of multiple remote controls for digital television, and difficult to
navigate on-screen displays.
These access barriers have the potential to affect persons with disabilities, including persons with sensory
disabilities (visual and/ or hearing), mobility disabilities, or cognitive disabilities. The objective to ensure
equal access to information should play a central role in any regulatory framework for the ICT sector.
Nevertheless, despite the potential of technology to empower the public as citizens, the regulatory framework
for the ICT sector
Inclusiveness and Assistive Technology
Dear students, explain how assistive technologies enhance inclusiveness.
Worldwide the number of persons with disabilities, vulnerabilities and marginalized groups is increasing
alarmingly because of population aging, accident, global warming and climate change, medical advancement,
humanitarian crises, natural disaster, conflict and increases in chronic health conditions, among other causes.
Over a billion people, about 15% of the world's population, have some form of disability. Between 110
million and 190 million adults have significant difficulties in functioning. Technologies promote
independence for people with disabilities and vulnerability. The use of devices, computers, robots, and other
established assistive technology (AT) can potentially increase the autonomy of people with disabilities and
vulnerability, by compensating for physical limitations and circumventing difficulties with normal activities of
daily living (ADL).
Vulnerability and disability have adverse impact on quality life of these groups. Vulnerable people and those
living with disabilities are losing their independence and overall wellbeing. The growing number of persons
with disabilities and vulnerabilities is too large to be cared for through traditional government programs. The
cost associated with such programs and the lack of a skilled caregiver workforce makes it very difficult to

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meet the needs of this segment of the population. It is therefore inevitable that we resort to technology in our
search for solutions to the costly and challenging problems facing persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities.
Wellbeing or quality of life is an important concern for persons with disabilities, vulnerabilities and marginalized groups,
who, like every person, is seeking to be well, happy, healthy, and prosperous. Persons with disabilities, vulnerabilities and
marginalized groups have several important components of wellbeing. A key activity is independent living with
convenient access to goods and services, as well as being socially active and enjoying self- esteem and dignity. In modern
societies, persons with disabilities, vulnerabilities and marginalized groups can attain some components of wellbeing such
as access to services using assistive technology (AT). Other components, such as freedom of navigation and travel, are
much more difficult because of environmental obstacles encountered by the disabled.
Advances in communication and information technologies further support the development of new, more
complex technologies such as utilization of smart wheelchairs, assistive robots, and smart spaces.
AT Definitions
Assistive technology encompasses all systems that are designed for Persons with disabilities and
Vulnerabilities, and that attempt to compensate the handicapped. This includes robotic tele manipulators,
wheelchairs, or navigation systems for the blind. AT also includes systems that restore personal functionality,
such as external prostheses and ortheses. There are various organizational definitions for assistive technology:
The international standard ISO 9999 defines AT (refering to AT as ―technical aid‖) as ―any product,
instrument, equipment or technical system used by a disabled person, especially produced or generally
available, preventing, compensating, monitoring, relieving or neutralizing the impairment, disability or
handicap‖ . In the United States, the Technology Act and Assistive Technology Act define an AT device as
―any item, piece of equipment or product system, whether acquired commercially, modified, or
customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with
disabilities.‖ These Acts also define an assistive technology service as ―any service that directly assists an
individual with a disability in the selection, acquisition, or use, of an assistive technology device.

AT and Design Methods

Given the requirements of functionality, safety, and comfort, the design of AT for Persons with disabilities
and Vulnerabilities requires both excellent engineering capacities and relevant knowledge about Persons with
disabilities and Vulnerabilities characteristics. Product developers must be fully aware of needs, wants, and
capabilities of Persons with disabilities and Vulnerabilities populations, as well as limitations associated with
each handicap. Numerous design methods have been suggested to assist in the process of AT development.
Most widely known are user centered design and universal design, which are discussed as follows:
User-centered design is a set of techniques and processes that enable developers to focus on users, within the
design process. In practice, users are involved in the development process, depending on their skills and
experience, and their interaction is facilitated by a domain expert. The intensity of this involvement varies
with the stage of research and product development. Often, the developed AT meets persons with disabilities
satisfaction. However, this design method is expensive in terms of resources and time expended by engineers
and domain experts. It is also difficult to recruit potential end users and to interact with them, especially when
these end users are older people, or people with disabilities.
Universal design (also called design for all) is the design of products and environments to be usable by all people, to the
greatest extent possible, without the need for adaptation or specialized design. Here, the design process is guided and
constrained by a number of objectives: accessibility, adaptability, trans generational applicability, and/or universal
applicability or appeal. Universal design does not emphasize differences among persons with disabilities, or between
persons with disabilities and the general population.
Instead, the ideas of adapting products, services, or the environment are extended to users at large. In practice,
products are developed to meet the needs of average users. If a user is different, significantly, from the
average population, (e.g., a person with a significant handicap), then, the product will provide poor user
satisfaction.

Universal Design is frequently the case that the built environment can be modified permanently so that
functional limitations become less disabling and personal or temporary assistive technologies are not needed.
For example, the presence of ramps increases the ability of wheelchair users to get around and thus decreases
the degree to which the condition that led to their use of a wheelchair is disabling. The presence of ramps will
increase frequency of trips out of the house and into the community for wheelchair users when ramps are
installed in their houses. Wider doors, lower bathroom sinks, and grab bars are other examples of
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modifications to build environments that decrease the degree to which a building itself may be disabling.
Lighting patterns and the materials used for walls and ceilings affect the visual ability of all people, even
though the largest impact may be on improving the ability of the person who is hard of hearing to hear in a
particular room or the ability of a person who is deaf to see an interpreter or other signers.
Universal design is based on the principle that the built environments and instruments used for everyday
living can be ergonomically designed so that everyone can use them. Traditionally, architecture and everyday
products have been designed for market appeal, with a greater focus on fashion rather than function. However,
as the population of older adults and people with disabling conditions increases, there has been a greater trend
toward universal design.

Today, with the influence of consumer demand and through thoughtful disability policy, greater emphasis is
placed on the development of built materials that are ergonomically friendly to users, regardless of their
abilities. Universal design is an enabling factor in the environment that allows the user with a functional
limitation to become more independent, yet without an additional cost or stigma attached to the particular
product. For example, people who were deaf previously had to purchase an expensive closed-captioning unit
to attach to their television sets to view closed-captioned programs. Today, as a result of new federal
legislation, all new television sets are manufactured with a closed-captioning microchip that allows any user
access to broadcast closed captioning. Thus, it is useful not only for deaf users but also for other vulnerable
groups, such as older individuals who are starting to lose their audio acuity, or a person watching a late-night
talk show in the bedroom who does not want to wake his or her partner.

In all of these ways, the environment affects the degree to which a functional limitation is disabling for a
person. However, decisions about the use of technology or built environments are social decisions. The next
major section considers the effects of the social and psychological environments on the extent to which a
particular functional limitation will be disabling or not.

Implement Inclusive Job Opportunities and Employment

The right to work is fundamental to being a full and equal member of society, and it applies to all persons,
regardless of whether or not they have a disability. A decent job in the open labor market is a key bulwark
against poverty. It also enables people to build self-esteem, form social relationships, and to gain skills and
knowledge. Moreover, a productive workforce is essential for overall economic growth.
Barriers to employment thus not only affect individuals‘ lives, but the entire economy. Despite the fact that
the majority of jobs can be performed by individuals with disabilities, the pathways to their employment are
often strewn with barriers. An OECD study of its members showed that persons without disabilities were
nearly three times more likely than persons with disabilities to participate in the labor market.2 Evidence
suggests the same is true for countries in the Asia and Pacific region, although data to illustrate the full extent
of this trend is scarce. The employment gaps suggested above are likely to understate the divergent work
experiences of persons with and without disabilities, since they do not factor in differences in type of
employment. Persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities are more likely to be own-account workers and
occupy jobs in the informal sector, often without the security offered by work contracts, salaries, pension
schemes, health insurance and other benefits. Even when persons with disabilities are formally employed, they
are more likely to be in low-paid, low-level positions with poor prospects for career development. Simple
comparisons of the employment rates for persons with and without disabilities can therefore be misleading.
The recently adopted 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development calls on governments around the world to promote full
employment and decent work for all, including persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities. Besides directly targeting
employment, the 2030 Agenda and the accompanying SDGs also emphasize the need to guarantee the rights of persons
with disabilities and vulnerabilities to equal and accessible education; social, economic and political inclusion, and access
to cities, transport systems and public space.
Barriers of employment
Barriers to the employment of persons with disabilities take many forms and operate at many levels, both
within and beyond the workplace itself. Persons with disabilities may be prevented from working due to
inaccessible transportation services; the lack of accessible information and communications services; the
preference of employers for candidates without disabilities; legal stipulations that prevent individuals with
particular impairments from working in certain fields; or the discouragement of family and community
45
members. Whilst these obstacles are often interconnected, and act collectively to limit employment
opportunities for persons with disabilities, it is essential to distinguish between different barriers in order to
develop effective policy responses. The major types of barriers are described below.

A) Attitudes and Discrimination

Employers may be reluctant to hire persons with disabilities based on the perception that they are less
productive or less capable of carrying out their jobs than others. Colleagues of persons with disabilities may
also hold prejudicial attitudes. At a wider level, social attitudes that cast persons with disabilities as objects of
pity and need perpetuate the assumption that they should not work. In some cultures, people view disabilities
as being indicative of wrongdoing in a past life, or are simply uncomfortable around people who seem
different. Persons with disabilities may also be discouraged from working by their families, often out of a
sense of shame or a well-intentioned but stifling desire not to impose additional burden on their family
members.
Though there are laws and regulations in some sectors, majority of social and economic sectors in Ethiopian
do not yet have anti-discrimination legislation that specifically targets the employment of persons with
disabilities. Discrimination is a major barrier faced by persons with disabilities in their efforts to find
employment in the labour market. Clearly, there needs to be greater awareness about the need to break down
barriers faced by persons with disabilities — be it lack of accessibility features in public services or of laws
that protect persons with disabilities from discrimination by employers.
B) Accessibility
The accessibility of the following areas are crucial to the employment of persons with disabilities: the physical
environment; transportation; information and communications; and other facilities open to the public. In the workplace
itself, a lack of physical features such as ramps and elevators can prevent persons with mobility disabilities from being
able to work. Similarly, the lack of accessible information and communication infrastructure in workplaces such as clear
signage, computers equipped with software such as screen-readers, and devices such as Braille displays can prevent
persons with print and intellectual disabilities from being able to gain employment. Lack of access to sign language
interpretation or captioning services can inhibit the employment of deaf people. In addition to the informational and
physical design of the workplace itself, the broader inaccessibility of public environments and crucially, transport, can
prevent persons with disabilities from being able to travel to work, receive information about job opportunities, and
communicate with employers.
C) Education and Training
Persons with disabilities have disproportionately restricted access to education and training. This severely
limits their job opportunities due to a lack of skills and knowledge that are relevant to find or retain a job.
Children with disabilities are less likely to attend school, and when they do they are less likely to stay in
school.18 In Indonesia, children with disabilities are one third less likely to complete their primary education
as those without a disability. In India in 2007, close to 40 per cent of children with disabilities were not
enrolled in school, compared to only between 8 and 10 per cent of children in scheduled tribes or castes —
groups that also face high levels of discrimination and poorer socio-economic outcomes. Notwithstanding the
numerous other barriers they face, persons with disabilities are thus often prevented from being able to acquire
the human capital necessary to effectively compete for jobs. In addition, young persons with disabilities who
have attended school may not get the support they need when transitioning from school to work.
D) Social Networks
Another barrier to employment for persons with disabilities can be their more limited social networks. Social networks
greatly aid the process of searching for work, the lack of which is likely to limit options for persons with disabilities. As
part of their broader exclusion from many important social activities, persons with disabilities often therefore lack the
opportunity to build social relationships with those who may be in a position to offer suggestions for potential work
opportunities. These limited networks are part of the broader cultural and attitudinal barriers that inhibit participation in
social, leisure, civic, and religious activities. A key benefit brought by employment itself is the building of social
relationships with colleagues, clients and business partners. As a result of the barriers they face in entering and retaining
work, many persons with disabilities are also denied the possibility of expanding their networks at the workplace itself.
E) Women Disabilities
In many developing countries including Ethiopia, as a result of continued prejudices both towards women and
surrounding disability, women with disabilities are doubly discriminated against in the labor market. Study
found that in many developing countries, women with disabilities are only half as likely as men with

46
disabilities to have a job. Moreover, when they are employed, women with disabilities encounter worse
working conditions and lower pay as compared with other women, as well as men with disabilities. Women
with disabilities are also less likely to receive education and vocational training, and those women who do
access education and attain a degree of financial stability are more likely to have done so before acquiring
their disability. However, it remains difficult to quantify these trends as a result of the limited availability of
reliable data that is disaggregated by both sex and disability. Not
only the particular difficulties faced by women with disabilities as they search for work, but also the
significance of social networks in sharing potential employment opportunities. The governments and NGOs
must ultimately step up to improve the precarious economic situation many women with disabilities find
themselves in.
F) Legal Barriers
As a result of discriminatory attitudes about the perceived capabilities of persons with disabilities, some
countries impose legal restrictions on their participation in certain types of employment or processes. In some
countries, people must be considered physically and mentally healthy‘ or sound‘ to represent oneself in a court
of law, to occupy official positions, or to use certain public services.25 Such laws effectively rule out large
numbers of persons with disabilities from accessing employment, based on the blanket assumption that they
are incapable of doing particular jobs effectively. Japan is one country that previously had such laws, but has
taken action to rectify them.
G) Inflexible Work Arrangements
Another common obstacle to the employment of persons with disabilities is the inflexibility of work
arrangements. In some cases, persons with disabilities might prove to be competent and productive
employees, but are nonetheless unable to perform certain tasks. The same is true for scheduling the work day.
Persons with disabilities may have particular transportation issues or other needs that require a slightly
different work day. An employer‘s willingness to rearrange the responsibilities and schedules associated with
a particular job can mean the difference between employment and unemployment for many persons with
disabilities. Indeed, a greater degree of flexibility of working arrangements can boost the morale and
productivity of any employee, regardless of whether or not they have a disability.
H) Dismissal on the Basis of Disability
Workers who are injured and acquire a disability on the job may face unaccommodating policies and a lack of
rehabilitative services, which limit their ability to return to work. The absence of anti-discrimination
legislation in the majority of countries in the region thus allows employers to dismiss staff on the basis of
disability with impunity. Several countries, such as Iran, offer rehabilitation programs and services to help
dismissed workers to find new employment. Ultimately though, legislation which protects the rights of
workers from dismissal on the basis of disability is also needed to more comprehensively tackle the problem
I) The Benefit Trap
Another obstacle to the employment of persons with disabilities can ironically be imposed by social protection schemes
ultimately designed to support them. These schemes can encourage individuals to stay out of the labor force if they are
structured in such a way as to make the receipt of benefits contingent on the inability to work. Therefore, even if persons
with disabilities believe that they can work, they may choose not to in order to continue receiving disability benefits.
Even if working could offer them a higher level of income, persons with disabilities may still choose to receive benefits
because of the risk of attempting to hold down a job that does not provide adequate support, or is not flexible towards
their needs. It is important to stress that this benefit trap‘ is mainly relevant to more developed countries with more
generous benefit schemes. The situation in most of the region‘s middle-to-low income countries is entirely different.
However, it is vital for governments to avoid creating strong work disincentives.
Strategies to Improve Employment for Persons with Disabilities and Vulnerabilities

Dear students, describe strategies to improve employment and job opportunities for
persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities.

There a number of strategies that is available to governments in respective sector as they work to improve the
employment prospects of persons with disabilities, vulnerable and marginalized groups. In addition, private
sector initiatives that have been demonstrated to improve the employment experiences of persons with in these
groups are also discussed below.

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 A) Anti-Discrimination Legislation
These laws make it illegal to discriminate against an individual on the basis of disability in a range of areas
including: employment; education; access to public buildings; the provision of goods and services, and
political processes. With regard to employment, anti-discrimination laws protect persons with disabilities from
discriminatory actions in hiring and termination of contracts and affirm the right of persons with disabilities to
access employment on an equal basis with others. Anti-discrimination laws challenge collectively held
discriminatory attitudes against persons with disabilities by influencing the nexus between law, norms and
social mores‘.26 Anti-discrimination laws can be made stronger when they include mandates for reasonable
accommodations that remove additional barriers to employment for persons with disabilities. Crucially,
however, these laws must outline clear enforcement mechanisms.
When penalties are neither stipulated nor enforced, employers are left free to discriminate with impunity.
B) Vocational Education And Training
Technical vocational education and training (TVET) programs can help to ensure that the workforce has the
skills and knowledge necessary to obtain and retain a job, while also driving productivity and economic
growth. As discussed in Chapter 2, persons with disabilities often have limited opportunities to build skills
and knowledge that are relevant to the labor market. A vital first step in improving access to employment for
persons with disabilities is therefore to ensure that employment support and vocational programs are as
inclusive as possible. Such programs should also be held in accessible locations, and reasonable
accommodations should be made to improve the access of persons with disabilities. Some persons with
disabilities may not be able to attend mainstream training programs. In such situations, to allow them to
participate, programs targeted at persons with disabilities may be required. It is crucial; however, that the
content of such training programs is geared to labor market demands, and not determined by prior beliefs
about what persons with disabilities should do or are capable of doing.
C) Wage Subsidies
Wage subsidies cover a portion of employees‘ wages, usually for a limited period of time, as a way to lessen
the risk perceived by employers of hiring persons with disabilities. Since wage subsidies directly target the
recruitment process of private firms, they enable employers to overcome their reservations about hiring
employees with disabilities. It is vital that care is taken in determining the eligibility, amount and duration of
subsidies, to avoid the subsidies exceeding the actual gap in productivity between persons with and without
disabilities. Studies on the impact of subsides show mixed results on employment rates. Most studies suggest,
however, that both workers and employers are satisfied with wage subsidy schemes.
D) Supported Employment
These programs integrate persons with disabilities into the open labor market by providing direct, on-the-job support to
employees with disabilities. Supports are usually offered for a limited period of time. One common type of support is a
job coach. Job coaches provide on- site, individually tailored assistance to help persons with disabilities perform their
jobs. Coaches also help persons with disabilities adjust to their working environment, and assist in determining which
accessibility accommodations are necessary. Supported employment has been shown to be particularly cost-effective for
people with intellectual and psychosocial disabilities, in terms of productivity and health related costs. Supported
employment requires employers to be open to having such services on site, and to be willing to work cooperatively with
job coaches and other service providers. Employment support services and job coaches require special training.
E) Workplace Accommodation Schemes
These schemes reduce the costs to employers of making workplaces more accessible to persons with
disabilities. In so doing, workplace accommodation schemes seek to minimize employer reluctance to hire
persons with disabilities. There are two ways Government programs can decrease or even eliminate those
costs. The first is by offering tax breaks or tax credits for expenditures undertaken to make such
adjustments. This strategy may, however, be less effective for small businesses with cash flow issues or
limited tax liability. Another strategy is to provide full or partial funds for reasonable accommodations
for employees with disabilities. Such funding can be provided in various ways, either through employment
agencies, using fines from quota systems, or by offering grants to employers from separate Government
agencies. Investment in assistive equipment for employees returned costs by about eight times through
increased productivity and reduced absenteeism.
F) Workers’ Compensation
These programs are designed to address the issue of occupational injuries and illnesses. They provide cash and
medical benefits to employees whose disability is acquired in the workplace. Generally, workers‘
48
compensation operates through insurance programs - either through public insurance programs, or private or
even self-insurance at large firms. Because employer premiums are experience rated, they are higher for firms
with more accidents. Thus, the approach incentivizes workplace safety and encourages employers to support
employees who acquire disabilities at work to be able to return to their jobs. In many countries, employers are
legally mandated to establish workers‘ compensation programs.
G) Quota Systems
Quota systems mandate that firms hire at minimum a certain percentage of persons with disabilities.
Typically, quotas apply only to large employers. Empirical data points to only small net employment gains of
persons with disabilities. In addition, quotas can prove difficult to both monitor and enforce. Moreover, by
obliging employers to hire a specific number of persons with disabilities, quota systems perpetuate the
prejudice that persons with disabilities are not really equivalent to others in their capacity to be productive.
H) Sheltered Workshops
These programs only hire persons with disabilities, and structure jobs around the perceived abilities of each
employee. Sometimes the stated goal of sheltered workshops is to serve as a training ground for the eventual
transition of employees to the open labor market. In reality, however, employees with disabilities are rarely
supported to make this transition. Employees are generally paid poorly, and the workshops in which they
work are seen as charitable enterprises and are funded as such, with revenues being a function not of sales but
of the number of employees. Rather than promoting sheltered workshops, governments can serve their citizens
with disabilities better by removing barriers towards their employment in the open labor market. Persons with
severe disabilities may find it difficult to enter the open labor market, even if other barriers to their
employment are removed. In certain cases therefore, programs that create non-competitive job opportunities
may be necessary. Government and public agencies should be mandated by law to preferentially procure
certain products from such workshops in order to guarantee a stable income for their employees with severe
disabilities.
I) Private Sector Initiatives
In addition to government-driven strategies, a number of private-sector initiatives also serve to illustrate the
need for action to be taken not only by governments, but by employers themselves.
J) Employer Networks
A number of networks of private companies around the world have initiated their own programs to promote
the employment of persons with disabilities. Sometimes these organizations are established in response to the
creation of a quota policy, sometimes out of a sense of corporate social responsibility, and sometimes because
of a compelling business case for being more inclusive.
The main activities of employer organizations include:
 Raising awareness and building capacity on disability inclusion;
 Providing information and tools on disability and employment;
 Influencing policy on the employment and training of persons with disabilities;
 Providing career development opportunities and organizing vocational training;
 Linking jobseekers with disabilities and employers

K) Support Disability-Inclusive Business

Private employers can play an important role in developing policies and programs to boost employment for
persons with disabilities, as well as their own bottom line. It is recommended that governments:
a) Introduce programs to raise awareness among private employers of the business case for hiring persons
with disabilities.
b) Support employers‘ organizations and networks to share inclusion practices and build their capacities
to harness the potential of employees with disabilities.
Disability-Inclusive Business—a number of large employers should be proactive in promoting disability
inclusion within their businesses. Many of these businesses draw on their positive experiences of hiring
persons with disabilities to demonstrate the business case for inclusive employment, citing that persons with
disabilities:
 Have higher retention and lower accident rates than employees without disabilities, and comparable
productivity;
 Represent an untapped source of skills and talent and transferable problem- solving skills developed in daily life;
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 Often have valuable skills and experiences learned on the job prior to having a disability;
 Can provide unique insights to help firms to develop their products or services to customers and clients
with disabilities;
 Can improve the company‘s image, increasing morale, creating links to the community, and appealing to
potential customers who have a disability or whose family members have a disability.
L) Social Enterprises
Social enterprises are businesses that seek to advance a social cause whilst being financially self-sustainable.
Rather than being driven solely by the desire to make profits, these businesses also aim to maximize social
impact. Social enterprises that consciously seek to hire persons with disabilities, or address issues and barriers
affecting the lives of persons with disabilities can therefore help to boost the employment of persons with
disabilities, and also influence wider social change. Box 10 shows an example of a disability-inclusive social
enterprise.
M) Support Persons with Disabilities in the Workplace
Governments can enhance the working experiences of persons with disabilities firstly by leading by example
in terms of public sector employment practices, and secondly by establishing programs and services that
support persons with disabilities to do their jobs effectively. It is therefore recommended that governments:
a) Promote flexible working arrangements to ensure that qualified, productive individuals are not
unnecessarily prevented from doing certain jobs.
b) Provide funding support and tax incentives to start ups and social enterprise initiatives that aim to hire
persons with disabilities or address specific needs of persons with disabilities.
c) Provide subsidies or tax incentives that support the inclusion of persons with disabilities in the workplace.
d) Develop job coach accreditation and training standards and provide job coaching services to enable
persons with disabilities to do their jobs effectively and productively.
N) Building a More Inclusive Society
By creating more accessible physical environments, public transport and knowledge, information and
communication services, governments can facilitate opportunities for persons with disabilities to work, as well
as society at large. It is recommended that governments:
a) Develop and implement accessibility standards for the physical environment in line with universal
design, including public buildings and transport services, to ensure that individuals with mobility
disabilities are not denied employment opportunities.
b) Promote and provide knowledge, information and communication services in accessible formats, in
line with universal design, to meet the needs of persons with sensory, intellectual and psychosocial
disabilities to apply for and retain a job.
c) Foster greater social inclusion by establishing links with disabled persons‘ organizations, including
groups of women with disabilities, and working to promote employment opportunities.
O) Boost Education and Training Opportunities
Education and training is vital for all individuals to develop their human capital, and to acquire skills and
knowledge relevant to the labor market. Governments must therefore ensure that persons with disabilities are
able to access education and training on an equal basis with others. It is recommended that governments:
a) Make education systems more inclusive, both to make schools more accessible to children with
disabilities, and to modify instruction to meet the needs of all children.
b) Mainstream disability inclusion into technical vocational education and training (TVET) programs, to
support persons with disabilities to acquire knowledge and skills necessary to find and retain decent
work.
P) Break Down Attitudinal Barriers and Challenge Discrimination
Discriminatory attitudes towards persons with disabilities inform and produce other barriers to the full and
equal participation of persons with disabilities in society, including in employment. For governments to better
understand and challenge attitudinal barriers, it is essential to:
a) Undertake research to examine the causes and manifestations of discriminatory attitudes towards
persons with disabilities across society.
b) Launch public awareness campaigns and programs to promote the rights of persons with disabilities
and to challenge discriminatory attitudes surrounding disability.
c) Conduct disability awareness training such as Disability Equality Training for public employees at
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 the national and local levels.
Q) Improve Data Collection on Disability and Employment
Designing, monitoring and evaluating policies to promote decent work for persons with disabilities requires
timely and high quality information. It is recommended that governments:
a) Include the six core Washington Group questions on disability in labor force surveys so that reliable,
internationally comparable indicators on employment and disability can be generated on a regular basis.
b) Conduct disability-dedicated surveys to improve the quality of data and understanding on barriers to
employment and in turn develop more responsive policies.
c) Take a consistent approach to disability identification so that multiple data sources can be used in
conjunction to get a more complete picture of the experiences of persons with disabilities.
Chapter Summary
 Persons with disabilities and vulnerable groups have diverse needs such as; social- emotional,
psychological, physical and economic. Factors affecting the needs of persons with disabilities vary
depending on the nature of disability, personality trait of the person, the meaning the that person
gives for the disability, the individual‘s current life condition, type of support provided, the family,
community and society, political and economic system of the country at large.
 The basic needs of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities to ensure equality for all within our
society are: full access to the environment (towns, countryside & buildings). an accessible transport
system, technical aids and equipment, accessible/adapted housing, personal assistance and support,
inclusive education and training, an adequate income, equal opportunities for employment,
appropriate and accessible information, advocacy (towards self-advocacy), counselling,, appropriate
and accessible health care
 Social protection plays a key role in realizing the rights of persons with disabilities and
vulnerabilities of all ages: providing them with an adequate standard of living, a basic level of
income security; thus reducing levels of poverty and vulnerability
 Health outcomes for people with disabilities should be access to quality, affordable health care
services, which make the best use of available resources.
 As several factors interact to inhibit access to health care, reforms in all the interacting components
of the health care system such as policy and legislations, financing, services delivery and human
resources training in line with inclusiveness perspectives.
 Disability is the result of the interaction between the characteristics of individuals with disabilities
and the characteristics of their environment.
 The amount of disability is not determined by levels of pathologies, impairments, or functional
limitations, but instead is a function of the kind of services provided to people with disabling
conditions and the extent to which the physical, built environment is accommodating or not
accommodating to the particular disabling condition.
 Human competencies interact with the environment in a dynamic reciprocal relationship that shapes
performance.
 The physical and social environments comprise factors external to the individual, including family,
institutions, community, geography, and the political climate
 Environmental factors must be seen to include the natural environment, the human made
environment, culture, the economic system, the political system, and psychological factors.
 Persons with disabilities, vulnerable and marginalized groups living in rural areas have double
disadvantaged due to their impairments and vulnerabilities and unfavorable physical and social
environment.
 Environmental strategies can be effective in helping people function independently and not be
limited in their social participation, in work, leisure or social interactions as a spouse, parent, friend,
or coworker.
 The culture of a society or a subculture influences the types of personality or intrapsychic processes
that are acceptable and influences the institutions that make up the social organization of a society.
 Multi-sectorial and multi-disciplinary approach to prevention, intervention and rehabilitation
strategies are effective in building process of disability inclusive society.

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 Chapter 4: Promoting Inclusive Culture

Definition of Inclusive Culture

Inclusion is a sense of belonging, connection and community at work. And inclusive organizations help
people feel welcomed, known, valued and encouraged to bring their whole, unique selves to work.
Culture is ―the ideas, customs, and social behavior of a particular people or society. An
organization‘s culture is the culmination of the priorities, values and behaviors, which support their
employees in how they work singularly, in teams and with clients. Culture plays a huge role in shifting the
diversity needle and forming truly inclusive environments.
Hence, an inclusive culture involves the full and successful integration of diverse people into a workplace or
industry. Additionally, inclusive cultures extend beyond basic or token presence of workers who have
disabilities. They encompass both formal and informal policies and practices, and involve several core values:
- Representation: The presence of people with disabilities across a range of employee roles and leadership positions
- Receptivity: Respect for differences in working styles and flexibility in tailoring positions to the strengths
and abilities of employees and
- Fairness: Equitable access to all resources, opportunities, networks and decision making processes.
Dimensions of Inclusive culture
There are three dimensions/ elements of an inclusive culture:
1. Universal Design
2. Recruitment, Training and Advancement Opportunities
3. Workplace Accommodations and Accessibility: Policy & Practice
1. Universal Design
One of the most heralded concepts in disability advocacy and cultures in the last decade is the concept of
“universal design”. Universal design refers to the construction of structures, spaces, services,
communications and resources that are organically accessible to a range of people with and without
disabilities, without further need for modification or accommodation.
While accommodations procedures remain a needed function of most contemporary institutions and
industries, forward-thinking approaches to disability inclusion will frequently involve developing sites and
resources that require no accommodation to be fully usable and receptive to people with disabilities.
A few examples of ways universal design practices may apply in the workplace include:
- Routinely providing manuals, materials and forms to all employees in a variety of digital formats that are
as readily accessible to people who use adaptive computer technologies as to other employees.
- Building workspaces accessible to people who use wheelchairs or other assistive devices, as well as to all
other employees.
- Providing employees with a variety of flexible schedule and work options. This allows employees who
have energy or functionality limitations to organize their time and strengths, and all employees are better
able to manage time and life/work balance.
2. Recruitment, Training, & Advancement Opportunities
A. Recruitment:
Effective recruitment of people with disabilities involves two components:
1. Accessible outreach and hiring practices and
2. Targeted recruitment of workers with disabilities.

Accessible outreach and hiring practices essentially entail making sure that outreach materials, networking
and recruitment sites, communications, and application processes all include a range of accessible options, or
are free of barriers that might inhibit people with disabilities from participating. Wherever possible, outreach
and hiring resources generally should be equally accessible to workers with and without disabilities.
For example, making recruitment literature and job applications readily available in digital and large-print
formats, or holding outreach events in spaces without stairs or other barriers and with accessible
communications technology, helps to ensure that people with disabilities will be included in recruitment
practices.
Targeted recruitment involves specific outreach to people with disabilities. Although making general
recruitment practices more accessible goes a long way towards building an inclusive hiring structure,
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individual employers are not always able to overcome existing barriers for instance, when recruiting via
externally sponsored job fairs that are not accessible. Therefore, targeted recruitment enables employers to
reach and interview qualified people with disabilities.
In turn, having accessible recruitment practices relative to hiring, materials and communications helps to
ensure that targeted recruitment will be successful not just in identifying qualified candidates, but by making
sure there are no barriers to effective outreach and eventual employment.
B. Training: Training plays a dual role in the creation of inclusive workplace culture. The first
consideration involves the degree to which people with disabilities have equitable access to training
sites, events, and materials.
The second concern relates to the training of managers, particularly middle management, and human
resources staff, to work effectively with all people, including those with disabilities.
The consequences of inadequate training are substantial, in reducing job satisfaction, with corresponding
negative consequences for productivity and retention. In turn, companies favored by employees with
disabilities make a concerted effort to create equitable and accessible training resources.
C. Advancement: Research demonstrates that in order to have equitable opportunities for promotion and
professional development, like most employees, workers with disabilities typically require access to
mentoring.
As with recruitment, mentoring and coaching involves a dual dynamic in which:
- Existing mentoring programs are advertised, implemented and maintained with attention to inclusion of
workers with disabilities, and
- Targeted mentoring and coaching programs specifically assist employees with disabilities. These may
include the creation of explicit disability affirmative action policies related to promotion, targeted
professional networking opportunities, and the establishment of disability affinity networks and related
supports to encourage full integration into the workplace culture.
3. Workplace Accommodations and Accessibility: Policy & Practice
Policy plays a critical role in generating meaningful inclusion of people with disabilities. In addition to
recruitment, training and advancement, workplace policies need to carefully plan for the provision of
reasonable accommodations.
When assessing the effectiveness of existing accommodations policies, employee experiences can be
described based on two measures of equity.
The first indicator of an inclusive workplace culture involves the perception of ―procedural justice‖, meaning
that employees with disabilities perceive the accommodations policy as fair, accessible and functional.
The practice of negotiating and providing accommodations constitutes an additional opportunity for
generating an experience of interactional justice. Interactional justice refers to the experience of feeling that
the managers or colleagues with whom one is interacting are behaving fairly, reasonably and respectfully.
The Benefits of Inclusive cultures are specifically beneficial for employees with disabilities, but also have
positive results for all employees, as they include a number of elements of a healthy work environment.
Specific positive outcomes include:
- Reduced expenses corresponding to reduced employee turn-over
- Increased worker commitment to and identification with organizational success
- Improved employee health and well-being
- Improved productivity
- Increased employee investment in work performance
- Reduced perception of discrimination and inequity
- Improved cooperation and collaboration between co-workers, and between employees and management.
Creating an inclusive organizational culture is challenging but extremely advantageous. Here's why and how,
however, the business benefits and the outcomes of an inclusive organization fairness and respect, value and
belonging, safe and open, and empowerment and growth should be compelling enough to push forward.
These are some of the benefits of an Inclusive organization that needs to be considered:
- Higher Job Satisfaction
- Lower Turnover.
- Higher Productivity
- Higher Employee Morale

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- Improved Creativity and Innovation
- Improved Problem-Solving
- Increased Organizational Flexibility.
Inclusive education, when practiced well, is very important because all children are able to be part of their
community and develop a sense of belonging and become better prepared for life in the community as
children and adults. It provides all children with opportunities to develop friendships with one another.

4.3 Building inclusive community

- Does everything that it can to respect all its citizens, gives them full access to resources, and promotes equal
treatment and opportunity.
- Works to eliminate all forms of discrimination.
- Engages all its citizens in decision-making processes that affect their lives.
- Values diversity and
- Responds quickly to racist and other discriminating incidents.
An inclusive society aims at empowering and promoting the social, economic, and political inclusion of all, irrespective
of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin, religion, economic, or other status. It is a society that leaves no one behind.
We work to ensure that societies are open and inclusive to all.
Here are things an organization can do to create a more inclusive workplace and, therefore, a more appealing place to
work:
- Appropriately Connect with Employees
- Interact with Different People
- Create Employee Resource Groups
- Place Importance on Inclusion
- Hold Better Meetings
- Invest in Diversity Training
- People have opportunities to experience a variety of social roles that include friendships, contributing to the
community and gaining new skills. Some of the benefits of inclusion to the person are: Improved feelings of well-
being and self-esteem.

Why is building an inclusive community important?

- Acts of exclusion and injustice based on group identity and other factors should not be allowed to occur and/or
continue.
- All people have the right to be part of decisions that affect their lives and the groups they belong to and
- Diversity enriches our lives, so it is worth our while to value our community's diversity. An inclusive community can
be built at any time. The need to have an inclusive community, however, is most obvious when there has been a
decision or an incident that caused harm to a particular group of people.
Characistics of an Inclusive Community
Inclusive communities do have the following set of characteristics:
Integrative and cooperative: inclusive communities bring people together and are places
where people and organizations work together.
Interactive: inclusive communities have accessible community spaces and open public places as well as groups and
organizations that support social interaction and community activity, including celebrating community life.
Invested: inclusive communities are places where both the public and private sectors commit resources for the social and
economic health and well-being of the whole community.
Diverse: inclusive communities welcome and incorporate diverse people and cultures into the structures, processes and
functions of daily community life.
Equitable: inclusive communities make sure that everyone has the means to live in decent conditions (i.e. income
supports, employment, good housing) and the opportunity to develop one‘s capacities and to participate actively in
community life.
Accessible and Sensitive: inclusive communities have an array of readily available and accessible supports and services
for the social, health, and developmental needs of their populations and provide such supports in culturally sensitive and
appropriate ways /essential services identified include good schools, recreation, childcare, libraries, public transit,
affordable housing and supportive housing, home care, crisis and emergency supports, well coordinated and

54
comprehensive settlement supports/.
Participatory: inclusive communities encourage and support the involvement of all their members in the planning and
decision-making that affects community conditions and development, including having an effective voice with senior
levels of government and
Safe: inclusive communities ensure both individual and broad community safety and security so that no one feels at risk
in their homes or moving around the neighborhood and city.
Means of establish inclusive culture Activity

 Dear student, what benefits of establishing inclusive culture in an organization do you

thinks of?
An organization is inclusive when everyone has a sense of belonging; feels respected, valued and seen for who they are as
individuals; and feels a level of supportive energy and commitment from leaders, colleagues and others so that all people,
individually and collectively can do their best work.
To create an inclusive culture in which everyone feels they belong and is comfortable expressing their uniqueness,
There are four key inclusive leadership behaviors:
Empowerment: Enable team members to grow and excel by encouraging them to solve problems, come up with new
ideas and develop new skills.
Accountability: Show confidence in team members by holding them responsible for aspects of their performance that are
within their control.
Courage: Stand up for what you believe is right, even when it means taking a risk.
Humility: Admit mistakes, learn from criticism and different points of view, and overcome your limitations by seeking
contributions from team members.

How inclusive culture establish?

There are five stages in establishing inclusive culture:
1. Consider what you want to achieve and what the benefits will be.
2. Undertake an inclusion review of your workplace
3. Decide where work is needed and create an action plan.
Having reviewed your workplace in terms of equality and inclusion, the next stage is to decide upon the action you will
take. Set out the key changes you would like to make as a result of your review. Prioritize these changes to help you
decide where to start.
4. Communicate the plan with staff and put the plan into action.
5. Review, monitor and evaluate the plan’s impact and use what you find to plan future action
Ten Characteristics of an Inclusive Organization
1. It accepts diversity and inclusion as a way of life.
In an inclusive organization, one sees diversity at every level within the institution. Many cultures, traditions, beliefs,
languages, and lifestyles are prevalent in both the workforce as well as the customer populations, and are respected
without judgment. People are viewed as individuals who have come together to coordinate action towards the
achievement of common goals.
2. It evaluates individual and group performance on the basis of observable and measurable behaviors and
competencies.
Employees have a clear understanding of their roles and responsibilities. They are evaluated based upon their actions, not
the opinions of others. Goals and expectations are achievable.
3. It operates under transparent policies and procedures.
There are no hidden rules of behavior that may be apparent to some groups and unknown to others.
4. It is consistent in its interactions with everyone.
There is no double standard. Rules are applied appropriately and regularly throughout the institution. No one group is
favored over another.
5. It creates and maintains a learning culture.
Career development is encouraged and supported for all employees by management. Mentoring programs are robust, and
include both formal and informal systems that meet the individual learning needs of all employees. Mistakes are
recognized, and their consequences addressed, but they are viewed as learning opportunities rather than character flaws.

55
 6. It has a comprehensive and easily accessible system of conflict resolution at all levels.
It recognizes that conflict is inevitable in a complex multicultural organization, and it has systems in place to address
conflict in a non-confrontational manner that respects the dignity and confidentiality of all parties.
7. It recognizes that it is part of the community that it serves.
Employees, managers, and customers all come from the community. An inclusive organization is an active participant in
community activities, and plays a vital role in addressing its needs.
8. It lives its mission and core values.
People work for an organization because they believe in its purpose and goals.
An organization that promises one thing and delivers other risks losing the trust and confidence of its workforce as well
as its customers.
9. It values earned privilege over unearned privilege.
Employees are recognized for their actions and accomplishments, not simply because of their titles or degrees. Customers
are treated with respect regardless of their socioeconomic status or class.
10. It accepts and embraces change.
Change is inevitable. An inclusive organization recognizes that current and past practices must constantly be reviewed
and updated to meet the changing demands and needs of the industry, workforce, and customers.

Inclusive values Activity

 Dear student, list the values of inclusive culture and discuss about them with the
student beside you?
Inclusion is most importantly seen as putting inclusive values into action. It is a commitment to particular values which
accounts for a wish to overcome exclusion and promote participation.
The seven Pillars of Inclusion:
Access: Access explores the importance of a welcoming environment and the habits that create it.
Attitude: Attitude looks at how willing people are to embrace inclusion and diversity and to take meaningful action.
Choice, partnership, communication, policy and opportunity
Values are fundamental guides and prompts to action. They spur us forward, give us a sense of direction and define a
destination. We know that we are doing, or have done, the right thing through understanding the relationship between our
actions and our values. For all actions affecting others are underpinned by values. Every such action becomes a moral
argument whether or not we are aware of it. It is a way of saying ‗this is the right thing to do‘.
Hence, inclusive values are appreciating diversity, equality and equity, cooperativeness, participation, community, and
sustainability are examples of inclusive values that are fundamental for successful inclusive education.
Appreciating diversity, equality and equity, cooperativeness, participation, community, and sustainability are examples of
inclusive values that are fundamental for successful inclusive education.
A careful piecing together of a framework of values has resulted in a list of headings concerned with equality, rights,
participation, community, respect for diversity, sustainability, non-violence, trust, compassion, honesty, courage, joy,
love, hope/optimism, and beauty.
A values framework can be considered as a universe of interconnected meanings.
Indigenous inclusive values and practices
Activity

 Dear student, what indigenous inclusion mean? And state features of an endogenous
inclusion?
The term “Indigenous refers to a better understanding of, and respect for, indigenous cultures develops an enriched
appreciation of the existing cultural heritage.
Indigenous ways of knowing were often discounted and discredited as non-scientific because they were rooted in the
story of the people, their language, culture, art, mythology and spirituality. It was important to recognize the right of
indigenous peoples to land, resources and sacred sites.
Incorporating Indigenous ways of learning into educational practices has potential to benefit both Indigenous and non-
Indigenous learners. The 21st century skills needed in modern curriculum include: collaboration, creativity, innovation,
problem-solving, inquiry, multicultural literacy, etc.
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What is indigenous inclusion?
Indigenous inclusion defined as an organizational state that is embraced as a cultural norm, with enterprise-wide
workplace strategies as well as a culture which invites the full participation of indigenous people into all aspects of
business operations.
It is where leadership and employees are welcoming of indigenous people, their experience and outlooks, where diversity
is valued, the spirit of reconciliation has been embraced and calls to action have been acted on in meaningful ways.

Features of an indigenous inclusion:

1. Inclusion has been embraced as a core competency and embedded into the organizational culture;
2. Companies share their organization‘s experience and achievements with inclusion and explain how it has helped their
performance;
3. Human rights and responsibilities are promoted and respected. Employees are free of concerns related to basic equity
issues;
4. Comprehensive Indigenous procurement, recruitment and corporate social responsibility strategies have been
developed as part of an enterprise-wide coordinated approach;
5. Indigenous people are employed and retained in all areas of the organization including the senior leadership and
executive positions;
6. There are significant revenues and jobs gained by Indigenous people and businesses through the organization‘s
supply chain;
7. Indigenes community sustainable gains have been realized as a result of the relationships built between the
company and the community;
8. High levels of Indigenous employee engagement are seen and experienced in the organization;
9. Leadership has put into place the resources needed to sustain its Indigenous inclusion strategy and it may have
introduced an inclusion policy framework or statement;
10. Indigenous inclusion is integral to the mission and vision of the organization.
A seven stage model to indigenous inclusion:
Indigenous Works has developed a 7-stage workplace model of Indigenous inclusion which is called the Inclusion
Continuum.
The model depicts the roadmap that organizations follow to become more inclusive, gradually enabling more effective
workplace and employment strategies to be developed. The Continuum describes the organizational features and
competencies needed at each stage to achieve elevated levels of performance in Indigenous employment, business
development, community relations, etc. Movement along the continuum depends on companies developing their cultural
competencies, improving their understanding of Indigenous people, their history and culture. Companies’ position on the
Inclusion Continuum can be measured from year to year to track and assess progress.
Types of indigenous inclusion policies
There are quite a range of Indigenous inclusion policies in use by companies and organizations throughout Ontario and
Canada. The diagram below illustrates how some of those policies align with workplace needs. Some inclusion policies
have a targeted application to specific areas of the workplace such as employment, Indigenous community relations,
Indigenous business development or procurement. Other inclusion policies strike across the organization, providing an
enterprise-wide‘ approach to inclusion.
What are inclusive practices?
Inclusive practice is an approach to teaching that recognizes the diversity of students, enabling all students to access
course content, fully participate in learning activities and demonstrate their knowledge and strengths at assessment.
The aim of inclusion is to embrace all people irrespective of race, gender, disability, medical or other need. It is about
giving equal access and opportunities and getting rid of discrimination and intolerance (removal of barriers). It affects all
aspects of public life.
Inclusive practice is about the attitudes, approaches strategies talent to ensure that people are not excluded or isolated. It
means supporting diversity by accepting welcoming people‘s differences, promoting equality by equal opportunities for
all. In addition inclusive practice involves having an understanding of the impact that discrimination, inequality, social
exclusion can have on an individual. Having an understanding of this ensures appropriate personalized care, support can
be given. This enables the individual to develop self-respect, self-worth, also to maintain a valued role in society, the
environment surrounding them.
When we compare inclusive practice with practice which excludes an individual, inclusive practice gives an individual
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more confidence in the care that they were receiving, it gives them the option to have an input with the care they are
having as they are being given the opportunity to do so. In the long run, this could improve the service user‘s health as
they still have confidence in the careers. Practice that excludes the service user could have consequences on their own
health, for example if they spoke English and were provided with a care worker that spoke and understood poor English
could result in them not being able to communicate, from that they would like for dinner to whether they are feeling ill
and may need to see a doctor meaning that their health could deteriorate
Inclusive practices in education are based on seven principles:
- Diversity enriches and strengthens all communities
- All learners‘ different learning styles and achievements are equally valued, respected and celebrated by society
- All learners are enabled to fulfill their potential by taking into account individual requirements and needs
- Support is guaranteed and fully resourced across the whole learning experience
- All learners need friendship and support from people of their own age
- All children and young people are educated together as equals in their local communities Inclusive teaching
strategies refer to any number of teaching approaches that address the needs of students with a variety of
backgrounds, learning modalities, and abilities. These strategies contribute to an overall inclusive learning
environment in which students feel equally valued.
Benefits of Inclusive practices
The benefits of inclusive practices are numerous for both students with and without disabilities.
Benefits of Inclusion for Students with Disabilities
- Friendships
- Increased social initiations, relationships and networks
- Peer role models for academic, social and behavior skills
- Increased achievement of Individual Educational Plan goals
- Greater access to general curriculum
- Enhanced skill acquisition and generalization
- Increased inclusion in future environments
- Greater opportunities for interactions
- Higher expectations
- Increased school staff collaboration
- Increased parent participation
- Families are more integrated into community

Chapter Summary
 An inclusive culture involves the full and successful integration of diverse people into a workplace or industry.
Additionally, inclusive cultures extend beyond basic or token presence of workers who have disabilities.
 There are three dimensions/ elements of an inclusive culture: these are Universal Design, Recruitment, Training
and Advancement Opportunities and Workplace Accommodations and Accessibility: Policy & Practice
 Inclusion has been directly advocated since the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 and has been acted
at all phases in a number of key UN declarations and conventions.
 An inclusive society aims at empowering and promoting the social, economic, and political inclusion of all,
irrespective of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin, religion, economic, or other status. It is a society that
leaves no one behind. We work to ensure that societies are open and inclusive to all.
 An inclusive community can be built at any time. The need to have an inclusive community, however, is most
obvious when there has been a decision or an incident that caused harm to a particular group of people.
 Major Characteristics of Inclusive communities are Integrative and cooperative, Interactive, Invested, Diverse,
Equitable, Accessible and Sensitive, Participatory and Safe
 An organization is inclusive when everyone has a sense of belonging; feels respected, valued and seen for who they
are as individuals; and feels a level of supportive energy and commitment from leaders, colleagues and others so
that all people, individually and collectively can do their best work.
 There are four key inclusive leadership behaviors: (i.e., Empowerment, Accountability, Courage and Humility)
 Inclusive values are appreciating diversity, equality and equity, cooperativeness, participation, community, and
sustainability are examples of inclusive values that are fundamental for successful inclusive education.
58
 Appreciating diversity, equality and equity, cooperativeness, participation, community, and sustainability are
examples of inclusive values that are fundamental for successful inclusive education.
 Indigenous inclusion defined as an organizational state that is embraced as a cultural norm, with enterprise-wide
workplace strategies as well as a culture which invites the full participation of indigenous people into all aspects of
business operations.
 Inclusive practice is an approach to teaching that recognizes the diversity of students, enabling all students to access
course content, fully participate in learning activities and demonstrate their knowledge and strengths at assessment.
 Inclusive teaching strategies refer to any number of teaching approaches that address the needs of students with a
variety of backgrounds, learning modalities, and abilities. These strategies contribute to an overall inclusive learning
environment in which students feel equally valued.

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Chapter 5: Inclusion for Peace, Democracy and Development
Inclusive education is at the heart of any strategy for peace-building, democracy and development. It is through inclusive
educational that values, skills and knowledge which form the basis of respect for human rights and democratic
principles can be developed. It is through Inclusive education that the rejection of violence, and a spirit of tolerance,
understanding and mutual appreciation among individuals, groups and nations can be enhanced. As a result,
inclusiveness should be the first phase towards increasing participation and fight for social justice for people with
disabilities, vulnerable and general populations. Inclusive education provides individuals for these populations, skills,
experience and empowerment that help them to vocalize for themselves and for others‘ right. Inclusive education
develops inclusive development in all sectors. In general, inclusive developments in all sectors encourage greater
acceptance of diversity of gender, culture, language, economy and politics; and the formation of more tolerant, equitable
and cohesive societies; simply put, creates inclusive society.
Definition of Peace, Democracy and Development
Inclusion for Peace
Peace can be defined in several ways. However, for the purpose of this module peace is defined as creating
mutual understanding, positive relationship between individuals and groups. These groups may include
culturally, linguistically, economically and biologically heterogeneous groups. These groups are living side by
side in a harmony with reciprocated respect or create societal friendship with all the diversities without
conflict. This means developed interpersonal peace through deep respect for other persons, justice, tolerance
and cooperation. This means peace has a notion of society’s completeness, fulfillment, wholeness, harmony,
feeling of security and well being of an individual, a community or a society. Human being is interconnected
and should be free from negative force, fear, hatred, anger, tension, violence stress, anxiety and any kind of
destructions. Peace make the mind quiet and calm prevents anxieties, worries, stress and fears, and awakens
inner strength and confidence, develop freedom, happiness, love, joy, justice and gratitude. Peace can be
achieved through formal and informal inclusive education.
Activity
1. Dear student, why education is crucial for creating conflict free society?
2. What kind of Education could make peace in the society??
Inclusive education is a foundation for inclusiveness in all aspects of life. It creates equality and equity among
divers population. Diversity refers to in terms of language, religion, socio- economic status, culture and
psychology. Equal (sameness and nondiscrimination) and/or equitable (social justice and fairness )
distribution of resources within the system; equal and/or equitable both in terms of locations and numbers, in
relation to resources such as money, trained and qualified professionals, teaching and learning materials,
school buildings, and school furniture. It is important to realize inclusive education to create a society that is
peaceful, democratize and developed. Hence inclusive education is crucial for:
• Fostering education that promotes the values, attitudes and behavior inherent in a culture of peace,
including conflict prevention and resolution, dialogue, consensus- building and active non-violence;
• Promoting sustainable economic and social development by targeting the eradication of poverty and
social inequalities;
• Promoting respect for the Universal Declaration of Human Rights at all levels;

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 • Promoting gender equality in economic, social and political decision-making;
• Fostering democratic participation and citizenship and supporting processes that promote and sustain
democracy;
• Advancing understanding, respect for cultural diversity, and human solidarity by promoting a dialogue
among societies;
• Supporting participatory communication and the free flow and sharing of information and knowledge in
the promotion of a culture of peace;
• Promoting international peace and security through action such as the promotion of general
Sustaining Peace
It is important to expand formal and informal inclusive education with the aim of creating inclusive society
with the following competencies in young and adult populations:
 Skills of shifting the truth from propaganda or bias that surrounds them in every culture
 Respect for the wise use of resources and appreciation for more than just the materialistic aspects of
quality of life
 Respect for different points of view and the ability to see the world through the eyes of others
 Skills to resolve conflict in non-violent ways
 The desire and ability to participate in shaping society, in their own community, their nation and
the world.
Building of peace requires taking the following steps:
Fostering inclusion, ensuring access to justice, strengthening the social fabric and delivering good
governance have repeatedly been shown to be essential to achieving development outcomes.
Reaffirm a commitment to human rights, the foundation for human dignity and just societies. Human
rights, including economic, social and cultural rights, are the foundation of a world order based on
equality and inclusion.
Foster social resilience by strengthening inclusion and addressing inequality: Peace issues are core to the
discussion of resilience. Resilient societies are those where the social fabric is strong. They are just and
inclusive, where the relationships between individuals, their communities and the state are based on trust
and the respect, protection and fulfillment of everyone‘s human rights, and where there are robust
mechanisms for addressing inequalities, difference and grievance.
Think local and act global: recommit to multilateralism as a safeguard for the most vulnerable
National implementation alone will not suffice to achieve the SDGs: 40% of the Fostering
the external drivers of peace, justice and inclusion requires concerted action by states, as duty holders, to
support responsible trade, reduce arms flows, promote constructive financial, tax and investment
practices, and to strengthen a rules-based system that creates a more effective enabling environment that
privileges the long- term peace, development and human rights needs of all people and communities.
Protect and support civil society in fostering sustainable peace
Inclusion for Democracy

Activities
I. Discus the meaning of democracy?
II. Explain the characteristics of democratic society
III. How can we achieve democracy?
IV. Does inclusive education contribute for the development of democracy?

Definition
Democracy is a great philosophy of inclusion that born and grown in inclusive schools. It means the rule of the
people, by the people, for the people; and where ―people‖ is to mean all human being, regardless of the
diversities. Democratic schools are an educational ideal in which democracy is both a goal and a method of
instruction. It brings democratic values to education and can include self-determination within a community of
equals, as well as such values as justice, respect and trust of diversities

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 Inclusion Education for Democracy
Inclusive education for democracy has not been established as a central purpose for schooling in Ethiopia.
Schools are the ideal place to promote democracy. One of the most important tasks of schools should be
helping students to realize the values of democracy. The democratic values include is to enhance
protected right, independent quality life for all, freedom, pursuit of happiness, justice, the common good,
truth, respect and tolerance for diversity and partisanship.

The most important function of democratic education is to make the democracy natural attitude and way of
thinking of man by developing the thought of democracy in human mind. In democratic classroom teachers
treat all students equally, provide them support according to the needs and potentials, share power with
students and supporting them in managing their own behaviors. Teachers provide us with as much
knowledge as possible. Teachers should promote engagement in a democracy, by teaching students
how democracy works and how important their role is in it. Students who have no understanding of how the
democracy functions are unlikely to become engaged citizens who vote.
Inclusive education sees young people not as passive recipients of knowledge, but rather as active co-creators
of their own learning that help to exercise democracy. Inclusive education aims to develop real democracy
through active participation by all divers learners involved in classrooms and educational institutions. If these
are in their places, everyone receives the things they need in order to develop in an orderly, sequential way
into members of society. Inclusive education instills the values of cooperation, fairness and justice into the
hearts of our students.

In democratic education students have the power to make decisions about their learning, because power is shared
rather than appropriated in advance by a minority of people. Inclusive education (when practiced well) is very important
because: All children are able to be part of their community and develop a sense of belonging and become better prepared
for life in the community today as children and tomorrow as adults. It provides better opportunities for learning. In the
absence of democracy, exclusion is prone to be exercised, today in the school and tomorrow in the society. Hence,
democracy is one of the principles of inclusiveness in the process of building inclusive society that begun in schools.
Democratic principles for inclusive practices
Inclusive education is based on principles:
 Diversity enriches and strengthens all communities.
 All persons with disabilities different in their needs, potentials, learning and working styles;
 Their achievements according to their potentials are equally valued, respected and celebrated by society
 All learners are enabled to fulfill their potential by taking into account individual requirements and needs.

Inclusive education for Development

Activities
1. Discus the meaning of development?
2. Explain the characteristics of development
3. How can we achieve development?
4. Does inclusive education contribute for the development?

The meaning of development for an individual is that which tends towards a person realizing his or her full potential as a
human being through inclusive education and then inclusive society; to expand the range of choices for every human
being without discrimination.
Inclusive development consists of ensuring that all marginalized and excluded groups are stakeholders in
development processes. It is obvious that many groups are excluded from social and economic development
because of their gender, ethnicity, age, religion, disability or poverty. If there is no inclusiveness in all walks of life,
development cannot be sustainable. Inclusive and sustainable development is crucial to reduce poverty in all its
dimensions so that all members of the society are benefitted. The goal of inclusiveness is to prevent social exclusion and
creating more social inclusion that aim at including all members of society in the growth process.
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Social inclusion is an integral part of inclusive development. Social inclusion enhances capabilities, broadens
social ties of respect and recognition, and at the collective level, enhances social bonds, cohesion, integration
and solidarity (UNDP, 2015) among human race. The initial emphasis of inclusion has been on economic
inclusion through poverty reduction, social protection and employment creation.
Without creating inclusiveness for these populations we cannot realize peace, democracy and development.
Importance of Inclusion
1. It is important to support people learn, productive, successful and live independently, be successful
without helping them too much.
2. Inclusiveness when practiced well is very important because: All people are able to be part of their
community and develop a sense of belonging and become better prepared for life in the community as
children and adults. It provides better opportunities for learning.
3. Inclusion values diversity and the unique contributions, where everybody brings to the milieu. In a truly
inclusive setting, every individual feels safe and has a sense of belonging. A person who participates in
setting life goals and take part in decisions that affects them.
4. the opportunity to participate in the typical experiences in life; to be with other people and form
friendships and develop other social skills; for natural lifelong learning in real situations and access to
inclusion models
5. The inclusion model is also beneficial because it prepares individuals today and in the future
Respecting diverse needs, culture, values, demands and ideas

Activities
1. Why we have to respect diversity?
2. What diversities are available in our environment?
3. How can we create inclusiveness with all these diversities?
4. What are the advantages of diversity?
These include race, ethnicity, age, ability, language, nationality, socioeconomic status, gender, religion, or
sexual orientation. The group is diverse if a wide variety of groups are represented. Cultural diversity has
become a hot-button issue when applied to the workplace. For this reason, we've created a list of the biggest
diversity issues in the workplace.
 Acceptance and Respect
 Accommodation of Beliefs
 Ethnic and Cultural Differences
 Gender Equality
 Physical and Mental Disabilities
 Generation Gaps
 Language and Communication

Valuing diversity
Multicultural education is an important component of valuing diversity. It respects diversity while teaching
all children and youth to become effective and participating members of a democracy.
Diversity in the workplace is vital for employees because it manifests itself in building a great reputation for
the company, leading to increased profitability and opportunities for workers quality services. Workplace
diversity is important within the organization as well as outside.
It is important to value diversity because; people build a stronger sense of identity and wellbeing, and have
better education and career outcomes when their diverse strengths, abilities, interests and perspectives are
understood and supported. It helps dispel negative stereotypes and personal biases about different groups. In
addition, cultural diversity helps us recognize and respect ―ways of being‖ that are not necessarily our
own; so that as we interact with others, we can build bridges to trust, respect, and understanding across
cultures.

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Cultural Diversity
Culture is our way of living, it refers to the shared language, beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, and material
objects that are passed down from one generation to the next. Cultural diversity in the world is divers and a
blessing gift for development; but become sources of conflict. Why?
The term ―culturally diverse is often used interchangeably with the concept of multiculturalism.
Recognition of the abundant diversity of cultures; respect for the differences; acknowledging the
validity of different cultural expressions and contributions; valuing what other cultures offer; encouraging the
contribution of diverse groups; empowering people to strengthen themselves and others to achieve their
maximum potential by being critical of their own biases; and celebrating rather than just tolerating the
differences in order to bring about unity through diversity are important elements in defining and describing
multiculturalism
Cultural diversity is when population differences are well represented within a community. These include
race, ethnicity, age, ability, language, nationality, socioeconomic status, gender, religion and geographical
area. Here we will discuss the following diversities: Ethnic diversity

Activities
1. What do we mean by ethnic diversity?
2. What are the strengths and weakness of ethnic diversity?
3. Why are the causes of ethnic conflict?
4. What could be the mitigation for ethnic conflict?
The diversity of something is the fact that it contains many very different elements. The terms "race" and
"ethnicity" used interchangeably, but, generally speaking, the meanings are distinct. Race is usually seen as
biological, referring to the physical characteristics of a person, while ethnicity is viewed as a social science
construct that describes a person's cultural identity. It is including nationality, regional culture, ancestry, and
language.
In uneducated or poorly educated nations, the negative effect of ethnic diversity on economic performance is
that more ethnically diverse societies suffer more serious internal conflicts; because quality education teaches
tolerance. Inequality among the ethnic groups, when the majority dominates the minority, creates conflict.

Benefits of Cultural Diversity

There are many advantages of a diverse in schools and workplaces. Organizations can benefit from
employees who bring language skills, cultural experience, and creativity to the table. An organizations success
can be dependent upon its ability to embrace a diverse staff. The following are some of the benefit of cultural
diversities
Increased productivity
Improved creativity
Increased profits
Improved employee engagement
Reduced employee turnover
Improved company reputation
Wider range of skills
Improves cultural insights
Reduced Fear, Improved Performance
Put a variety of world views into one room, and you'll come out the other side with better ideas
Boost Your Brand's Reputation
Global Impact
In the same vein, workplace diversity boosts creativity
Schools‘ cultural diversity enriches the educational experience
Through culturally diverse classroom and in a cooperative learning, students have the opportunity to
learn from people with different backgrounds and upbringings, leading to increased innovation and
collaboration
It helps dispel negative stereotypes and personal biases about different groups.
In addition, cultural diversity helps us recognize and respect ―ways of being‖ that are not necessarily
our own; so that as we interact with others we can build bridges to trust, respect, and understanding across
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 cultures; inclusiveness.

Religious diversity
Religious diversity is the fact that there are significant differences in religious belief and practice. Religious
pluralism is an attitude or policy regarding the diversity of religious belief systems co-existing in society;
harmonious co-existence between adherents of different religions or religious denominations. Activities
related to social hostility like violence, terrorism, harassment over dressing because of religious cause and
religion abuse has increased
How to Resolve Conflict
1. Agree on a mutually acceptable time and place to discuss the conflict
2. State the problem as you see it and list your concerns
3. Let the other person have his/her say
4. Listen and ask questions
5. Stick to one conflict at a time — to the issue at hand
6. Seek common ground
7. Seek for win-win approaches. The win-win approach sees conflict resolution as an opportunity to come to a
mutually beneficial result. It includes identifying your opponent's underlying concerns and finding an
alternative which meets each party's concerns.
Gender differences
In general terms, "sex" refers to the biological differences between males and females, such as the genitalia
and genetic differences. "Gender" can refer to the role of a male or female in society, known as a gender role,
or an individual's concept of themselves, or gender identity. either of the two sexes (male and female),
especially when considered with reference to social and cultural differences rather than biological ones.
What is expected from society to equally treat of female?

 Our priorities are winning economic equality and securing equal rights for women;
 Reproductive freedom and other women's health issues;
 An equitable distribution of life's opportunities and resources between women and men, and/or the
equal representation of women and men
 Every woman and girl is entitled to live in dignity and in freedom, without any fear.
 Caring practices for female, not violence
 Equal opportunity for education and employment
 Gender Justice is indispensable for development, poverty reduction, and is crucial to achieving human
progress

Marginalized group of people

Marginalization is a process that includes many external forces. People may be marginalized on the basis of
the social, gender, cultural, ethnic, economic, social order, beliefs and other factors. Marginal groups can
always be identified by members of dominant society, and will face irrevocable discrimination. Marginalized
groups exist nearly everywhere. They are people who, for whatever reason, are denied involvement in
mainstream economic, political, cultural and social activities.
Targeting or ignoring one group can ultimately affect the whole society in all aspects of development.
Marginalization comprises those processes by which individuals and groups are ignored or relegated to the
sidelines of political debate, social negotiation, and economic bargaining and kept there. Neoclassical
economists trace marginalization to individual character flaws or to cultural resistance to individualism.
Marginalization is the result of systemic actions that the "in group" takes, whether consciously or
unconsciously, to alienate or disenfranchise a specific person or groups of people by sidelining them from the
group's main activities and contributions
Creating friendly environments for marginalized people
1. Tolerate for the differences opinions and attitudes
2. Seek out marginalized voices and perspectives and provide support
3. Confront your own racist thought and try to be inclusive of all the differences
4. Use your privilege to support marginalized people‘s movements
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 5. Give your time and money, if possible for the success of inclusive development
6. Be proactive about inclusion in your daily life
7. Avoid segregation
8. Do the work that help to promote inclusiveness

The most vulnerable are women, children, aged, those living with HIV/AIDS, mental illness, minority people
with language and cultural diversity, disability and the like. Girls and women from the marginalized groups
are more vulnerable to violence. The dropout, illiteracy, un-employability and poverty rates among them are
also high.

Chapter summary
Inclusiveness is standing against exclusion and marginalization; and the move towards peace, democracy and
development. It is important to help people to become independent, develop a belief in them (confidence) so
that they become successful without further helping them too much. Provide opportunities for children and
women to have sustained social interactions and participate fully in the program. Inclusiveness values all
kinds of diversities and the unique contributions of each student bring to the classroom and adults to the work
and social environments. In a truly inclusive setting, every person feels safe and has a sense of belonging.
Students and their parents participate in setting learning goals and take part in decisions that affect them.
Finally, inclusive education creates inclusive society.

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 CHAPTER 6: LEGAL FRAME WORK
General Overview of Legal frameworks
Discrimination against persons with disabilities has a long history and persons with disabilities are regularly
excluded from participation in society and denied their human rights. Discrimination against the disabled can
take many forms, ranging from limited educational opportunities to more subtle forms, such as segregation
and isolation because of physical and social barriers. The effects of discrimination are most clearly felt in the
sphere of economic, social and cultural rights, in the fields of, for instance, housing, employment, transport,
cultural life and access to public services. The obstacles the disabled face in enjoying their human rights are
often the result of exclusion, restriction, or preference, and, for instance, when the disabled do not have access
to reasonable accommodation on the basis of their limitations, their enjoyment or exercise of human rights
may be severely restricted. In order for disabled persons to freely enjoy their fundamental human rights,
numerous cultural and social barriers have to be overcome; changes in values and increased understanding at
all levels of society has to be promoted, and those social and cultural norms that perpetuate myths about
disability have to be put to rest.
According to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, ―All human beings are born free and equal in
dignity and rights. However, this is far from being a reality for persons with disability around the world. This
is because people with disabilities ‘living conditions are always worse than those of other citizens. They are
very often excluded and marginalized different areas of life such as participation in education, social
activities, economy, and politics and so on.
The rights of persons with disability have increasingly been recognized by international and national law. For
example, The Declaration on the Rights of Mentally Retarded Persons (1971) and the Declaration on the
Rights of Disabled Persons (1975) both establish the principle of equality of the rights of persons with
disability. The Declaration on the Rights of Deaf-Blind Persons (1979) adopted by the Economic and Social
Council provides universal rights.
The above legislations and other which were enacted after the above declarations prompted people with
disabilities addresses all aspects of disabled persons‘ lives, such as equal opportunities, physical environment,
services, education, employment, and social welfare. Using legal frameworks regarding persons with
disability suggests some measures governments should take in order to ensure that persons with disability
become fully equal citizens. The rules also act as an international instrument and as a mechanism of control to
guarantee the effective application of the stated rights. However, it is not possible to force governments to
apply them, and the rules require a concrete commitment from governments in order to transform equal
opportunities for disabled persons into reality—a commitment which is often lacking.
Legal Frameworks Regarding Inclusion
They also have right to use public services (civil right), membership of any associations and organization,
participation in different activities like voting. Children and youth with disabilities have moral, civil, parental,
ethical and legal rights (right to learn with non- disabled children).They should not be treated as marginal,
rather they must involve in different community activities. They must be consulted and be involved in
decision making processes. Inclusive in education is the most effective means of combating discriminatory
Attitudes, creating welcoming community and building an inclusive society. They are essential to the
enjoyment and exercise of human right. Thus, the right to an inclusive education for persons with disabilities
is a fundamental human right. It emerged first in general guarantees set forth in the Universal Declaration on
Human Rights and then in more detailed expression in the International Covenant on Economic and Cultural
Rights (ICESCR). Other international instruments express the link between the right to education and the
needs of persons with disabilities.
In addition, states have specific obligations under international law to respect, protect and fulfill the right to
inclusive education for persons with disabilities. The obligation to respect requires States to refrain from
denying or limiting equal access to inclusive education for persons with disabilities. This right should be
guaranteed by law.

International human rights instruments protect the rights of persons with disabilities through the principles of
equality and non-discrimination. There are a number of international legal frameworks regarding people with
disability that are aimed at protecting the rights of persons with disabilities through the principles of equality
and non- discrimination. The table below indicates the major types of international legal frameworks.

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Key International Instruments and other Documents that Promote Inclusion

 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights – Article 26

 1960 UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education – Articles 1, 3 and 4
 1965 International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination – Article 5
 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights – Article 13
 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights – Articles 18 and 19
 1973 ILO Convention on the Minimum Age for Employment – Article 7
 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women – Article 10
 1982 World Program of Action Concerning Disabled Persons proposals for implementation, national
action, part 2
 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child – Articles 23, 28 and 29
 1989 ILO Convention Concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples – Articles 26, 27, 28, 29, 30 and
31
 1990 The World Declaration on Education for All, Jomtien
 1993 The Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities
 1994 The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education
 1999 ILO Convention on the Worst Forms of Child Labor – Article 7
 1999 Salamanca Five Years On Review
 2000 World Education Forum Framework for Action, Dakar
 2000 Millennium Development Goals focusing on Poverty Reduction and Development
 2002 EFA Global Monitoring Report: EFA
 2004 EFA Global Monitoring Report: Gender and Education for All – the leap to quality
 2005 EFA Global Monitoring Report: Education for All – the quality imperative
 2006 EFA Global Monitoring Report: Literacy for Life
 2006 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
 2007 EFA Global Monitoring Report: Strong Foundations – early childhood care and education
 2008 EFA Global Monitoring Report: Education for All by 2015
National Laws and Policy Frameworks Related With Rights of People with Disabilities Equal Participation
in Education, Social, Economic, Apolitical and Other Aspect of Life

1. Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia-1995: Article 41(5) of the Constitution
sets out the State‘s responsibility for the provision of necessary rehabilitation and support services
for people with disabilities. This provision, which is found in the socio- economic rights of citizens,
does not ensure the equal employment opportunity of PWDs. Rather, it conveys a message that
PWDs are among those who deserve assistance since they are incapable of engaging in productive
life.
2. Labor Proclamation, No. 377/2003, amended by Labor Proclamation No. 494/2006: It states that it is
unlawful for an employer to discriminate against workers on the basis of nationality, sex, religion,
political outlook or on any other conditions.
3. The Federal Civil Servant Proclamation- No. 515/2007: It offers for special preference in the
recruitment, promotion, and deployment, among others, of qualified candidates with disabilities.
This provision is applicable to government offices only.
4. Proclamation concerning the Rights to Employment for Persons with Disabilities- No. 568/2008: The
proclamation makes null and void any law, practice, custom, attitude and other discriminatory
situations that limit equal opportunities for persons with disabilities.
5. National Plan of Action of Persons with Disabilities -(2012-2021): The documents aim at making
Ethiopia an inclusive society. It addresses the needs of persons with disabilities in Ethiopia for
comprehensive Rehabilitation services, equal opportunities for education, skills training and work,
as well as full participation in the life of their families, communities and the nation.
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 1. Proclamation concerning the Rights of Disabled Persons to Employment-No.101/1994:
2. The Federal Civil Servant Proclamation (Proclamation -No 1064/2017: Article 13/2 of proclamation
no 1064/2017 recognizes that:‘ There shall be no discrimination among job seekers or civil servants
in filling vacancies because of their ethnic origin, sex, religion, political outlook, disability, HIV/AIDS
or any other ground.‘ Therefore, there can be no discrimination against persons with disabilities
during job recruitment on the basis of their disability. Moreover, Article 49 of the same
proclamation provides for the applicable conditions of work for workers with disabilities as follows:
1) Persons with disabilities shall be entitled to affirmative action in recruitment, promotion, transfer,
redeployment, education and training; 2) Any government institution shall ensure that its working
environment is conducive to civil servants with disabilities, provide them with the necessary tools
and materials and train them how to use such
tools and materials; 3) Any government institution shall have the responsibility to assign a person who shall provide
proper assistant for those civil servants with disability that requires assistance; and 4) Privileges prescribed by other
laws to persons with disabilities shall be applicable for the implementation of this Proclamation.

12. Labor Proclamation-1156/2019: This proclamation controls the private sector employment relationship. Article
15 of the proclamation outlaws discrimination on the basis of disablement. It provides: discrimination any distinction,
exclusion or preference made on the basis of nation, race, color, sex, religion, political opinion, national extraction,
social origin, HIV/AIDS status, disablement and others which has the effect of nullifying or impairing equality of
opportunity or treatment in employment or occupation.

13. Organization of Civil Society Proclamation -No. 1113/2019: This proclamation is a newly enacted legislation
replacing its predecessor proclamation 621/2009. It regulates issues concerning formation, registration, activities and
dissolution of civil society organization. Agency for civil society organization has been also established to facilitate and
monitor the activities of civil society organization. Article 11 of this proclamation expressly provides that persons with
disabilities should be included as a member to enhance and strengthen benefit and involvement of part of the society
with disability. Furthermore, article 62/9 of the same proclamation orders those civil society organizations working on
the benefit of the general public to take into account the issue of persons with disabilities. It is established for the
benefit of the general public or third parties shall ensure that its activities take into account the interests of women,
Children, persons with disabilities, the elderly and others exposed to threat or vulnerable groups of the society.

14. The Revised higher institutions proclamation- No. 1152/2019: This proclamation has been enacted in
replacement of its predecessor proclamation 650/2009. This proclamation has incorporated some rights entitling
students with disabilities. According to article 51 of such proclamation. accordingly the institutions shall: make, to the
extent possible, their facilities and programs amenable to use with relative ease for students with physical disabilities;
shall, to the extent that situations and resources permit, relocate classes, develop alternative testing procedures, and
provide different educational auxiliary aids in the interest of students with physical disabilities and learning disabilities;
consider building designs, campus physical landscape, computers and other infrastructures of institutions shall take into
account the interests of physically disabled students; shall ensure that students with physical challenges get academic
assistance, including tutorial sessions, exam time and submission date deadline extensions; shall provide additional
resources, as necessary, to maintain the speed and need of education, the allocation of additional resources, is
necessary. The details shall be determined by a directive

15. Advertisement Proclamation -No. 759/2012: It focuses on regulating commercial advertisement are made.
According to article 7/4 of this proclamation, advertisement which undermines the dignity and emotional feeling of a
physically disabled person is immoral. According to Article 7 advertisements shall be deemed to be as having unlawful
or immoral content or presentation when they undermine the dignity or emotional feeling of physically disabled person
or a person living with HIV/AIDS or suffering from other disease.
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16. The Ethiopian Building proclamation -No 624/2009: Its focuses on buildings and construction- it says that all
public building to have a means to access by physical disabled persons. Moreover, it dictates that toilet on such
buildings must be accessible. Article 36 states that any public building shall have a means of access suitable for use by
physically impaired persons, including those who are obliged to use wheelchairs and those who are able to walk but
unable to negotiate steps. Additionally, toilet facilities are required in any building, as adequate number of such
facilities shall be made suitable for use by physically impaired persons and shall be assessable to them

17. Definition of Powers and Duties of the Executive Organs of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
Proclamation -No. 1097/2018: It mainly focuses on addressing common responsibility of ministries in general and the
specific duty for ministry of labor and social affair in Creating conditions whereby persons with disabilities, the elderly,
and segments of society vulnerable to social and economic problems benefit from equal opportunities and full
participation (article10/4).

18. Developmental Social Welfare Policy 1997: It specifically targets people with disabilities and sets out to
safeguard their rights and to promote opportunities for vocational rehabilitation. full participation in education, health,
political, economic and social activities and other activities

19. The FDRE Education and Training Policy of 1994: This document recognizes that special attention must be
provided for those with special needs. However, it does not have any clear recognition for reasonable accommodation

20. The FDRE special needs/inclusive education strategy 2012: This document focuses on inclusive education policy,
strategies and responsibilities of stakeholders.

Chapter Summary

Legal frameworks are one of the drivers for the rights of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities. They have
influence on especially educational rights of these people with their peers. Legal frameworks are supposed to serve
people with disabilities needs by keeping equal rights and creating equal opportunity of learning for all such as children
and youth in the mainstreamed classrooms. Moreover, it is believed to create academic and social inclusion, and
maintain friendship among persons with and without disabilities and vulnerabilities. Besides, legal frameworks are
thought to help the persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities to exploit their potential to the optimum possible level.

International national legal frameworks are written in the form of public laws and acts, declarations, conventions and
frameworks. These legal frameworks focus on various issues (social, educational, occupational, vocational etc) of
children, youth and adults with disabilities.

The Ethiopian government has endorsed almost all of the conventions and declarations. But studies showed that
various challenges are facing their implementations. As a result, there is mismatch between practice and these
frameworks implantation.

There also national legal frameworks mainly in the form of laws and policies that promote persons with disabilities and
vulnerabilities equal participation in education, social welfare, economy and other areas of life. Although Ethiopia has
lots of laws, polices and others international legal frameworks ratified by the country, there is gap in implementation
and practices that promote equality of people with disabilities and vulnerabilities equal participation in social,
educational, occupational, vocational and other aspects of life.

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CHAPTER 7: RESOURCES MANAGEMENT FOR INCLUSION

Inclusion demands resources to meet the need of all members of communities and to facilitate equal participants in all
sphere of life. Our environment, now more so than before, need to be ready to include people from different
backgrounds, with differing needs and abilities. For such a situation we need to adapt and modify our environment to all
people be accessible. Inclusion refers to the process of providing all necessary services according to the needs of
divers‘population in the community and bringing support services instead of mobilizing resources in a separate setting.
Inclusion assumes that the best provision for all according to their need and potential regular schools, in the work place
and in the community. Population with a wide range of diversities such as disabilities, cultural and linguistic minorities
and vulnerabilities, academic abilities and behavioral needs are represented in inclusive environment.

Provisions of Resources

The resource should be considered for people with disabilities in workplaces, social gatherings, recreational and in
schools that help them to feel comfortable, secure and work at their independent and team activities. Available
resources those meet their needs can help persons with disabilities move towards success.

Resources for school children

All concerned bodies should be inclusive in their planning, budgeting and taking action for the education of persons with
disabilities. In the school settings resource rooms are very important at.

School based resource room

The resource room is a classroom where a special education program can be delivered to a student with a disability and
learning difficulty. It is for those students who belong to a regular class but need some special instructions in an
individualized or small group setting for a portion of the day. It is typically a large room in the main school building with
lots of facilities for children with special needs. This program includes remedial, compensatory and developmental
instruction, which is provided in small groups for usually three to five hours per week. Students may be provided direct
services in the classroom. Indirect services can also be provided to the student through consultation with the general
education teachers to support in adjusting the learning environment or modify the instructional methods. When additional
support is appropriate to meet the student‘s needs, the student can receive the pull- out program. This form of a pull
out system, where a child attends a session in the resource room during a light period of the day such as singing or
physical training, receives individual help in a weak area of learning such as reading or writing. Methods and materials
are adapted to students' learning styles and characteristics using multisensory and other specialized approaches

Activity
1. What human resources are required in this resource room?
2. What material resources are important for equally present in the classroom,
participate, receive support and achievement?

Human resources in schools

 Sign language interpreter
 Braille specialist
 Mobility and orientation expert
 Special needs educators
 Speech and language therapist
 Physiotherapist

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  Behavioral therapists…etc
School based material resources

LCD and/or Smart Board

E - Chart
Various magnifying lenses
Slate and styles
Perkins Braille writer
White Cane
Blind folder
Tuning fork
Audiometer
Hearing aids (various type)
Sign language books and videos
Various instructional videos related this unit
Braille atlases
Molded plastic, dissected and un-dissected relief maps
Relief globs
Land form model
Abacus
Raised clock faces
Geometric area and volume aids
Write forms for matched planes and volumes
Braille rulers
Raised-line check books
Signature guide
Longhand-writing kit
Script letter – sheets and boards
Talking calculator
Closed-circuit television
Computer software for various students with special needs; for example Jawse for blind and sign
language software for deaf
Orthosis
Prosthosis
Environmental accessibilities

- Ramps
- Elevators
- Wheel chairs

And others additional resources

Accommodations
Accommodations are adjustments that teachers and school personnel make to maximize learning and social
well-being for individual students.
Instructional accommodation checklist
 Use a multisensory approach.
 Use a highly structured format for presentations.
 Use graphic organizers.
 Present material in small, sequential steps.
 Teach specific strategies (e.g. taking notes, reading comprehension).
 Review key points frequently.
 Assign a buddy reader or note taker.
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  Provide students with outline of notes.
 Use color coding to match materials and concepts.
 Reduce visual distractions.
 Seat student close to board, teacher, or student helper: away from door or window.
 Provide a quiet work area.
 Allow students to move if needed. Use visual reminders as memory aids.
 Use teacher-initiated signals for redirecting attention.
 Highlight sections of text.
 Provide tape recording of lecture or required texts.
 Give oral and written directions.
 Speak slowly and clearly.
 Allow for longer response time.

Chapter Summary

Resources are very important to create inclusiveness. Resources are for all human being; though the attention
if much given for persons with disabilities. All individuals can grow and develop if they are accessed and
provided. Primarily understanding the diverse needs of all people is very important to plan for the resources.
Incorporating the communication styles/channel of diver‘s population is vital. Creating equal opportunities
and access to equal growth and development is necessary and considering and encouraging different
perspective using the provided resources is important to celebrate diversity. If we neglect human and material
resources to create inclusiveness, we remain with our poverty ever.

CHAPTER 8: COLLABORATIVE (COOPERATIVE) PARTNERSHIPS WITH STAKEHOLDERS

INTRODUCTION
An individual or an institute cannot do everything they want for the success of inclusiveness. They require
collaboration and partnership. Collaborative is becoming an effective team player for the intended success.
Collaboration referred to as collaborative consultation, cooperative planning, implementation, assessment, co-
teaching and any kind of team-based services or community of practice. It has potential to create synergy –
where the whole is greater than the sum of the parts. It has the potential to provide opportunities for you to
learn new ways of addressing barriers to learning, working, living and for colleagues to learn from each other.
Collaboration should be with all human being for the success of inclusiveness. Collaboration should be based
on avoiding stereotype thinking that discriminate or undermine the capacities of human being, demands
equality, equity and creating mutual respect. Besides collaboration, cooperation is also vital for human being
to meet life goal.
Definition of collaboration, partnership and stack holder
Collaboration is defined as ―the act of working together to produce or create something
according to the capacities and abilities of individuals. Each individual‘s collaboration is based on his
knowledge and skills. A person should not be discriminated due to mismatch with other people‘s
abilities; because he has his own quality in other perspectives. Collaboration means 'to work with
another person or group in order to achieve accomplish intended goals. Collaboration provides every
team member with equal opportunities to participate and communicate their ideas.
Collaboration in the workplace is when two or more people (often groups) work together through idea
sharing and thinking to accomplish a common goal. It is simply teamwork taken to a higher level. The phrase
'putting our heads together' would be a good example of this important element of collaboration.
Collaboration enables individuals to work together to achieve a defined and common business purpose. It
exists in two forms:

 Synchronous, where everyone interacts in real time, as in through telephone, email, online meetings,
through instant texts messages, or via Viber, and
 The team sees value in working together as the common goal gives them a meaningful reason to work
together, along with receiving mutual benefits for the institution as well as the team.
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The advantages of collaboration can also be seen in terms of individual output. Creating a sense of
teamwork and building bonds encourages team members to work for the collective rather than just
themselves.

Key elements of successful collaboration

The relationship includes a commitment to: mutual relationships and goals; a jointly developed structure and
shared responsibility; mutual authority and accountability for success; and sharing of resources and rewards.
A Collaboration Checklist What factors are helping or hindering your collaboration efforts?
We've got the four most important elements of teamwork to help you build a team that will lead your
company to success.
Respect. This one should be a no-brainer. ...
Communication. While respect is probably the most important element of teamwork, communication is
the tool that will generate that respect. ...
Delegation. ...
Support.

To kick off our All about collaboration series, we consider the nature of successful collaboration, its
benefits and what is needed within an organization for it to flourish. Collaboration in the workplace is
when two or more people work together through idea sharing and thinking to achieve a common goal.

General principles of collaboration

 Establish clear common goals for the collaboration.

 Define your respective roles and who is accountable for what, but accept joint responsibility for the
decisions and their outcomes
 Take a problem-solving approach – with a sense that all those in the collaborative arrangement share
ownership of the problem and its solution.
 Establish an atmosphere of trust and mutual respect for each others‘ expertise.
 Aim for consensus decision-making.
 Ask for and give immediate and objective feedback to others in a nonthreatening and non-judgmental
manner.
 Give credit to others for their ideas and accomplishments
 Develop procedures for resolving conflicts and manage these processes skillfully.
 Better still, anticipate possible conflicts and take steps to avoid them as far as possible. This is not to say
that disagreements can, or even should, be avoided. Arrange periodic meetings to review progress in the
collaborative arrangements.
What are the advantages of collaboration?
 Higher employee productivity
 The advantages of collaboration can also be seen in terms of individual output.
 Creating a sense of teamwork and building bonds encourages team members to work for the
collective rather than just themselves
 Greater efficiency and less duplicated effort.
 Access to additional resources or lower costs through sharing resources such as office space,
administration or other aspects of an organization‘s operation.
 Improved service coordination across agencies, with better pathways or referral systems for
service users.
Challenges to Team Collaboration
 Indecisive decision-makers. Ironic, isn't it? ...
 "E-fail" This is a little term used for when email straight up fails. ...
 Mis (sing) communication. When collaborating, there is always room for misinterpretation and
miscommunication.
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  Process sinking vs. process syncing.
 Too many cooks.
 Negative Nancy.

Cooperativeness
Cooperation is one of the components of collaboration. As an adjective, cooperative
describes working together agreeably for a common purpose or goal as in cooperative play or cooperative
employee. As a noun, a cooperative is a jointly- owned business or enterprise where members pool their
resources to purchase, do work, and/or distribute things. Cooperativeness helps individuals to willing learn
from each other. Learners work together in small groups, helping each other to carry out individual and group
tasks. Interdependence: all group members seek to achieve a group goal and help each others‘ achievement;
Individual accountability: each member of the group is held responsible for his or her own learning, which in
turn contributes to the group goal; Cooperation: the learners discuss, problem-solve and collaborate with each
other; Face to face interaction and establish consensus; and Evaluation: members of the group review and
evaluate how they worked together and make changes as needed. It requires interdependence, which can take
one or more forms that help to create inclusiveness:
1. Goal interdependence: the group has a single goal.
2. Reward interdependence: the whole group receives acknowledgement for achieving the goal
3. Resource interdependence: each group member has different resources (knowledge or materials) that
must be combined to complete a task
4. Role interdependence: each group member is assigned a different role (e.g, leader, reporter, time-
keeper)
In cooperative learning and works, the strategies for effective co-planning and team working are very
important. The following steps will help you and your group to work effectively together.
1. Have clear objectives
2. At each stage you should try to agree on goals
3. Set ground rules
4. Communicate efficiently
5. Build consensus
6. Define roles
7. Clarify your plans, process and achievements all the time
8. Keep good records
9. Stick to the plan

Stakeholder
Definition of a Stakeholder

A stakeholder is any person, organization, social group, or society at large that has a stake in the business.
Thus, stakeholders can be internal or external to the business. A stake is a vital interest in the business or its
activities. Be both affected by a business and affect a business. A business is any organization where people
work together. In a business, people work to make and sell products or services. A business can earn a profit
for the products and services it offers. The word business comes from the word busy, and means doing things.
It works on regular basis. All human being can participate in any kind of business equally without
discrimination based on their disability, culture, language, religion, gender, rural, urban and the like.
Stakeholders can affect or be affected by the organization's actions, objectives and policies. Some examples
of key stakeholders are creditors, directors, employees, government (and its agencies), owners
(shareholders), suppliers, unions, and the community from which the business draws its resources.

In business, a stakeholder is usually an investor in your company whose actions determine the outcome of
your business decisions. Stakeholders don't have to be equity shareholders. They can also be your
employees, who have a stake in your company's success and incentive for your products to succeed.
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Roles of Stakeholders in a Project

Stakeholders are usually parties who have a stake in a project and have a great influence on its success or
failure. They may be equity or preference shareholders, employees, the government agencies, contractors,
financial institutions, competitors, suppliers and the general public

What are the benefits of stakeholder participation?

 Provide all stakeholders with full opportunities to share their views, needs and knowledge on
flood management.
 Build consensus through bringing together a diverse range of stakeholders to share needs,
information, ideas and knowledge and harmonize the objectives of individual groups to reach
common societal goals.

Characteristics of successful stockholders partnerships

 Existence of an agreement: Partnership is the outcome of an agreement between two or more

persons to carry on business or offer services for the community
 Sharing of profits or stratification for the services offered to the community
 Establishing equal and equitable relationship
 Membership without discrimination
 Nature of liability Fusion of ownership and control
 Non-transferability of interest
 Trust. Without trust there can be no productive conflict, commitment, or accountability
 Common values. I believe that having common values is the very foundation of the successful
partnership
 Defined expectations
 Mutual respect
 Synergy
 Great two-way communications
What makes a good strategic alliance partner?
 They have a similar audience
 They are not your competitors
 They can give you access to new customers and prospects
 They want to work with you
 They want something you can offer
What are the main features of a partnership?

Participants described the right partnership behaviors principally as being effective co- ordination and
chairing, and a set of personal skills and qualities including good listening, clear communication, honesty,
patience, enthusiasm, acceptance and love.

A strategic alliance implies that: the success of the alliance impacts one or more major business or service
goals. The success of the alliance develops or reinforces a core competency, especially one which provides a
competitive advantage and / or blocks a competitive threat

Strategies for community involvement inclusive development

 Commit to participation of all persons with diversities
 Establish non-discriminative effective communication with all people with divers back
ground
 Expect to do most of the work yourself following the inclusive principle
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  Tap into local networks, culture and indigenous experiences of inclusiveness
 Use all possible communication channel including sign language for deaf people
Community development is about the inclusive involvement of all people, regardless of their diversities,
enhancing equality, respecting their full right in terms of educational opportunities and employability. The
creation of opportunities to enable all members of a community to actively contribute to and influence
the development process and to share equitably in the fruits of any development endeavours. Participation
has an intrinsic value for participants and a catalyst for further development; encourages a sense of
responsibility; guarantees that a felt need is involved; ensures things are done the right way; uses valuable
indigenous knowledge; frees people from dependence on others' skills; and makes people more
independent and productive

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