Lab #0: Introduction to the Electronic Devices Laboratory

Prof. Alex Julian Mantilla Rios

Electronic Devices Laboratory
Universidad Industrial de Santander - alex2248086@correo.uis.edu.co

Abstract—This introductory laboratory session serves as a gateway magnitude (in decibels) and phase (in degrees) of 𝐻(𝑗𝜔) as a
to the Electronic Devices Laboratory, designed to familiarize students function of 𝜔 or 𝑓 in a logarithmic scale, where 𝜔 and 𝑓 are
with essential measurement tools and fundamental circuit analysis. the frequency variables in radians per second (rad/s) and hertz
Students will gain hands-on experience using signal generators, (Hz), respectively.
oscilloscopes, and other equipment while exploring the behavior of As an example, assume that the transfer function is given
a first-order RC low-pass filter. Through time-domain visualization
as:
and frequency response analysis, participants will learn to measure, 1
simulate, and interpret key circuit parameters such as voltage, 𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑠
frequency, gain, and phase. This lab emphasizes the practical skills 1+
(2𝜋⋅1000)
necessary for circuit characterization, providing a strong foundation
for future explorations in electronics. 1
𝐻(𝑠)|𝑠=𝑗𝜔 = 𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = 𝑗𝜔
1+
(2𝜋⋅1000)
keywords—Signal Generator, Oscilloscope, RC Low-Pass Filter, Cir-
cuit Characterization, Time-Domain Analysis, Frequency Response Then, we can express the magnitude and the phase of 𝐻(𝑗𝜔)
as
Required Elements: 1
|𝐻(𝑗𝜔)| = √
Students are required to bring the following components to 1 + (𝜔∕(2𝜋 ⋅ 1000))2
the lab session:
∠𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = − tan−1 (𝜔∕(2𝜋 ⋅ 1000))
1. Masking Tape: To label your circuit and measurements.
2. Resistors: If the input signal is 𝑉𝑖 (𝑡) = 0.2 sin(2𝜋 ⋅ 3000𝑡), which is a
sinusoidal signal with 0.2 V amplitude and 3 kHz (or 2𝜋 ⋅ 3000
• At least 2 resistors to build the circuit from Fig 1.
rad/s) frequency, then the output signal can be calculated as
3. Capacitors: follows:
• At least 1 capacitor to build the circuit from Fig 1.
𝑉𝑜 (𝑡) = 0.0632 sin(2𝜋 ⋅ 3000𝑡 − 1.25)
4. Breadboard: For circuit assembly.
5. Connecting Wires: Assorted jumper wires for connec- where:
tions.
|𝐻(𝑗2𝜋 ⋅ 3000)| = 0.316, ∠𝐻(𝑗2𝜋 ⋅ 3000) = −1.25 rad
Introduction
The output voltage 𝑉𝑜 (𝑡) calculated above can be verified
Frequency response is a representation of the system’s re- using either time-domain (transient) or frequency-domain
sponse to sinusoidal inputs at varying frequencies; it is defined (AC) simulation. However, AC simulation provides easier
as the magnitude ratio and phase difference between the in- comparison and includes data for any input frequency, while
put and output signals. Using the frequency of the source in transient simulation shows the actual voltage output for a
a circuit as a reference, it is possible to perform a complete specific set of input signals, revealing additional details such
analysis in both the frequency and time domains. Frequency as initial transients, nonlinearity, and DC components.
domain analysis is simpler than time domain analysis because
the differential equations used in the time domain are trans-
Lab Activities
formed into linear equations that are functions of the complex
frequency variable 𝑠. It is important to obtain the frequency
response of a circuit because we can predict its response to any
input signal.
In this laboratory experiment, we will plot the frequency
response of first-order RC circuits. We can characterize the
circuits by two features of the frequency response:
1. The difference between the magnitude of the output and
input signals (given by the amplitude ratio).
2. The time lag or lead between input and output signals
(given by the phase shift).
To plot the frequency response, the value of the transfer
𝑉 (𝑠)
function 𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑜 is calculated within a range of input
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠)
frequencies. A particularly important method of displaying Figure 1. RC Low-Pass Filter Schematic
frequency response is the Bode plot, which represents the

Electronic Devices Universidad Industrial de Santander | August 21, 2024 | Lab #0: Introduction to the Electronic Devices Laboratory | I–IV
 Lab #0: Introduction to the Electronic Devices Laboratory

Phase 1: Low-Pass Filter Time Domain Visualization and • The 𝑉𝑖𝑛 source will be implemented with the signal
Measurement generator at the laboratory session.
This phase serves as an introduction to the use of essential • The ground node corresponds to the reference node.
laboratory equipment: the signal generator and the oscillo- The "triangle" element in the schematic does not
scope. Students will work with a simple RC low-pass filter as correspond to a physical element, it will be the ref-
an example circuit to explore how sinusoidal and square wave erence node to connect the signal generator and the
signals behave in the time domain. By generating signals with oscilloscope.
the signal generator and observing them on the oscilloscope, 3. Measurements:
students will learn to measure key signal properties, such as
peak-to-peak voltage (𝑉𝑝𝑝 ), maximum voltage (𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 ), min- Note
imum voltage (𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 ), average voltage (𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 ), and frequency.
This hands-on exercise will help students gain confidence in The final report HAS TO HAVE evidence of the mea-
using these instruments while understanding how the RC filter surements. The evidence is recommended in bold at
processes signals of different shapes. this section.

1. Theoretical Analysis: • Use the multimeter to measure the real value of the
chosen 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 and 𝐶. Take notes.
Note • Use the signal generator to apply a 500𝐻𝑧 sinusoidal
input, choose its peak-to-peak voltage between 2 −
At the lab session, the questions in this section can 6𝑉𝑝𝑝. Be creative. Verify the amplitude using the
be submitted on paper in handwriting for a bonus. oscilloscope before connecting it to the filter.
However, they HAVE TO BE at the final report. • Use the oscilloscope to measure the input and out-
put voltages characteristics (Vpp, Vmax, Vmin, Vavg,
𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 (𝑠)
• Prove the transfer function 𝐻(𝑠) = of the Frequency). Use both channels for that. Take
𝑉𝐼𝑁 (𝑠)
filter presented in Fig 1, can be expressed as function photo(s).
of 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 and 𝐶, given by: • Add a DC offset to the previous input (with the signal
generator). That offset should be between 500 −
𝑅2 1 900𝑚𝑉. Be creative.
𝐻(𝑠) = ⋅ (1) • Use the multimeter to measure the new voltage
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 1 + 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶 𝑠
𝑅1 +𝑅2 at the input. There are different options to mea-
sure voltage (AC and DC), compare them. Take
• Review the basic concepts of a low-pass filter (LPF),
notes/photo(s).
their transfer function, its derivation, and the mean-
• Use the oscilloscope to measure the new input and
ing of terms like the cutoff frequency (3-dB fre-
output voltages characteristics (Vpp, Vmax, Vmin,
quency) and passband gain. Summarize the infor-
Vavg, Frequency). Use both channels for that. Take
mation in two paragraphs as maximum. Cite at least
photo(s).
2 references. Please, do not abuse LLMs.
• Repeat all the measurement steps but with a
• Please, refer to the students list, there you will find
squared signal as input. Set the frequency of the
the gain (𝐾) and the cut-off frequency for your cir-
squared signal to 0.6 ⋅ 𝑓𝑐 , where 𝑓𝑐 is the cut-off
cuit (𝑓𝑐 ). Use these values, and your analysis from
frequency assigned to your group.
the circuit at Fig. 1 to select the elements (𝑅1 , 𝑅2
and 𝐶) you will use in the lab. It is strongly recom- 4. Simulation:
mended that 𝑅𝑖 ≥ 100Ω.
• Using the values obtained in the previous step, draft Note
𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 as function of the time if 𝑉𝐼𝑁 is a DC source or Simulations are key part of the final report!
a sinusoidal wave with a frequency of 𝑓0 = 0.6 ⋅ 𝑓𝑐 ,
where 𝑓𝑐 is your cut-off frequency. Mark critical
points and write general equations. Be sure to clarify Use LTSpice (or your favorite simulator) to repeat all the
the peak-to-peak Voltage (Vpp), Maximum voltage measurements described bellow. Present the results with
(Vmax), Minimum Voltage (Vmin), Average Voltage READABLE graphs and pictures.
(Vavg), and Frequency of your signals. 5. Discussion:

2. Circuit Assembly: Note

All the ideas presented in this section MUST be cov-
Note ered at the final report.
The student is required to develop the steps described
in this section BEFORE the lab session. • Are the measured values (Vpp, Vmax, Vmin, Vavg,
frequency, for both signals, sine and square) what
• In your breadboard, assemble the Low-Pass filter you expected? Create a table to compare the theoret-
configuration presented in Fig 1 using the elements ical values with those obtained from the lab imple-
calculated in the Theoretical Analysis section. mentation and simulation.

II | Electronic Devices et al.

 Lab #0: Introduction to the Electronic Devices Laboratory

• Use the resistor and capacitor values you measured

Note
to explain how these variations affect the circuit gain
and phase shift (which you proved were implicit in The final report HAS TO HAVE labeled evidence of
Eq. 1). Were they higher than expected? Lower the measurements. The evidence is recommended in
perhaps? bold at this section.
• Explain what are the values given at voltage mea-
surements using the multimeter. Use your wave • Use the multimeter to measure the real value of the
forms to support your claims and compute by hand chosen 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 and 𝐶. Take notes.
the values you claim the multimeter provides. • Set the function generator to produce a sinusoidal
• Note that the low pass filter has scaled the sinusoidal signal with a fixed amplitude of 1𝑉 (Vmax). Ensure
signal without distorting its shape. However, this is the signal does not have any DC level. Verify the in-
not the case for the square wave signal, so describe put signal using the oscilloscope before connecting
in your own words what happens to the square wave it to the filter. Take photo(s).
signal when it passes through the low pass filter. • Manually sweep the input frequency of the signal
generator from 10 Hz to 100 kHz, using at least 15-
Phase 2: Frequency Response of the Low-Pass Filter 20 frequency points. Be sure to include your cut-off
This phase focuses on manually performing a frequency sweep frequency. Use a logarithmic spacing for higher fre-
of the low-pass filter circuit to analyze its amplitude and phase quency points to capture the roll-off behavior more
response. Students will use the signal generator to vary the precisely. For each frequency:
input frequency and the oscilloscope to measure the output – Measure the amplitude of the output signal
amplitude and phase shift. (Vmax).
– Determine the time shift between the input and
1. Theoretical Analysis: output signals using the oscilloscope’s cursors
(∆𝑡). The reference is the input signal.
Note
Take photos, but in the final report include the
At the lab session, the questions in this section can most relevant only.
be submitted on paper in handwriting for a bonus.
However, they HAVE TO BE at the final report. i
Hint: The Matlab/Octave function
“logspace()" can be useful to get the loga-
• Recall the transfer function of an ideal first-order rithmic spacing.
low-pass filter:

|𝐻(𝑗𝜔)| = √
1 • Record all measurements in a table with columns for
2 frequency (𝑓), input amplitude, output amplitude,
𝜔
1+( ) time shift (in seconds) and phase shift (in degrees).
2𝜋⋅𝑓𝑐
Include the table in the final report.
𝜔 4. Simulation:
∠𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = − tan−1 ( )
2𝜋 ⋅ 𝑓𝑐
where 𝑓𝑐 is the cutoff frequency. Explain how Note
the amplitude response drops and the phase shift Simulations are key part of the final report!
evolves as the frequency increases. Summarize the
info in two paragraphs as maximum. Summarize the
information in two paragraphs as maximum. Cite Use LTSpice (or your favorite simulator) to build your
at least 2 references. Please, do not abuse LLMs. Low-Pass Filter from Fig. 1. Set the input AC amplitude
• Using the values of 𝐑𝟏 , 𝐑𝟐 and 𝐂 from phase to 1𝑉 and run an AC sweep analysis. Plot the amplitude
1, draft 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 as function of the time, if 𝑉𝐼𝑁 is a response of the filter’s output (𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡) as a function of fre-
sinusoidal wave with a frequency of 100𝑘𝐻𝑧. Mark quency on a log-log scale. Highlight the cutoff frequency
critical points and write general equations. Be sure and verify it matches the theoretical value.
to clarify the peak-to-peak Voltage (Vpp), Maximum 5. Discussion:
voltage (Vmax), Minimum Voltage (Vmin), Average
Note
Voltage (Vavg), and Frequency of your signals.
All the ideas presented in this section MUST be cov-
2. Circuit Assembly: ered at the final report.
Note
• Use any tool (Excel, Matlab/Octave, Python, etc...)
The student is required to develop the steps described
to plot the gain (in dB) and phase-shift (in degrees)
in this section BEFORE the lab session.
vs the input’s frequency. Be sure to use a log-scaled
x-axis. In that plot(s), mark the value of the gain and
• For this phase, use exactly the same circuit used in phase at your cut-off frequency.
phase 1. • Compare the experimental amplitude and phase re-
3. Measurements: sponses to the theoretical predictions. Discuss any

et al. Universidad Industrial de Santander | August 21, 2024 | Lab #0: Introduction to the Electronic Devices Laboratory | III
 Lab #0: Introduction to the Electronic Devices Laboratory

discrepancies and potential sources of error. Did you

Conclusion
achieved the expected DC gain? Did you achieved
the expected cut-off frequency? Use your data, your Conclusions are the most important part of the reports;
analysis, your equations, your lab experience, your they show the concepts that each student has internalized.
theoretical knowledge to argue this answers. Of course, they must be supported by the data and analysis
• Mention 3 application of low-pass filters. Explain in presented.
detail 1 of them.
• Recall the last point at discussion from Phase 1, we The latex code for previous conclusion is given below:
have explained the distortion to the shape of the
squared wave signal. Use the filter’s frequency re- 1 \ begin { conclusion }
2 Conclusions are the most important part of
sponse obtained from your lab experience to explain the reports ; they show the concepts that
why the squared wave signal shape is distorted by each student has internalized . Of course ...
the circuit. 3 \end{ conclusion }
i Code 1. Conclusion latex code example.
Hint: Think on the frequency components of
the squared wave signal that are "filtered". A
quick research on Fourier series of squared sig-
nals can give some light to the scenario.

Report Guidelines
Here are some guidelines for the written report. Remember
the report is NOT LIMITED to only these recommendations,
any additional analysis/measurement will be well valued.
• The first section of the report MUST BE “Justifica-
tion”, where you explain in your own words why this lab
could be useful to you. Please make this section personal,
use your own words and ideas. Evidence of any LLM will
hardly be penalized (as well as not including this section
in your report).
• Include the theoretical calculations, LTSpice simulations
and experimental measurements. Make comparisons be-
tween them.
• Provide well-labeled graphs of signals waveform. The use
of MATLAB/Octave/Python for aesthetic presentation
will be well seen.
• Avoid unnecessary sections like "introduction", "state of
the art", "theoretical background". Save your time for
the analysis. A general report structure could be split by
phases with sections like
– Theoretical Analysis
– Circuit Simulation
– Circuit Implementation
– Discussion
There should not be a "conclusions" section. The con-
clusions should be stated along the report, when a clear
conclusion is achieved.
• Conclusions are very important. They are expected
to be directly related to the work developed. Use your
measurements or analysis to support your conclusions.
General conclusions like "we have proved the implemen-
tations reflects the ideas of the theory..." are not allowed.
We are learning here :D, not changing the world.

Appendix
This laboratory has been adapted from the professor
San Palermo Laboratory sessions, available online at
https://people.engr.tamu.edu/spalermo/ecen325/lab1.pdf.
Here is presented a conclusion using this tau-book format:

IV | Electronic Devices et al.