CHAPTER 1

AN INTRODUCTION
TO BIOLOGY

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 Biology is the study of life

Absolutely!
Investigation of living organisms leads to
unforeseen discoveries that no one
would imagine!
 Characteristics of Life

1. Cells and organization

2. Energy use and metabolism
3. Response to environmental stimuli (changes)
4. Regulation and homeostasis
5. Growth and development
6. Reproduction
7. Evolution

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1. Cells are the simplest units of life.

• https://youtu.be/7pR7TNzJ_pA
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WFpBRfLtbIo
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W7c1dAOVbvw

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 2. Living organisms use energy.

Metabolism includes all the chemical reactions that occur in the cell. All organisms
use energy, and energy needs to be converted (changed) to useful energy for the cells.
Most of these reactions involve converting energy from one form to another.
This includes photosynthesis, but also getting energy by eating (consuming)
other organisms and converting the energy in the food to useful energy for the
cells by cellular respiration

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 3. Living organisms interact with .

their environment.

Examples:
• Plants start flowering in response to changes in daylight or temperature
• Venus flytrap (a carnivorous plant) closes its leaves to catch insects in response to touch
• The stems of plants grow upwards in response to light
• Roots of plants grow downward in response to gravity

Response to environmental stimuli:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pCFstSMvAMI
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4. Living organisms maintain homeostasis.

Homeostasis is about maintaining a balance inside the body/cells:

All organisms, including humans need to maintain a certain
• internal temperature (e.g. about 40 oC for humans)
• water,
• glucose,
• pH, etc.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LSgEJSlk6W4
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5. Living organisms grow and develop.

Development of salamander—from fertilized egg cell:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SEejivHRIbE&t=238s

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 6. The genetic material provides
a blueprint for reproduction.

The genetic material (DNA) provides blueprint (all the information)

for the development and functioning of all organisms.
Reproduction: All organisms reproduce—they produce ‘offspring’ (new organisms)
• Asexual reproduction (e.g. protists, bacteria):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X7Qz9oc4DsA
• Sexual reproduction (e.g. plants, animals):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ji2vDBPm3P4
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 7. Populations of organisms evolve
from one generation to the next.

Biological evolution is the process of organisms (populations)

changing over several generations.
In order for this change to happen, also the genetic makeup (DNA) of the
organisms (populations) need to change.
Changes in the DNA sequence are called genetic mutations. New species can
evolve as a results of many genetic mutations.
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 Levels of Biological Organization
From smallest to largest! For example, 5. organs include all other lower levels:
tissues, cells, molecules, atoms.
Organs are made up of tissues, tissues are made up of cells, cells are made up of…)

1. Atoms 6. Organism

2. Molecules 7. Population

3. Cells 8. Community

4. Tissues 9. Ecosystem

5. Organs 10. Biosphere

Cells are common to all life (all organisms)! (This is also true for atoms and
molecules, of course, but non-living things have molecules and atoms too.)
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.
 Levels
1. Atoms are the smallest unit of matter.
of Organization
2. Molecules are a group of atoms bonded with each other. Macromolecules are formed when
many molecules bond together to form a polymer (carbohydrates, DNA, RNA etc.).

3. The cell is the smallest unit of biological organization that biologists consider alive. All
organisms consist of cells! Molecules and macromolecules associate with each other to form
larger structures such as membranes. Cells are surrounded by a plasma membrane, carry out
complex chemical reactions, and are at least potentially capable of self reproduction.
Cells come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes.
Not all cells have a nucleus, but again all true cells have genetic material in the form of DNA.

4. Tissue is a group of similar cells that associate with each other to carry out a specific set of
functions. For example:
. Muscle tissue is for contraction.
. Connective tissue is tissue consisting of cells surrounded by a large amount of non living
material.
. Nerve tissue is for the conduction of nerve impulses and secretion of specialized chemicals
called neurotransmitters.

5. Organs are groups of two or more types of tissues organized together to carry out a
particular set of functions. Organs typically have several kinds of tissue. For example, the heart
is and organ, which is composed of several type of tissues, including muscle, nervous and
connective tissue. But also plants have organs. The flower is the reproductive organ of flowering
plants.
 Levels of Organization
6. The organism or individual is that level of biological organization that has its own distinct
existence as a complex, self reproducing unit. All living things can be called organisms.
We are multicellular organisms in that we are made of many highly specialized cells which cannot
exist independently of other cells in the organism. Many organisms are unicellular, that is consist
of a single independent cell.
Organisms are classifies as belonging to a particular species, which is a related group of organims.
The members of the same species are closely related genetically.

7. Population is group of freely interacting and breeding individuals of the same species that
occupies (live in) the same environment.

8. Community is all the populations of different species living and interacting together in a distinct
area. (e.g: all the species in a prairie). The type of species that are found in a community are
determined by the environment and by the interactions of species with each other. But a community
does NOT include the physical (non-living environment).

9. Ecosystem is a community of organisms that interact with their physical (non-living)

environment, such as the water, air, soil, rocks, etc.

10. Biosphere is the region on (land), below (water), and above (air) the Earth's surface where life
exists. Living things can be found well into the atmosphere, the deepest parts of the ocean, and at
least in some areas, microbes live in rock several kilometers below the surface of the earth.
 Classification
• Taxonomy is the grouping (or classification) of
species based on common ancestry
• Three domains of life
❑Bacteria- unicellular prokaryote
❑Archaea- unicellular prokaryote
❑Eukarya- unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes
• Complex cells with a nucleus
• Four kingdoms:
❑Protista, Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia

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 Classification of Living Organisms

Living organism

Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell Nucleus?

Bacteria Archaea Eukarya Domain

Protists Plants Animals Fungi Kingdom

1. Bacteria

2. Archaea 3. Eukarya

The 3 Domains
 Classification of Living Organisms (continued)
Taxonomy involves multiple
levels in which particular
species are placed into
progressively smaller and
smaller groups of organisms
that are more closely related
to each other. From the most
inclusive (general) to least
inclusive (general):
• Domain
• Kingdom
• Phylum
• Class
• Order
• Family
• Genus (Panthera)
• Species (Panthera onca)
(Example: Jaguar)
Each successive category above
species contains more distinct types of King Phillip Comes Over For Great Spaghetti
organisms than the preceding category. 18
 Scientific Names

Binomial
– First word represents genus.
– Second word is specific epithet or species name within
the genus.
• Genus species (Panthera onca)
Universal

Latin-based

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 Domain Bacteria: Mostly unicellular prokaryotes that .
inhabit many diverse environments on Earth.

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Education.
Domain Archaea: Unicellular prokaryotes that often live
.
in extreme environments, such as hot springs.

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Domain Eukarya: Unicellular and multicellular organisms having
cells with internal compartments that serve various functions.
4 multicellular kingdoms
In the Eukarya:

1.) Protista (Protists):

Unicellular (1 cell only)
Eukaryotic (with
nucleus)
2.) Plantae (Plants):
Multicellular (many
cells); all can do
photosynthesis
3.) Fungi:
Multicellular;
Absorb nutrients from
substrate (e.g. soil)
4.) Animalia
(Animals):
Multicellular; obtain
food by eating and
digesting others
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 Classification
• A species is placed into progressively
smaller groups that are more closely related
• Emphasizes the unity and diversity of
different species
• Example:
❑Clownfish (Amphiprion ocellaris)

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Figure 1.11
.

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 Classification continued
• Binomial nomenclature
❑Each species has a unique scientific name
❑Genus name capitalized
❑Species descriptor is not capitalized
❑Both names are italicized

Amphiprion ocellaris = Ocellaris clownfish

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 Genomes and Proteomes
• Genome
The complete genetic makeup (composition) of an
organism. It encodes (codes for) all proteins in the cells.
• Genomics
❑Techniques used to analyze DNA sequences
❑Comparison of genomes of different species

• Proteome
The complete complement (set) of proteins of an organism
• Proteomics
❑Techniques used to analyze the proteins of a species
❑Comparison of proteomes of different species

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The genome carries the information
to make the proteome.
In other words, the
genome encodes (codes)
for all the proteins in all
the cells of an organism.
Genomic and proteome
analysis
illuminate the
evolutionary history
and relatedness of all
living organisms.
Biology is an experimental science
.

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Biologists investigate life at different levels

• Different branches of biology study life at

different levels using a variety of tools.
❑Ecology, anatomy, physiology, cell biology,
molecular biology, etc.
• As new tools become available, they allow
scientists to ask new questions
• Systems biology aims to understand how
emergent properties arise, at any level

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Investigate life at different levels
Different branches of
biology study life at
different levels using
a variety of tools.

As new tools become

available, they allow
scientists to ask new
questions

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Curiosity is the key.
Understanding biology
Two general approaches:
1. Discovery-based science (WITHOUT hypothesis)
. Collection and analysis of data without the need for a
preconceived hypothesis
. Goal is to gather information
- Test drugs to look for action against disease
- Sequence genomes and proteomes
. Often leads to hypothesis testing

2. Hypothesis testing/Scientific method

Test the validity of a hypothesis and comprise Five stages:
a. Observations are made regarding natural phenomena.

b. These observations lead to a hypothesis that tries to

explain the phenomena. Remember, a scientific
hypothesis is one that is testable
c. Experimentation is conducted to determine if the predictions are correct.

d. The data from the experiment are analyzed.

e. The hypothesis is accepted (‘verified’) or rejected (‘falsify’) based on results.

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 Hypothesis or Theory?
• Hypothesis
❑A proposed explanation for a natural phenomenon
❑Based on previous observations or experiments
❑Hypotheses must make predictions that can be shown
to be correct or incorrect (must be testable)
❑Additional observations or experiments can
support or reject a hypothesis, but a hypothesis is
never really proven
• Example:
❑“Maple trees drop their leaves in autumn because of
shortened hours of sunlight”
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 Hypothesis or Theory? continued
◼ Theory
– Broad explanation of some aspect of the natural world
that is substantiated (backed up)by a large body of
evidence
– Allows us to make many predictions
– Also can never be proved true, but due to
overwhelming evidence, may be very likely to be true
◼ Two key attributes of a theory:
1. Consistent with a vast amount of known data
2. Able to make many correct predictions

◼ Example
– “DNA is the genetic material”
– Overwhelming body of evidence supports this theory
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 Hypothesis Testing
◼ Five stages
1. Observations are made regarding natural
phenomena.
2. These observations lead to a testable hypothesis
that tries to explain the phenomena.
3. Experiments are conducted to determine if the
predictions are correct.
4. The data are analyzed.
5. The hypothesis is accepted or rejected.

◼ These steps comprise the Scientific Method

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Hypothesis testing/Scientific method

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 Common features
• Data are often collected in parallel
❑Control and experimental groups
❑Differ by only a single variable
• Data analysis
❑Apply statistical analysis to determine if the control
and experimental groups are different because of
the single variable that is different
❑Are differences statistically significant?
❑If the two sets are found not to be significantly
different, we must reject our hypothesis.
❑If the two sets of data are significantly different, we
accept our hypothesis (though it is not proven)
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 Example: Cystic Fibrosis
• Affects about 1 in every 3,500 Americans
• Persons with cystic fibrosis (CF) produce
abnormally thick and sticky mucus that obstructs
the lungs and pancreas
• Average lifespan for people with CF is currently
in their mid- to late 30s

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 Example: Cystic Fibrosis
• In 1945, Dorothy Anderson determined that
cystic fibrosis (CF) is a genetic disorder
• In 1989, research groups headed by Lap-Chi Tsui,
Francis Collins, and John Riordan identified
the CF gene
• Discovery-based science, not hypothesis-testing,
found the CF gene

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Hypothesis for function of CF gene

• Hypothesis: The CF gene encodes a protein that

transports chloride ions (Cl-) across the
membrane of cells
• Led to experiments to test normal cells and
cells from CF patients for ability to transport Cl-
❑CF cells were found defective in chloride transport
❑Transferring a normal CF gene into cells in the lab
corrects this defect
• Chloride transport hypothesis is accepted

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CF Gene Hypothesis

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 Hypothesis for function of CF gene
continued
• Results supported the hypothesis that the CF gene encodes a
protein that transports Cl- across the plasma membrane
• A mutation in this gene causes it to encode a defective
transporter protein, leading to a salt imbalance
• This imbalance affects water levels outside the cell, which
explains the thick and sticky mucus in CF patients
• In this example, hypothesis testing has provided a way to accept
or reject an idea regarding how a disease is caused by a genetic
change

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