UNIT-2

1)Wireless Access Technique:

Wireless communication systems, It is often desirable to
allow the subscriber to:
Send information simultaneously from the mobile station
to base station
Receiving information from the base station to the
mobile station.
A cellular system divides any given area into cells.
The main aim in the cellular system design is to be able
to increase the capacity of the channel.
i.e., to handle as many calls as possible in a given bandwidth
with a sufficient level of quality of service.

Different ways to allow access to the channel

FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

FDMA
Assigning different frequency band (range) to each
chennel. So, any two signals should not have same type of
frequency range.
Ex- FM Radio
TDMA
TDMA is a time based access. Here, we give certain time
frame to each channel.
Ex- Reality shows in tv channels

CDMA
Unique code has been assigned to each channel to
distinguish from each other.
Ex- Sim card(Mobile number)

IEEE 802.11a
It’s a wireless local network (WLAN), It is the first Wi-
Fi standard to use a multi-carrier modulation scheme (OFDM)
to support high data rates up to 54 Mbps at 5 GHz.

IEEE 802.11g
802.11g works in the 2.4 GHz band (like 802.11b) but
operates at a maximum raw data rate of 54 Mbps.
Using the CSMA/CA transmission scheme, the
maximum net throughput is achieved.

IEEE 802.11e
IEEE 802.11e is an approved amendment to the IEEE
802.11 standard that defines a set of quality of service (QoS)
Enhancements for wireless LAN applications through
modifications to the media access control (MAC) layer.
IEEE 802.11n
IEEE 802.11n builds on previous 802.11 standards by
adding multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) and adding
channels to the PHY (physical layer), and frame aggregation
to the MAC layer.
MIMO:
It is a technology that uses multiple antennas to
coherently resolve more information than using a single
antenna. One way it provides this is through Spatial Division
Multiplexing (SDM).

IEEE 802.11ac
IEEE 802.11ac is a part of the Wi-Fi networking family,
providing high-throughput wireless local area networks
(WLANs) on the 5 GHz band.
The standard is labelled as Wi-Fi 5 by Wi-Fi Alliance.

IEEE 802.11ax
It is an IEEE draft amendment that defines modifications
to the 802.11physical layer (PHY) and the medium access
control (MAC) sublayer for high-efficiency operation
The technical term for an 802.11ax is High Efficiency
(HE).
IEEE 802.11ay
It’s enabling new wireless applications such
as: Millimeter-wave distribution networks, Data center inter-
rack connectivity, Mobile offloading, Augmented
reality/virtual reality, and 8K video streaming.
It supports MIMO technology, enabling multiple data
streams to be transmitted simultaneously, to increase
throughput and reliability.

IEEE 802.11ba
It’s a Wi-Fi standard that introduces a Wake-Up Radio
(WUR) to improve power efficiency.
Here are some key aspects of IEEE 802.11ba:
• Wake-up procedure
• Unique identification

IEEE 802.11be
IEEE 802.11be will deliver Extremely High Throughput
(EHT). It is known as Wi-Fi 7.
 Quality of Service (QoS):
It is an important concept, particularly when working
with multimedia applications.
such as video conferencing, streaming services, and VoIP
(Voice over IP), require certain bandwidth, latency, jitter.
QoS methods helps for seamless and reliable
communication.
Quality of service (QoS) that work on a network to
control traffic and ensure the performance of critical
applications with limited network capacity.
It enables organizations to adjust their overall network
traffic by prioritizing specific high-performance
applications.

QoS Specification
• Delay
• Jitter
• Throughput
• Error Rate

Types of Quality of Service

• Stateless Solutions – Routers maintain no fine-grained
state about traffic, one positive factor of it is that it is
scalable.
• Stateful Solutions – Routers maintain a per-flow state as
flow is very important in providing the Quality-of-
Service.
How does QoS Work?
Quality of Service (QoS) ensures the performance of critical
applications within limited network capacity.
• Packet Marking: QoS marks packets to identify their
service types. For example, it distinguishes between
voice, video, and data traffic.
• Virtual Queues: Routers create separate virtual queues
for each application based on priority. Critical apps get
reserved bandwidth.
• Handling Allocation: QoS assigns the order in which
packets are processed, ensuring
appropriate bandwidth for each application

Implementing QoS
• Planning
• Design
• Testing
• Deployment
• Monitoring and analyzing

Models to Implement QoS

1. Integrated Services(IntServ)
• Relies on resource reservation, and routers need to
maintain state information of allocated resources and
respond to new call setup requests.
• Network decides whether to admit or deny a new call
setup request.
2. IntServ QoS Components
• Resource reservation
• QoS-sensitive scheduling
• QoS-sensitive routing algorithm(QSPF)
• QoS-sensitive packet discard strategy.

3. Call Admission
• R-specification: defines the QoS requesting
• T-specification: defines the traffic of the channel.

4. Diff-Serv
Differentiated Service is a stateful solution. It provides
reduced state services i.e. maintaining state only for larger
granular flows rather than end-to-end flows.

BLUETOOTH:
Bluetooth is a wireless communication protocol designed
for short-range data transmission.
Bluetooth technology is based on Ad-hoc technology
also known as Ad-hoc piconets.
Bluetooth simply follows the principle of transmitting
and receiving data using radio waves.
Bluetooth employs a master-slave architecture, where
one device (the master) controls the connection and
communicates with one or more secondary devices(the slave).
 When two devices start to share data, they form a
network called piconet which can further accommodate more
than five devices.

Architecture of Bluetooth
The architecture of Bluetooth defines two types of
networks:
Piconet:
Piconet is a type of Bluetooth network that contains one
primary node called the master node and six active secondary
nodes called slave nodes.
The communication between the primary and secondary
nodes can be one-to-one or one-to-many.
Possible communication is only between the master and
slave; Slave-slave communication is not possible.
Scatternet
It is formed by using various piconets. A slave that is
present in one piconet can act as master or we can say primary
in another piconet.

PROTOCOL STACK:
Protocol stacks is a collection of protocols that work
together to provide communication services. Each protocol in
the stack is responsible for a specific task.
A protocol stack or protocol suite is the architecture of a
protocol that follows the layered architecture design principle.

Layered Architecture:
The layered architecture pattern, often known as the “n-
tier” architecture design, is a common technique for reducing
complexity across numerous disciplines.
A simple example is the airline system:
An airplane system is a good analogy to use because
computer networking is a lot like air travel: In an airplane, a
passenger is being “shipped” from source to destination the
same way that in a computer network a message is being
shipped from one device to another.

A typical protocol stack will be structured in an n-tier

architecture pattern like this:
 As shown in the image above (Protocol Stack
Architecture), a protocol stack is created by dividing a
protocol into n-multiple layers. In each layer, two entities
communicate with each other using the appropriate protocol
for that layer.

Peer-to-Peer Protocol
Protocols in a protocol stack are said to be peer-to-peer
protocols.
This means that the protocol operates between two
entities that are peers, at each layer.
For example, a protocol entity in the nth layer can only
exchange data units with its peer entity at the same level.

User Data Transfer Through A Protocol Stack

 The highest layer in the protocol stack is called the
application layer because it interacts with the user, while the
lowest layer is called the physical layer

NETWORK SECURITY:
The most basic example of Network Security is password
protection which the user of the network chooses.
The network security solutions protect various
vulnerabilities of the computer systems such as users,
location, data, devices, and applications.
Network security is the practice of protecting a computer
network from unauthorized access, misuse, or attacks. It
involves using tools, technologies, and policies to ensure that
data traveling over the network is safe and secure, keeping
sensitive information away from hackers and other threats.

How Does Network Security Work?

Network security uses several layers of protection, Each
layer has rules and controls that determine who can access
network resources. People who are allowed access can use the
network safely, but those who try to harm it with attacks or
other threats are stopped from doing so.

Physical Network Security: This is the basic level that

includes protecting the data through unauthorized personnel
from acquiring control over the confidentiality of the
network.
Technical Network Security: It primarily focuses on
protecting the data stored in the network or data involved in
transitions through the network.
This type serves two purposes. One is protected from
unauthorized users, and the other is protected from malicious
activities.
Administrative Network Security: This level of network
security protects user behaviour like how the permission has
been granted and how the authorization process takes place.

Types of Network Security

1. Email Security
2. Access Control
3. Cloud Network Security
4. Web Security
5. Antivirus and Anti-malware Software
6. Firewalls Security
A firewall is a network security device, either hardware
or software-based, which monitors all incoming and
outgoing traffic and based on a defined set of security
rules accepts, rejects, or drops that specific traffic.
Advantages of Network Security
• Protection from Unauthorized Access
• Data Confidentiality
• Prevention of Malware and Viruses
• Secure Remote Access

Disadvantages of Network Security

• Complexity and Management Overhead
• Cost
• Privacy Concerns
ZIGBEE:
ZigBee is a Personal Area Network task group with low
rate task group 4. It is a technology of home networking. It is
based on IEEE 802.15.4 and is created by Zigbee Alliance.
ZigBee is an open, global, packet-based protocol
designed to provide an easy-to-use architecture for secure,
reliable, low power wireless networks.
Flow or process control equipment can be place
anywhere and still communicate with the rest of the system.
It can also be moved, since the network doesn’t care about
the physical location of a sensor, pump or valve.
IEEE 802.15.4 supports star and peer-to-peer topologies.
The ZigBee specification supports star and two kinds of peer-
to-peer topologies, mesh and cluster tree.

Types of ZigBee Devices:

• Zigbee Coordinator Device: It communicates with
routers. This device is used for connecting the devices.
• Zigbee Router: It is used for passing the data between
devices.
• Zigbee End Device: It is the device that is going to be
controlled.
General Characteristics of Zigbee Standard:
• Low Power Consumption
• Low Data Rate
• Short-Range

Architecture of Zigbee:
Zigbee architecture is a combination of 6 layers.
1. Application Layer
2. Application Interface Layer
3. Security Layer
4. Network Layer
 5. Medium Access Control Layer
6. Physical Layer

Features of Zigbee:
1. Stochastic addressing: A device is assigned a
random address and announced. Mechanism for address
conflict resolution. Parents node don’t need to maintain
assigned address table.

2. Link Management: Each node maintains quality of

links to neighbors. Link quality is used as link cost in
routing.

3. Frequency Agility: Nodes experience interference report

to channel manager, which then selects another channel
 4. Asymmetric Link: Each node has different transmit
power and sensitivity. Paths may be asymmetric.
5. Power Management: Routers and Coordinators use main
power. End Devices use batteries.

Zigbee Network Topologies:

• Star Topology (ZigBee Smart Energy): Consists of a
coordinator and several end devices, end devices
communicate only with the coordinator.
• Mesh Topology (Self Healing Process): Mesh topology
consists of one coordinator, several routers, and end
devices.
• Tree Topology: In this topology, the network consists
of a central node which is a coordinator, several routers,
and end devices. the function of the router is to extend
the network coverage.

Zigbee Applications:
1. Medical Data Collection
2. Industrial Control Systems
3. Meter reading system
4. Light control system
5. Commercial
6. Home Networking
Advantages of Zigbee:
1. Designed for low power consumption.
2. Easy implementation
3. Adequate security features
4. Low cost
5. Mesh networking
6. Reliability

Disadvantages of Zigbee :
1. Limited range:
2. Limited data rate
3. Interoperability
4. Security