Expt -1(A)

Aim- To find the pH of the following samples by using pH paper/universal indicator.

(a)Dilute hydrochloric acid (b) Dilute NaOH solution
(c) Dilute ethanoic acid solution (d) Lemon juice
(e) Water (f) Dilute sodium bicarbonate solution
Materials Required- Six test tubes, six droppers, white tile, pH paper (with coloured chart
strip of pH scale) and test tube stand.

Chemicals required: Dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute solution of sodium hydroxide, dilute
ethanoic acid, lemon juice, distilled water and dilute solution of sodium bicarbonate.
Procedure- 1. Take six test tubes, wash them with distilled water and place them on test tube
stand.
2. Mark these test tubes as A, B, C, D, E and F.
3. Take 2 mL each of the above chemicals and add them to the test tubes marked.
Test tube A – add 2 mL of dil. HCI acid Test tube B – add 2 mL of dil. NaOH solution
Test tube C – add 2 mL of dil-. ethanoic acid Test tube D – add 2 mL of lemon juice
Test tube E – add 2 mL of distilled water Test tube F – add 2 mL of dil. sodium bicarbonate
solution
4. Take a white tile and place small strips of pH paper on it, mark them as A to F.
5. Take clean droppers rinsed with distilled water.
6. Use each dropper to suck the contents present in the test tubes A to F and pour a drop of each
content on marked pH paper respectively.
E.g., the contents of test tube A to be placed on the pH paper with label A.
7. Observe the colour change in the pH paper and match it with the colour pH chart given.
Record your observations.
Observations
Test tube Sample Colour of pH Paper Approximate pH Nature

A Dil. HCI Red colour 1 Strong acid

B Dil. NaOH Dark blue colour 14 Strong base
C Dil. CH3COOH Orange colour 3 Weak acid
D Lemon juice Pink colour 2 Weak acid
E Water Green colour 7 Neutral
F Dil. NaHCO3 Light blue colour 9 Weak base

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 Conclusion
Test tube Sample
A Hydrochloric acid
B Sodium hydroxide
C Ethanoic acid
D Lemon juice
E Water (distilled)
F Sodium bicarbonate
Precautions
1.The test sample solutions should be freshly prepared and the firuit juice samples should also
be fresh.
2.Use clean and rinsed droppers.
3.Use clean test tubes and mark them carefully.
4.Rinse the test tubes and droppers with distilled water only.
5.Use clean tile.
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Expt-1(B) Aim

To study the properties of acids and bases (dilute HCl and dilute NaOH) by their reaction with
(a) Litmus solution (Blue/Red) (b) Zinc metal (c) Solid sodium carbonate

Materials Required
A test tube stand, test tubes, match box, test tube holder, droppers, a bent delivery tube, burner
and cork.

Chemicals required: Dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute sodium hydroxide, blue litmus solution,
red litmus solution, zinc metal granules or powdered zinc, solid sodium carbonate and freshly
prepared lime water.

Procedure
(A) Properties of Hydrochloric Acid
Experiment Observation Inference
Litmus Test
Blue litmus solution turns
Take two clean test tubes. Pour 1 mL
red in first test tube.
of dilute HCl solution in each test
1. Red litmus solution Dil. HCl shows acidic character.
tube. Pour a drop of blue litmus in
shows no change in
one test tube and a drop of red litmus
second test tube.
solution in the second test tube.
Reaction with Zinc Metal Zinc metal reacts with the Zinc + dil. HCl →
Take 1 mL of dilute HCl in a clean acid. Test tube becomes Zinc chloride + Hydrogen gas
test tube. Add a small piece of zinc warm and pressure is Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) →
2. metal/ zinc powder in it. exerted on thumb due to ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Light a matchstick and bring it near release of a gas. Hydrogen gas always bums with
the mouth of the test tube, remove The matchstick bums a pop sound when lighted
the thumb and observe. with a pop sound. matchstick is introduced in it.
2
 Reaction with Sodium Carbonate
Take a clean test tube. Add 2 mL of
Dilute HCl reacts with (i) Na2CO3 + 2HCl →
dilute HCl. Now add lg/pinch of
sodium carbonate to 2NaCl + H20 + CO2
sodium carbonate in it. Immediately
3. release a colourless gas. (ii)Ca (OH)2+CO2 →
close the mouth with cork containing
The gas turns lime water Lime water CaCO3 +H2O
delivery tube. Hold a test tube with
milky. White insoluble ppt
lime water at the other end of the
delivery tube.
(B) Properties of Sodium Hydroxide
Experiment Observation Inference
Litmus Test
Blue litmus solution
Take two clean test tubes. Pour 1 mL of
shows no change.
dilute NaOH in each test tube. Add a drop Dil. NaOH shows basic
1. Red litmus solution
of blue litmus solution in one test tube and character.
changes to blue
a drop of red litmus solution in the second
colour.
test tube.

Reaction with Zinc Metal On heating the

Take a clean test tube. Add zinc metal mixture; reaction
Zn(s) + 2NaOH(aq)
granules/zinc powder in it. Pour 2 mL of begins, colourless gas
Na2ZnO2(aq) + H2(g)
2. NaOH solution in the tube. Hold the test is evolved.
Hydrogen gas always bums
tube with a test tube holder and heat it. The burning
with a pop sound.
Bring a burning matchstick near the mouth matchstick bums with
of the test tube. a ‘pop’ sound.

Reaction with Solid Sodium Carbonate

Take a clean test tube. Add 2 mL of NaOH Dil. NaOH doesn’t react
3. No change.
solution in a tube and 1 g of sodium with sodium carbonate.
carbonate. Heat the mixture.

Precautions
1.Use clean test tubes.
2.Use very small amount of chemicals.
3.Handle hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide solutions very carefully.
4.Shake the solutions and reaction mixtures carefully without spilling.
5.Always carry out the test for hydrogen with a very small volume of gas.
6.For H2 gas test, be careful as H2 catches fire. The flame on test tube can be seen due to
H2 gas.
7.For lime water test, allow the CO2 gas to pass through lime water and shake the test tube by
placing thumb on the mouth of the tube to get quick result.
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Expt-2 Aim
To perform and observe the following reactions and classify them into:
(a) Combination reaction (b) Decomposition reaction
(c) Displacement reaction (d) Double displacement reaction.

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1.Action of water on quick lime.
2. Action of heat on ferrous sulphate crystals.
3. Iron nails kept in copper sulphate solution.
4. Reaction between sodium sulphate and barium chloride solutions.

Materials Required
A beaker, four test tubes, test tube holder, tongs, test tube stand, a dropper, a piece of sand
paper and Bunsen burner. Chemicals required: A small piece of quick lime, ferrous sulphate
crystals, iron nails (clean and unrusted), copper sulphate solution, sodium sulphate solution,
barium chloride solution and distilled water.

Precautions
1.Do not touch quick lime with hands, use tongs.
2.Mixing of quick lime and water releases large amount of heat, so add water drop by drop and
use borosil beaker.
3.For heating, use hard glass tubes.
4.Never inhale any gas, just waft the gas.
5.Do not touch any chemical with hands.
6.Keep the mouth of the test tube away from your face while heating.
7.The iron nails must be cleaned properly by using sand paper before dipping them in copper
sulphate solution.
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4
Expt- 3 Aim
(i) To observe the action of Zn, Fe, Cu and Al metals on the following salt solutions:
(a) ZnSO4(aq.) (b) FeSO4(aq.) (c) CuSO4 (aq.) (d) Al2(SO4)3(aq.)
(ii) Arrange Zn, Fe, Cu and Al metals in the decreasing order of reactivity based on the above
result.

Materials Required
Four clean test tubes, marker, a piece of sand paper and test tube stand.
Chemicals required: Aluminium sulphate solution, copper sulphate solution, zinc sulphate
solution, iron sulphate solution, metal strips of iron, zinc; copper and aluminium.
Procedure
> Reaction with CuSO4 solution:
1. Take four clean test tubes.
2. With a marker label them as A, B, C and D.
3. Take copper sulphate solution in each test tube.
4. Dip a small, clean piece of aluminium, zinc, iron and copper metals in test tubes A, B, C and
D respectively.
5. Record your observations.

Conclusion: Al, Zn and Fe metals are more reactive than Cu. Hence, Cu is the least reactive
metal among the given four metals.

> Reaction with FeSO4 solution:

1. Take four clean test tubes, labelled as A, B, C, and D.
2. Take FeSO4 (aq) solution in each test tube.
3. Dip small, clean pieces of aluminium, zinc, iron and copper metals in test tube A, B, C and D
respectively.
4. Record your observations.

Conclusion: Al and Zn metals are more reactive than Fe and Cu.

> Reaction with ZnSO4 solution:

1. Take test tubes A, B, C, and D, clean them.
2. Add ZnSO4 solution in each test tube.
3. Dip small, clean pieces of Al, Zn, Fe and Cu metal in test tube A, B, C and D respectively.
5
4. Record your observations.

Conclusion: Al metal is more reactive than Zn metal.

> Reaction with Al2(SO4)3 solution:

1. Take test tubes A, B, C, and D and clean them.
2. Add Al2(SO4)3 solution in each test tube.
3. Dip small, clean pieces of Al, Zn, Fe and Cu metal in test tubes A, B, C and D respectively.
4. Record your observations.

Conclusion: Al metal is not displaced by any of the given metals i.e. Al, Zn, Fe and Cu.
Hence, Al metal is the most reactive metal among the given metals.
1. Al is not displaced by any of the four metals from its salt solution, hence, Al is at the top of
the reactivity series.
2. Al can displace Zn from its salt solution but no other metal could displace it. Hence, the
reactivity order is Al > Zn.
3. Al and Zn metals can displace Fe metal from its salt solution but Cu cannot.
Hence, the arrangement of metals in decreasing reactivity order is
Al > Zn > Fe > Cu.
I. CuSO4 solution in each test tube.

II. FeSO4 solution in each test tube.

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III. ZnSO4 solution in each test tube.

IV. Al2(SO4)3 solution in each test tube.

Precautions
1. Clean the metals by rubbing them with a piece of sand paper before dipping them in the salt
solutions.
2. Wash the test tubes after every set of observations of interaction of a particular metal with
the four-salt solution.
3. Use very little amount of saturated solution of copper sulphate, aluminium sulphate, iron
sulphate and zinc sulphate.
4. Use very small pieces of metal every time.
5. Do not touch any chemical.

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7
Expt-4 Aim
To study the dependence of potential difference (V) across a resistor on the current (I) passing
through it and determine its resistance. Also plot a graph between V and I.
Materials Required
A battery, an insulated copper wire (cut into 10 pieces), a key, an ammeter, a voltmeter, a
rheostat, a resistor and a piece of sand paper.
Procedure
1.Keep the devices as shown in the circuit diagram.
2.Connect them with the connecting wires and keep the key open.
3.Positive terminal of the battery is connected to the positive terminal of the ammeter.
4.Check the +ve and -ve terminals of voltmeter before connecting it in the circuit.
5.Once the circuit is connected, insert the key and check the rheostat, adjust its slider and see
whether the ammeter and voltmeter readings are shown.
6.By using the slider of rheostat take three different readings of current 1 and voltmeter V.
7.Record your observations in the observation table.
8.Calculate resistance of a given resistor by formula .
9.Plot a graph of voltmeter reading and current reading. On x axis take V and on y axis take I.
10.Resistance increases with increase in temperature of pure metals.
Observation Table
A. Least count of ammeter and voltmeter
S. No. Ammeter (A) Voltmeter (V)
1. Range 0 – 0.5 A 0-0.1 V
2. Least Count 0.01 A 0.01 V
3. Zero Error (e) 0 0
4. Zero Correction 0 0
B. For reading of ammeter and voltmeter
Current in Ampere (I) Potential difference in Volts (V)
S. No. (Ammeter Reading) (Voltmeter Reading) Resistance in Ohms R = V/I(Ω)
Observed Corrected Observed Corrected
1. 0 0.02 0 0.04 R1 =2 Ω
2. 0 0.03 0 0.06 R2 = 2 Ω
3. 0 0.04 0 0.08 R3 = 2Ω

8
Conclusions
1.The value of R is found to be same and constant in all three readings.
2.The resistance of a resistor is ratio of potential difference V and current I.
3.The graph of V and I is a straight line. This shows that V∝I. This verifies Ohm’s law.

Precautions
1.The connecting wires should be thick copper wires and the insulation of their ends should be
removed using the sand paper.
2.Connections should be tight otherwise some external resistance may introduce in the circuit.
3.Connections should be made as per the circuit. Before closing the circuit show the
connections to the teacher to take the readings.
4.The ammeter should be connected in series with the resister such that the current enters at the
positive terminal and leaves at the negative terminal of the ammeter.
5.Voltmeter should always be connected in parallel to resistor.
6.Calculate the least count of voltmeter and ammeter correctly.
7.The pointers of the ammeter and voltmeter should be at zero mark when no current flows
through the circuit.
8.Current should be passed through the circuit for a short time while taking observations;
otherwise, current would cause unnecessary heating in the circuit. Heating may change the
resistance of resisters.
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Expt- 5A Aim
To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors when connected in series.

Materials Required
Two resistors of different values for example,
R, = 1 Ω, R, = 2Ω.
Battery of 6 volt, Ammeter, plug key, connecting wires, a piece of sand paper, voltmeter and
rheostat.
Procedure
1.Make the connections according to the diagram given below.
2.Do not ‘on’ the key.
3.Connect ammeter in series and voltmeter in parallel and rheostat in series in the circuit.
4.Carefully check the +ve and -ve terminals of the battery, voltmeter and ammeter, and the
connections as shown in Fig. I.
5.Record the ammeter reading and the voltmeter reading by inserting the key.
6.By adjusting rheostat note three readings.
7.Now connect voltmeter in parallel one by one to individual resistance as shown in Fig. II and
note down the readings.
8.Plug the key. Measure the potential difference across the first resistor. Let it be V1 .
9.Similarly, measure the potential difference across the second resistor, separately. Let the
value be V2.
10.Calculate the relationship between V, V1, and V2.

9
Observation Table
For Resistance in Series

Result
1.The calculated value of Rs = R1 + R2 = 3 Ω
2.The experimental value of Rs = 3 Ω
3.The above two values are close to each other.
Hence, Rs = R1 + R2 is verified.

Precautions
1.The connecting wires should be thick copper wires and the insulation of their ends should be
removed using the sandpaper.
2.Connections should be tight otherwise some external resistance may introduce in the circuit.
3.Connections should be made as per the circuit.
4.The ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor such that the current enters at the
positive terminal and leaves at the negative terminal of the ammeter.
5.Voltmeter should always be connected in parallel to resistor.
6.Calculate the least count of voltmeter and ammeter correctly.
7.The pointers of the ammeter and voltmeter should be at zero mark when no current flows
through the circuit.
8.Current should be passed through the circuit for a short time while taking observations;
otherwise, a current would cause unnecessary heating in the circuit. Heating may change the
resistance of resistors.
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10
Expt – 5B
Aim- To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors when connected in parallel.

Materials Required
A battery, a plug key, connecting wires, an ammeter, a voltmeter, rheostat, a piece of sand
paper and two resistors of different value.

Procedure
1.Keep the key off and make all the connections as shown in the given figure I.
2.When the circuit is connected appropriately insert the key.
3.Note three readings of ammeter and voltmeter for the resistors R1 and R2 separately.
4.Now connect the circuit as shown in figure II below.
5.The resistors are connected in parallel and voltmeter is also connected in parallel.
6.Use the rheostat and record three different readings of ammeter and voltmeter.
7.Remove the key.
8.Do the calculations from the observation table.

Circuit Diagrams

Observation Table
For Resistance in Parallel
Voltmeter Ammeter
Resistor No. of R=V/I Mean Value of
Reading in Reading in
Used Observations (in Ohm) Resistance (Ohm)
Volts (V) Ampere (I)
R
(a) 0.01 0.01 1
1
st (b) 0.02 0.02 1 R1 = 1 Ohm
(I Resistor)
(c) 0.04 0.04 1
R
(a) 0.02 0.01 2
2
(b) 0.06 0.03 2 R2 = 2 Ohm
(2nd Resistor)
(c) 0.08 0.04 2
1/Rp= (1/R1)+ (1/R2)
Rp = 0.67 Ohm
(Parallel (a) 0.026 0.04 0.67
1/Rp =1.5 Ohm
Combination)

Result
1.The calculated value of 1/Rp = (1/R1) + (1/R2) = 1.5 Ω
2.The experimental value of 1/Rp = 1.5 Ω
3.The equivalent resistance (Rp) is less than the individual resistance (R1 or R2)

Precautions

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1.The connecting wires should be thick copper wires and the insulation of their ends should be
removed using the sand paper.
2.Connections should be tight otherwise some external resistance may introduce in the circuit.
3.Connections should be made as per the circuit.
4.The ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor such that the current enters at the
positive terminal and leaves at the negative terminal of the ammeter.
5.Voltmeter should always be connected in parallel to resistor.
6.Calculate the least count of voltmeter and ammeter correctly.
7.The pointers of the ammeter and voltmeter should be at zero mark when no current flows
through the circuit.
8.Current should be passed through the circuit for a short time while taking observations;
otherwise, current would cause unnecessary heating in the circuit. Heating may change the
resistance of resistors.
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Expt -6 Aim
To prepare a temporary mount of a leaf peel to show stomata.

Materials Required
Freshly plucked leaf of Rheo or Tradescantia, petri dish, slide, coverslip, needle, forceps, brash,
dropper, watch glass, filter paper, glycerine, safranin solution and microscope.

Procedure
1.Take a freshly plucked leaf (Rheo or Tradescantia).
2.Stretch the leaf with its dorsal (lower) part facing upwards.
3.Break the leaf by applying suitable pressure so that the epidermis projects from the leaf.
4.Cut the epidermis and put it in a petri dish.
5.Take a watch glass, add few drops of water and a drop of stain in it.
6.Transfer the small piece of epidermis from petri dish into the watch glass with the help of
brash.
7.Allow the peel to remain in the stain for 2-3 minutes, so that it can take up the stain.
With the help of brush transfer the stained peel into a petri dish with water to remove the extra
stain.
8.Now take a clean slide and place it on a filter paper. In the centre of the slide put a drop of
glycerine and transfer the stained peel from petri dish on the slide.
9.Gently hold the coverslip with the needle and place it on the peel. Avoid air bubbles
formation.
10.Use the filter paper to clean the excess stain, water or glycerine that comes out from the
coverslip sides.
11.Ensure that the slide is clean and place it under the microscope. First view it under low
power (10X) and then under high power(45X).
12.Record your observations.

12
Observations
1.In an epidermal peel we see single layer of cells.
2.In between the epidermal layer small spots are seen.
3.When focused under powerful microscope the stomata pores are clearly seen.
4.Each stomata pore has two kidney-shaped cells called guard cells.
5.Each guard cell has one nucleus and many chloroplasts.

Conclusion
Epidermal layer of leaf peel has many stomata pores. Each stomatal pore has two kidney
shaped guard cells, in dicots plants. Each guard cell has one nucleus and many chloroplasts.

Precautions
1.While removing the epidermal peel, ensure that you pluck the thinner scrap of leaf.
2.Do not overstain the peel.
3.Avoid air-bubbles formation while placing the coverslip.
4.The peel should not be folded.
5.The slide should be clean and dry before placing it under microscope.
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Expt -7 Aim
To show experimentally that carbon dioxide is given out during respiration.

Materials Required
Two test tubes, a cork with two holes, two glass tubes, syringe, lime water.

Procedure
1.Take some freshly prepared lime water in two test tubes.
2.Fit cork with two holes in test tubes A and B.
3.Fix two glass tubes in this cork of test tube A as shown in the figure.
4.Exhale air into the tube and record your observations.
5.In another test tube B, which has lime water, pass air through syringe and record your
observations.

13
Observation
In test tube A, the lime water turns milky sooner than in test tube B.

Conclusion
1.The exhaled air contains lot of CO2 which turns lime water milky.
2.This proves that during respiration we exhale CO2 gas.

Precautions
1.The glass tube should be dipped in the lime water.
2.The lime water should be freshly prepared.

(B) To test release of CO2 by plants during respiration.

Materials Required
A conical flask, small test tube, cork, thread, germinating seeds, a bent tube, a beaker, water
and freshly prepared lime water.

Procedure
1.Take two conical flasks, add germinating seeds with little water sprinkled over it.
2.Fix the mouth of conical flasks with cork in which a bent tube is fixed.
3.Suspend a small test tube containing KOH solution in it with the help of a thread in conical
flask A.
4.Allow the mouth of the bent tube to be immersed in water in set-up A and in lime water in
set-up B as shown below.
5.Record your observations after few hours.

Observations
1.In set-up A, the water level in the bent tube dipped in beaker increases after few hours.
2. This is because the oxygen present in the conical flask is taken up by germinating seeds and

14
 CO2 released due to respiration is absorbed by KOH present in small tube. Hence, the air
pressure in the flask reduces and water level rises.
3.In set-up B, the freshly prepared lime water turns milky. This is due to excess CO2 released
into the test tube during respiration of germinating seeds.

Conclusion
This shows that CO2 is given out during respiration.

Precautions
1.Lime water should be freshly prepared.
2.KOH solution should be freshly prepared.
3.Germinating seeds should have lot of moisture in them.
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Expt -8 Aim
To study the following properties of acetic acid (ethanoic acid):
(i) odour (smell)
(ii) solubility in water
(iii) effect on litmus
(iv) reaction with sodium bicarbonate

Materials Required
Test tubes, water, litmus paper, test tube stand, a dropper, a beaker, a cork fit in a test tube with
bent tube fixed in it.

Chemicals Required: Acetic acid (ethanoic acid), Distilled water, Sodium bicarbonate and
Freshly prepared lime water.

Procedure
1. Dilute the given acetic acid with distilled water in a beaker.
2. Pour 5 ml of acetic acid in a test tube and perform the following tests:
S.No. Test Experiment Observation Inference
Take 5 mL of acetic acid in It has a peculiar
Acetic acid has a vinegar like
1. Odour a test tube and smell it by pungent smell, (vinegar
smell.
wafting. like smell)
Take 2 mL of acetic acid in It dissolves in water to
Solubility Acetic acid is soluble in
2. a test tube, add 10-15 mL of form
in water water in all proportions.
water and shake. homogeneous solution.
Use clean dropper and pour
Effect on Blue litmus paper turns Acetic acid turns blue litmus
3. 1-2 drops of acetic acid on
Litmus red. red.
blue-litmus paper.

Take a pinch of sodium Reaction begins, Acetic acid and sodium

Sodium
4. bicarbonate in a clean test brisk bicarbonate react to liberate
bicarbonate
tube and add 1 mL of effervescence is CO2 gas.

15
 dilute acetic acid in the seen, a colourless
test tube. gas is evolved.

CO2 gas evolved above reacts

Fix a cork with bent
with calcium hydroxide to form
delivery tube in the
calcium carbonate which is
mouth of above test tube.
The gas turns lime insoluble in water.
Dip the other end of
water milky. Ca(OH)2 + CO2 —> CaCO3 +
delivery tube to a test
H2O
tube containing lime
(White
water.
precipitate)

Reaction

Precautions
1. Acetic acid should be handled with care.
2. The vapours of the chemicals should not be inhaled.
3. Add only small amount of NaHCO3 to ethanoic acid to control the intensity of CO2 evolved.
4. Use freshly prepared lime water for CO2 test.
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Expt - 9 Aim
To study the comparative cleaning capacity of a sample of soap in soft and hard water.

Materials Required
Two test tubes, test tube stand and measuring cylinder.

Chemical required: Samples of hard and soft water, soap solution and cooking oil.

Procedure (Part A)

1. Take 10 mL of distilled water (soft water) in a test tube. Label it as ‘A’.

2. Take 10 mL of hard water (water from hand-pump, underground water) in another test tube.
Label it as ‘B’.
3. In both the test tubes, add few drops of soap solution.
4. Shake the test tubes ‘A’ and ‘B’ vigorously for an equal period of time. Keep them in the test
tube stand and record your observations.
16
Observations
1. In test tube A, soap formed lather or foam.
2. In test tube B, white precipitate was formed with no lather or foam.

Conclusion
Soaps are effective cleaner only in soft water because the soap molecules form lather in soft
water. But in case of hard water, the soap molecules do not remain as soap molecules but the
ionic end of soap reacts with the salts present in hard water to form curdy white precipitate
called scum.

Precautions
1. Use same sample of soap solution for soft water and hard water.
2. Same quantity of soap solution must be added to both the test tubes containing soft water and
hard water.
3. The concentration of all test solutions must be same.
4. Shake every test tube for equal number of times and in a similar manner.
Note: If hard water is not available prepare some hard water by dissolving hydrogen
carbonate/sulphates/chloride salt of calcium or magnesium in water.

Procedure (Part B)

1. Take 10 mL of distilled water/soft water and add a drop of cooking oil in it. Label this test
tube as ‘A’.
2. Take 10 mL of hard water and add a drop of cooking oil in it. Label this test tube as ‘B’.
3. Now, add a few drops of soap solution in both the test tubes ‘A’ and ‘B’.
4. Shake both the test tubes vigorously for the same period of time.
5. Keep them on the test tube stand and record your observations.

Observations
1. The test tube ‘A’ with soft water showed the oil emulsified due to soap solution.
2. The test tube ‘B’ showed no emulsification due to soap solution.

Conclusion
1. The formation of emulsion of oil in soft water by soap shows the effect of soap in cleaning.
2. Soaps are more effective cleaners in soft water than in hard water.
Precautions
1. Use same sample of soap solution for soft water and hard water.
2. Use same cooking oil for soft water and hard water.
17
3. The concentration of all test solutions must be same.
4. Shake every test tube for equal number of times and in a similar manner.
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Expt -10 Aim

To determine the focal length of (i) concave mirror (ii) convex lens by obtaining the image of a
distant object.

(i) To determine focal length of a given concave mirror:

Materials Required
A concave mirror, a measuring scale, a screen a mirror holder and mirror stand.

Procedure
1.Select a distant object from the laboratory window (distance should be more than 50 ft).
2.Fix the concave mirror on the mirror stand placed on the table, facing the distant object.
3.Place the screen in front of the reflecting surface of the mirror. Move the screen back and
forth until a clear, sharp image of the distant object is obtained on the screen.
4.Measure the distance between the concave mirror and the screen with a metre scale. This
distance is the focal length of the given concave mirror. Record the focal length.
5.Repeat the above procedure twice and record the readings. Take three readings and calculate
the average focal length.

Observation Table
Position of concave Focal length/ = (M – S)
S.No. Position of screen (S)
mirror (M) cm
1. 60 cm 50 cm 10 cm
2. 60 cm 50 cm 10 cm
3. 60 cm 50 cm 10 cm
Calculation
Mean value of focal length of concave mirror =

Result
The focal length of the given concave mirror = 10 cm

Precautions
18
1.The distant object must be well illuminated to produce a well illuminated and distinct image.
2.Always place the concave mirror near an open window.
3.The polished surface of the concave mirror must face the distant object.
4.There should be no obstacle or hurdle in the path of rays of light from the distant object,
incident on the concave mirror.
5.The base of the stands of the concave mirror and screen should be parallel to the measuring
scale.
6.The mirror holder along with the mirror should be kept perpendicular to the measuring scale
for precise measurements.

(ii) To determine focal length of a given convex lens:

Materials Required
Wooden bench, convex lens, a lens holder, a screen fixed to a stand, a measuring scale; etc.

Procedure
1.Arrange the wooden bench capable of holding the lens and screen horizontally on a table, so
that the lens and screen are not disturbed.
2.Keep the lens in a holder facing a distant object say tree branches.
3.Fix the screen on another holder and keep it on the bench.
4.Adjust the position of the screen in such a way that a sharp image of the given distant object
falls on it.
5.Note down the position of the lens in the table and the screen, and find the differences and
record the same. The difference will give the focal length of the given convex lens.
6.Focus the lens towards various distant objects and repeat the experiment to find the position
of sharp image and thereby the focal length.
Add all the focal lengths found out and find the mean value of the focal length of the convex
lens.

Observation Table
S.No. Position of convex lens (L) Position of screen (S) Focal length/= (L – S) cm
1. 60 cm 50 cm f1 = 10 cm
2. 60 cm 50 cm f2 = 10 cm
3. 60 cm 50 cm f3 = 10 cm
Calculation
Mean value of focal length of convex lens =

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Result
The focal length of the given convex lens = 10 cm
Precautions
1.Convex lens should be placed vertically.
2.There should be no obstacle or hurdle in the path of rays of light from the distant object
incident on the common lens.
3.In order to get a well illuminated and distinct image, it must be ensured that the distanct
object is well illuminated.
4.The base of the stands of the convex lens and screen should be parallel to the measuring scale.
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Expt - 11 Aim
To trace the path of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab for different angles of
incidence. Measure the angle of incidence, angle of refraction, angle of emergence and interpret
the result.

Materials Required
A drawing board, 4-6 all pins, white sheet of paper, rectangular glass slab, a protractor, a scale,
a pencil and thumb pins.
Procedure
1.Take a soft drawing board. Fix a white sheet on it with the help of thumb pins.
2.Place the rectangular glass slab in the centre of the white paper and draw its outline boundary
with pencil.
3.Mark this rectangular figure obtained as ABCD.
4.On one side of this figure, i.e., AB take one point E, draw a perpendicular EN and label it as
normal ray.
5.With the help of a protractor draw one angle of 30° with the EN. Fix two pins P and Q on the
ray of this angle, the distance between the pins should be more than 4-5 cm.
6.Put the glass slab on the rectangular figure ABCD.
7.See through the glass slab from side CD and fix pin R and S such that when seen through the
glass slab all the pins lie in straight line, [i.e., Pins P, Q, R and S should lie in straight line when
seen through the glass slab], ‘
8.Now, remove the pins P, Q, R and S one by one and draw small circles around the pin points.
9.Remove the glass slab.
10.Join points R and S such that it meets CD at point F.
11.Draw perpendicular to CD at point F as N’M’.
12.Join points E and F with the pencil.
13.Measure the angles formed at AB and CD, i.e., the incident angle, refracted angle and
emergent angle.
14.Extend ray PQ with scale and pencil in dotted line. It will be parallel to ray FRS. The
distance between these two parallel rays is called lateral displacement (d).
15.Measure the lateral displacement.
16.Repeat the above procedure for angles 45° and 60°.
Diagram

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ABCD = Glass slab
EN and FM’ = Normal rays
P, Q, R, S = All pins ∠PEN = ∠i = incident angle = 30°
∠MEF = ∠r = refracted angle
∠SFM’= ∠e = emergent angle = 30° ~ 31°
d = lateral displacement.

Observations Table
Angle of incidence Angle of refraction Angle of emergence ∠i – ∠e
S.No.
∠i = ∠PEN ∠r = ∠MEF ∠e = ∠SFM’ ∠PEN – ∠SFM’
1. 30° 28° 30° 0°
2. 45° 43° 44.8° 0.2°
3. 60° 56° 59.8° 0.2°
During performing this experiment, ∠i – ∠e may not be zero at times as shown above due to
human error.

Conclusion
1.The angle of incidence is nearly equal to the angle of emergence.
2.The angle of refraction is less than angle of incidence because light is travelling from rarer to
denser optical medium.
3.The lateral displacement remains the same for different angles of incidences.
4.When the light ray travels from optically rarer medium (air) to optically denser medium
(glass) the light bends towards the normal.

Precautions
1.The glass slab should be perfectly rectangular with all its faces smooth.
2.The drawing board should be soft so that pins can be easily fixed on it.
3.The angle of incidence should lie between 30° and 60°.
4.All pins base should lie in straight line.
5.While fixing the pins P and Q or the pins R and S, care should be taken to maintain a distance
of about 5 cm between the two pins.
6.Draw thin lines using a sharp pencil.
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7.Use a good quality protractor having clear markings.
8.Place the protractor correctly to measure the angles.
9.Perpendiculars should be drawn correctly.

Sources of Error
1.The glass slab should not have any air-bubbles.
2.All measurement of angles using protractor should be done accurately.
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Expt - 12
Aim- To study binary fission in amoeba and budding in yeast with the help of prepared slides
(a) binary fission in Amoeba
(b) budding in yeast with the help of prepared slides.

Materials Required
Prepared slides of Amoeba showing binary fission with different stages.
Prepared slides of yeast showing budding with different stages.
Compound microscopes 2-4.
(A)Binary Fission in Amoeba
Procedure
1.Place the prepared slides of Amoeba showing different stages of reproduction on the stage of
the microscope.
2.Adjust the mirror of the microscope to focus maximum light on the slide. Adjust the eye-
piece of the microscope so that the slide is clearly focussed and seen.
3.Draw diagrams of the stages of binary fission in Amoeba.

Observations- 1.Amoeba is a protozoon that lives in water and has irregular shape.
2.In the centre of Amoeba dense nucleus is seen.
3.In second stage, Amoeba shows the nucleus division, i.e., karyokinesis.
4.In third stage, we can see the cell body division, i.e., cytokinesis.
5.In the fourth stage, two daughter cells of Amoeba are formed.

Conclusion- The given slides showed the division of a single cell body into two equal halves.
The division of nucleus and cell body are seen which led to the formation of two daughter cells.
Hence, the kind of reproduction seen in Amoeba is binary fission.

(B) Budding in Yeast

Procedure- 1.Place the permanent/prepared slides of yeast showing different stages of

reproduction on the stage of microscope.
2.Make the adjustments in mirror of the microscope for focussing maximum light on the slide.
3.Adjust the eye-piece so that the slide is clearly seen.
4.Draw diagrams of the stages of budding yeast cells.

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Observations- 1.Yeast is oval or spherical in shape.
2.It is a unicellular organism.
3.In the second stage, yeast shows a small growth on it called ‘bud’.
4.In the third stage, yeast shows that in some situations many such chain of buds is seen on the
parent cell. This process is called ‘budding’.
5.On maturity the buds get separated from parent cell to form and grow’ as a new organism.
This process is called budding.
Conclusion- The given slides showed the small growth (bud) on yeast. These buds on maturity
separates from parent cell and grow as a new organism, hence, yeast shows budding.

Precautions-1. Use microscope very carefully. Do not disturb its adjustments.

2.The slides shown under the microscope should not be disturbed.
3.Set the mirror of the microscope for better focus of light on the slide.
4.The slide can be seen under low power or high power of the microscope. These adjustments
should be done very carefully.
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Expt - 13
Aim-To trace the path of the rays of light through a glass prism.

Materials Required-A white sheet, soft board, thumb pins, 4-6 all pins, prism, pencil, scale,
protractor, drawing board.

Procedure-1. Fix a white sheet on a drawing board using drawing pins.

2.Place a glass prism on it in such a way that it rests on its triangular base. Trace the outline of
the prism using a pencil.
3.Draw a thin line NEN normal (perpendicular) to face AB of the prism. Also draw a straight-
line PE making an angle preferably between 30° and 60° as shown in figure.
4.Fix two pins at a distance of 5 cm from each other on the line PE as shown in the figure, later
mark these points of pins as P and Q.
5.Look at the images of the pins, fixed at P and Q, through the other face of the prism, i.e., AC.
6.Fix two more pins, at points R and S vertically such that the feet of pins at R and S appear to
be on the same straight line as the feet of the images of the pins P and Q when viewed through
the face AC of the prism.
7.Remove the pins and the glass prism.
8.Join and produce a line joining R and S, let this line meet the prism at point F.
9.Extend the direction of incident ray PQE till it meets the face AC. Also extend (backwards)
the emergent ray SRF so that these two lines meet at a point G.
10.Mark the angle of incidence ∠i, angle of refraction ∠r and the angle of emergence ∠e and
∠D as shown in the figure.
11.Repeat the experiment for more angle of incidence preferably between 30° and 60°.
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Observations
1.The light ray enters the prism at surface AB, bends towards the normal on refraction.
2.At surface AC of the prism, this light ray bends away from the normal because it travels from
a glass to air.
3.The peculiar shape of the prism makes the emergent ray bend at an angle to the direction of
the incident ray. This angle is called the angle of deviation (∠D).

Conclusion--1.The light ray, i.e., the incident ray first bends towards the normal when it gets
refracted in the prism and while leaving the prism it bends away from the normal.
2.The angle of deviation first decreases with the increase in angle of incidence ∠i. It attains a
minimum value then increases with further increase in angle of incidence.

Precautions-1.A sharp pencil should be used for drawing the boundary of the prism.
2.Use soft board and pointed pins.
3.The pins should be fixed at a distance of 5 cm or more.
4.The pins should be fixed vertically and immediately encircled after they are removed.
5.While viewing the col-linearity of pins and images, the eye should be kept at a distance from
the pins so that all of them can be seen simultaneously. The col-linearity of all the four pins can
be confirmed by moving the head slightly to either side while viewing them. They all appear to
move together.
6.The angle of incidence should be between 30° and 60°.
7.Proper arrows should be drawn for the incident ray, refracted ray and emergent ray.
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Expt - 14
Aim-To identify the different parts of an embryo of a dicot seed (pea, gram or red kidney bean).
Materials Required-Water-soaked seeds of pea, gram or red kidney beans, Petri dish, forceps,
needle, brush and simple microscope and slide.
Procedure-1.Take 8-10 soaked seeds of pea/gram/red kidney beans, place them on wet cotton
in Petri dish overnight. The seed coat becomes soft which helps in the opening of the seeds.
2.With the help of forceps, slowly remove the seed coat and study different parts of seed
embryo.
3.Now, slowly remove the embryo axis with needle and place it on the slide.
4.Observe these three parts of the seed obtained, record your observations and draw diagrams.
Observations-1.The seed has a small pore called micropyle.
2.It is a dicot seed, i.e., the seed has two cotyledons.

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3.The embryo axis shows radicle and plumule, (as shown in the figure), the radicle is future
root and the plumule is future shoot.
4.The food is stored in cotyledons.

Conclusion-The different parts of an embryo of a dicot seed were identified as plumule (future
shoot), radicle (future root), seed coat (outer covering) and cotyledons (food store)

Precautions-1.The best quality seeds should be used for study.

2.Soak the seeds overnight to make the seed coat soft.
3.Observe the parts under simple microscope/lens and record your observations.
4.Remove the seed coat very gently.

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