Pressure in a Fluid

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 Pressure in Fluid
◦ Pressure variation in a fluid at rest
◦ Absolute, gauge, atmospheric and vacuum
pressures
◦ Measurement of pressure: Manometers, mechanical
gauges

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 Pressure is a normal force per unit area.
 Unit is Newton per square meter (N/m2),
or Pascal (Pa).
 The unit Pascal is too small for
pressures encountered in practice.
◦ Multiples: kilopascal (1 kPa =103 Pa) and
megapascal (1 MPa = 106 Pa) are commonly
used.
 Three other pressure units commonly
used in practice, are
◦ bar,
◦ standard atmosphere, and
◦ kilogram-force per square centimeter
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 English system:
◦ the pressure unit is pound-force per square inch
(lbf/in2,or psi),
◦ and 1 atm = 14.696 psi.
◦ The pressure units kgf/cm2 and lbf/in2 are also
denoted by kg/cm2 and lb/in2,respectively,
◦ It can be shown that 1 kgf/cm2 =14.223 psi.

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 The actual pressure at a given position is
absolute pressure, measured relative to absolute
vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
 Most pressure measuring devices are calibrated
to read zero in the atmosphere
 Measured the difference between the absolute
pressure and the local atmospheric pressure
called the gauge pressure.
 Pressures below atmospheric pressure are
vacuum pressures and are measured by vacuum
gauges that indicate the difference between the
atmospheric pressure and the absolute pressure.

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 Absolute, gauge, and vacuum pressures are
all positive quantities and are related to each
other by

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 A vacuum gauge connected to a chamber reads 5.8 psi
at a location where the atmospheric pressure is 14.5 psi.
Determine the absolute pressure in the chamber.

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 The mean pressures at the
three surfaces are P1, P2,and P3
 The force acting on a surface is
the product of mean pressure
and the Area

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 Pressure is the compressive force per unit
area, and it gives the impression of being a
vector.
 Pressure at any point in a fluid is the same in
all directions.
 That is, it has magnitude but not a specific
direction,
◦ a scalar quantity.

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  consider a rectangular fluid
element of height Δz, length Δx,
and unit width in equilibrium,
 Density of the fluid r is constant
 A force balance in the vertical z-
direction gives

The pressure difference between two points in a constant density fluid is

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 The pressure difference
between points 1 and 2 can
be determined by
integrating

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 Independent of the shape or cross section of
the container.
 Changes with the vertical distance, but
remains constant in Horizontal direction.

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 The pressure applied
to a confined fluid
transmit the pressure
throughout by the
same amount.
 A consequence of the
pressure in a fluid
remaining constant in
the horizontal
direction,

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 A device for measuring
atmospheric pressure.
 It is Inverted mercury-filled
tube in a mercury container
that is open to the
atmosphere.

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 The pressure at point B is equal
to the atmospheric pressure.
 Pressure at C can be taken to be
zero since there is only mercury
vapor above point C and the
pressure is very low relative to
Patm and can be neglected to an
excellent approximation.
 Writing a force balance in the
vertical direction gives

Atmospheric pressure = Barometric pressure

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 A frequently used pressure unit is the standard
atmosphere.
◦ the pressure produced by a column of mercury 760 mm
in height at 0°C (rHg =13,595 kg/m3) under standard
gravitational acceleration (g " 9.807 m/s2).
 If water instead of mercury were used to measure
the standard atmospheric pressure, a water
column of about 10.3 m would be needed.
 Pressure is sometimes expressed (especially by
weather forecasters) in terms of the height of the
mercury column.
◦ The standard atmospheric pressure, for example, is 760
mmHg (29.92 inHg) at 0°C.
◦ The unit mmHg is also called the torr in honor of
Torricelli.
◦ Therefore, 1 atm = 760 torr and 1 torr = 133.3 Pa
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 Determine the atmospheric pressure at a location where
the barometric reading is 740 mmHg and the gravitational
acceleration is g = 9.81 m/s2.
Assume the temperature of mercury to be 10°C, at which
its density is13,570 kg/m3.

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 A manometer is a
glass or plastic U-
tube containing one
or more fluids such
as mercury, water,
alcohol, or oil.
 commonly used to
measure small and
moderate pressure
differences.

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 Since the gravitational effects of
gases are negligible, the pressure
anywhere in the tank and at
position 1 has the same value.
 Since pressure in a fluid does not
vary in the horizontal direction
within a fluid, the pressure at point
2 is the same as the pressure at
point 1, P2 = P1.
 The differential fluid column of
height h is in static equilibrium,
and it is open to the atmosphere.
 Pressure at point 2 is determined
directly as

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 The cross-sectional area of the
tube has no effect on the
differential height h, and thus the
pressure exerted by the fluid.
 However, the diameter of the
tube should be large enough
(more than a few millimeters) to
ensure that the surface tension
effect and thus the capillary rise
is negligible.

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A manometer is used to measure the pressure
in a tank. The fluid used has a specific gravity
of 0.85, and the manometer column height is
55 cm, as shown. If the local atmospheric
pressure is 96 kPa, determine the absolute
pressure within the tank.

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(1) the pressure change across a
fluid column of height h is
ΔP = rgh,
(2) pressure increases downward
in a given fluid and decreases
upward (Pbottom>Ptop), and
(3) two points at the same
elevation in a continuous fluid
at rest are at the same
pressure.

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 The pressure at any point can
be determined by starting with
a point of known pressure and
adding or subtracting

rgh
terms as we advance toward the
point of interest.

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 The working fluid can be either a
gas or a liquid with density, r1.
 The density of the manometer fluid
is r2,
 The differential fluid height is h.
 Starting at point 1 with P1, moving
along the tube by adding or
subtracting the rgh terms until we
reach point 2, and setting the result
equal to P2
 Pressure difference P1 - P2 is
obtained

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 The water in a tank is pressurized by air, and the pressure
is measured by a multifluid manometer as shown in Figure.
The tank is located on a mountain at an altitude of 1400 m
where the atmospheric pressure is 85.6 kPa. Determine the
air pressure in the tank if h1 = 0.1 m, h2 = 0.2 m, and h3 =
0.35 m. Take the densities of water, oil, and mercury to be
1000 kg/m3, 850 kg/m3, and 13,600 kg/m3, respectively.

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The volume that moves from
large side (left) = the volume
that rise in right tube

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The volume that move from x-x to z-z datum
= the volume that rise in right tube above x-x
datum

2
1

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The manometer shown is connected to a pipe containing
a liquid of specific gravity of 0.8. the ratio of area of the
reservoir to that of the limb is 100. find the pressure in
the pipe

Solution

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 This type of manometer is useful for
measurement of small pressures and is
more sensitive than vertical tube type.
p

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 P1 = (r2-r1)gh + P2
P1 – P2 = (r2-r1)gh
But h = Lsinθ
P1 – P2 = (r2-r1)g Lsinθ
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 1
2
At x-x
P1 = P2

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 An inverted manometer having an oil of specific gravity
0.8 connected to two different pipes carrying water under
pressure. Determine the pressure in the pipe B the
pressure in the pipe A is 2.0 meters of water

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 The pressure in a natural gas pipeline is
measured by the manometer shown in Figure 3
with one of the arms open to the atmosphere
where the pressure is 760 mmHg. Determine the
absolute pressure in the pipeline.

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 Bourdon tube is a mechanical pressure
measurement device.
 Consists of a hollow metal tube bent
like a hook whose end is closed and
connected to a dial indicator needle.
 When the tube is open to the
atmosphere, the tube is undeflected,
and the needle on the dial at this state
is calibrated to read zero (gauge
pressure).
 When the fluid inside the tube is
pressurized, the tube stretches and
moves the needle in proportion to the
pressure applied.

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 Pressure transducers use various techniques
to convert the pressure effect to an electrical
effect such as a change in voltage, resistance,
or capacitance.
 They are smaller and faster, and can be more
sensitive, reliable, and precise than their
mechanical counterparts.
 Pressures from less than a millionth of 1 atm
to several thousands of atm.

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 A wide variety available to measure gauge,
absolute, and differential pressures in a wide
range of applications.
◦ Gauge pressure transducers use the atmospheric
pressure as a reference
◦ The absolute pressure transducers are calibrated to
have a zero signal output at full vacuum.
◦ Differential pressure transducers measure the
pressure difference.

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 Worked by having a diaphragm
deflect between two chambers
open to the pressure inputs.
 As the diaphragm stretches in
response to a change in
pressure difference across it,
the strain gauge stretches and a
Wheatstone bridge circuit
amplifies the output.
 A capacitance transducer works
similarly, but capacitance
change is measured instead of
resistance change as the
diaphragm stretches.

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 Piezoelectric transducers =
solid-state pressure
transducers.
 Work on the principle that an
electric potential is generated
in a crystalline substance when
it is subjected to mechanical
pressure.
 Very suitable for high-pressure
applications.
 Generally not as sensitive as
the diaphragm-type
transducers.

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