Cambridge (CIE) IGCSE Your notes

Additional Maths
Equations, Inequalities & Graphs
Contents
Modulus Functions
Graphs of Cubic Polynomials

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 Modulus Functions
Your notes
Sketching Modulus Graphs
What is a modulus function?
The modulus function makes any ‘input’ positive
This is sometimes called the absolute value (of the input)
The modulus function is indicated by a pair of vertical lines being written around the
input
Similar to how brackets are used

| | = 7, | − 7 | = 7
e.g. 7

What types of modulus graphs will I need to sketch?

Modulus graphs required will be of linear, or quadratic form

|ax + b |
Linear form will be

Quadratic form will be | ax 2 + bx + c |

Often, there will be two graphs to sketch as this helps with solving equations involving
modulus functions

In linear form, equations could be of the form |ax + b | = | cx + d |

One side of the equation may not involve the modulus

One side may have a constant term only (i.e. b = 0 and/or d = 0

In quadratic form, equations could be of the form | ax 2 + bx + c | = d

In both cases, graphs of the left hand side and right hand side drawn on the same
diagram will reveal the number of intersections of the graphs (and so the number of
solutions to the equation)

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 Your notes

How do I sketch the graph of the modulus of a

function: y = |f(x)|?
STEP 1
Pencil in the graph of y = f(x)
STEP 2
Reflect anything below the x-axis, in the x-axis, to get y = |f(x)|

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 Your notes

Note in particular that the y -axis intercept, if negative on the graph of y =f x

( ) will be
positive on the graph of y =| f x
( ) |
At the x -axis intercepts, the graph will have a sharp ∨ -shape
this is not a smooth curve like with a turning point

if the graph is of the form y=−| |

f x then the graph would be wholly negative
( )

and the x -axis intercepts would have a sharp -shape ∧

Worked Example

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 Your notes

Solving Modulus Equations

Why are graphs needed to solve modulus equations?
Sketching the graphs of two modulus function(s) on the same diagram quickly reveals
the number of solutions there are to the equation
which parts of the graph (equation) - either the 'normal' part or the 'reflected' part -
will be needed to solve equations
For example, two non-parallel linear graphs would intersect

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 the solution to the linear functions being equal to each other would have one
solution
Your notes
if a modulus is involved there could be more than one intersection/solution

How do I solve modulus equations?

STEP 1 Sketch the graphs including any modulus (reflected) parts
STEP 2 Locate the graph intersections
STEP 3
Determine which part of each graph ('normal' or 'reflected' part) is needed to solve the
equation Solve the appropriate equation(s)

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 Your notes

How do I solve modulus inequalities?

The process is very similar to that as solving equations - with the graph sketching being
essential
STEP 1 Sketch the graph(s) including any modulus (reflected) parts

STEP 2 Locate the graph intersections (or x -axis intercepts if zero on one side)

STEP 3 Determine which part(s) of the graph(s) satisfy the inequality (highlight any on the
graph) Find the intersections (by solving equation(s))
STEP 4 Write the final answer(s) down, being careful with the use of <, >, ≤ and/or ≥

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 Your notes

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Sketching the graphs is important as solving algebraically can lead to invalid
solutions

− = −
For example, x = 1 is a solution to x 4 2x 5
= | − |= −
but x 1 is not a solution to x 4 2x 5
(substitute x = 1 into both sides and see why it does not work)

Worked Example

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 Your notes

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 Graphs of Cubic Polynomials
Your notes
Graphs of Cubic Polynomials
What is a cubic polynomial?
A cubic polynomial is a function of the form ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d
a , b , c and d are constants
it is a polynomial of degree 3

so b , c and/or d could be zero

To sketch the graph of a cubic polynomial it will need to be in factorised form

e.g. 2x
( −1 x +2 x −3
) ( ) ( ) is the factorised form of 2x 3 − 3x 2 − 11x + 6
What does the graph of a cubic polynomial look like?
In general the graph of a cubic polynomial will take one of the four forms
All are smooth curves that take some practice to sketch!

The exact form a particular cubic polynomial will depend on

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 The number (and value) of roots (x -axis intercepts) of the cubic polynomial

The y -axis intercept Your notes

The sign of the coefficient of the x 3 term (a )

>
If a 0 the graph is a positive cubic ('starts' in the third quadrant, 'ends' in the
first)

<
If a 0 the graph is a negative cubic ('starts' in the second quadrant, 'ends' in
the fourth)
Turning points

How do I sketch the graph of a cubic polynomial?

STEP 1 Find the y -axis intercept by setting x =0
STEP 2 Find the x -axis intercepts (roots) by setting y = 0 (Any repeated roots will mean the
graph touches - rather than crosses - the x -axis)

STEP 3 Consider the shape of the graph - is it a positive cubic or a negative cubic? Where
does the graph 'start' and 'end'?
STEP 4 Consider where any turning points should go
STEP 5 Sketch the graph with a smooth curve, labelling points where the graph intercepts
the x and y axes

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Examiner Tips and Tricks
In the exam, a cubic polynomial that requires sketching will be given in factorised Your notes
form
i.e. as the product of three linear factors
a factor could be repeated
Build your sketch up as you work through each step to gradually build a mental
picture of it
If you need to redraw the graph for your final answer, that's fine!

Worked Example
Sketch the graph of y = 2x − 1 x − 3 2 .
( ) ( )

STEP 1 - y -axis intercept

y= (−1 −3 2 = − 9
) ( )

STEP 2 - x -axis intercepts

1
2x − 1 = 0, x =
2
x − 3 = 0, x = 3 (repeated)
STEP 3 - shape, 'start'/'end'

a > 0 a = 2 so it is a positive cubic x = 3 is a repeated root so the graph will

( )

touch the x -axis at this point

STEP 4 - turning points

One turning point (minimum) will need to be where the curve touches the x -axis The
1
other (maximum) will need to be betweenx = 2 and x = 3
STEP 5 - smooth curve with labelled intercepts

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 Your notes

Modulus Cubic Graphs

What is a modulus cubic graph?
A (factorised) cubic polynomial is of the from f ( x ) =a x −b x −c x −d
( ) ( ) ( )

The graph of y =f x ( ) must cross the x -axis at least once

therefore y must take both positive and negative values

The modulus cubic graph, y = | f x | will mean all values of y are positive
( )

Any negative values become their positive equivalents

e.g. If f= x 3 then f −1 = −1 3 = − 1 , but

( x ) ( ) ( )

|f −1 | = | −1 3 | = | − 1 | = 1
( ) ( )

A modulus cubic graph will not have any negative values

the graph will not cross the x -axis

the graph will touch the x -axis (at least once)

How do I sketch a modulus cubic graph?

Sketch the graph of the (original) cubic polynomial, y =f x ( )

x
Any parts of this graph that are below the -axis should be reflected in the -axis to x
sketch the graph of y f x =| ( ) |

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 Your notes

The points at which a modulus graph touches the x -axis are the same as the points at
which the original graph intercepts the x -axis (i.e. the roots of f x )
( )

Label these points, and the y -axis intercept, on a sketch

Notice that the points at which a modulus graph touches the x -axis are not smooth

they are 'pointy' (V-shaped)

turning points are smooth (U-shaped)

How do I find a cubic function from its modulus graph?

To deduce a cubic expression from its modulus graph consider
whether the (original) expression could be a positive or negative cubic
a positive cubic 'starts' in the third quadrant and 'ends' in the first
a negative cubic 'starts' in the second quadrant and 'ends' in the fourth
a negative cubic can have a "-" at the start of its expression

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 the x -axis intercepts - the roots

for the roots b , c and d , write the factors x − b x − c x − d

( ) ( ) ( )
Your notes

the y -axis intercept - to deduce the expression in the form

a x −b x −c x −d
( ) ( ) ( )

lots of cubic functions have the same roots but have different coefficients

the y -axis intercept should be the product

a × − b × − c × − d = − abcd
a may often, but not always, be 1

Examiner Tips and Tricks

=
Sketching the (original) graph of y f x first is often helpful rather than trying
( )

to sketch the modulus graph from scratch

If asked to find a cubic function from a given graph
there may be more than one possibility

consider which parts of the graph may have been reflected in the x -axis
could it be either a positive or negative cubic polynomial?
the factorised form is usually sufficient (unless a question says otherwise)

Worked Example
The diagram below shows the graph of y = | f x | where f x
( ) ( ) is a positive cubic
polynomial.

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 Your notes

Deduce an expression for f x leaving your answer in factorised form, with each
( )

factor having integer coefficients.

f x is a positive cubic polynomial so the graph should 'start' in the third quadrant
( )

and 'end' in the first. A quick sketch (without labels) can help.

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 Your notes

The x -axis intercepts indicate the roots.

1 ⎞⎟
x + 4 ⎜⎜x + ⎟ x −3
⎛

2⎠
( ) ( )

1 ⎞⎟
x is of the form a x + 4 ⎜⎜x + ⎟ x − 3 . Use the y -axis
⎛
The expression for f
2⎠
( ) ( ) ( )

intercept to deduce the value of a . From the sketch of y = f x the y -axis intercept
⎝

( )

is -12 (not 12).

1
a×4× × − 3 = − 12
2
− 6a = − 12
a=2
The final answer requires each factor to have integer coefficients so multiply 2 into
1 ⎞⎟
x+
⎛
⎟ and write down f x .
⎜
⎜
2⎠
( )

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 f x = x + 4 2x + 1 x − 3
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Your notes
Solving Cubic Inequalities Graphically
What is a cubic inequality?
A cubic function is of the form f ( x ) = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d where a, b , c and d are
constants
A cubic inequality can be any of the following

f x
( ) >0
f x
( ) ≥0
f x
( ) <0
f x
( ) ≤0
An inequality may need rearranging into one of these forms first before solving
Furthermore, solving cubic equations graphically is easiest when the expression has
been factorised

e.g. for a cubic with three (real) roots this would be ( x −p x −q x −r

) ( ) ( )

,
where p q and r are the roots

How do I solve a cubic inequality graphically?

STEP 1 If need be, rearrange the inequality so that one side of the inequality is zero This should
leave a cubic polynomial on the other side Factorise the cubic polynomial if required e.g.
( 2x − 3 x − 4 x + 1
) ( ) ( ) ≤0
STEP 2 Sketch the graph of the cubic polynomial The x -axis intercepts (roots) are crucial to
finding the solution but the y -axis intercept is not needed e.g.

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 Your notes

STEP 3
Identify the part(s) of the graph that satisfy the inequality
Highlighting this on the sketch will help
Consider whether you need to include (≤, ≥) or exclude (<, >) the roots e.g.

STEP 4
Write down the solutions to the inequality

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 3
e.g. x ≤ − 1, 2 ≤ x ≤ 4
Your notes

Worked Example
a) Sketch the graph of y =f x
( ) where f ( x ) = 3x − 1 x − 3 2 .
( ) ( )

1
This is a positive cubic polynomial with roots x = 3 and x = 3
x = 3 is a repeated root so the graph will touch the x -axis at this point

a) Hence solve the inequality f ( x ) > 0.

STEP 1 - the cubic polynomial is already in factorised form
STEP 2 - the graph has been sketched in part (a)
STEP 3 - Highlight the graph to show the parts of the graph which lie above zero

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 Your notes

STEP 4 - Write the solution mathematically. Remember that in this case it is a strict
1
inequality, so it cannot be equal to 3 or
3

x > 13 , x ≠ 3

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