Reasoning and Aptitude

All Important Formulae and Concepts

GATE
GATE – Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering
SSC, State SSC, ESE, other Govt. Exams
Placement Exams
Arithmetic – Number System
Classification of Numbers  Irrational Numbers: can’t be written as a
fraction or ratio
 Real Numbers (4, 2.5, -34.666, 22/7, . . .)
 Non-repeating, non-terminating decimals
 Complex Numbers (5+3i, -4-4i, . . .) (5.432698762, 𝜋 = 3.14159265358…)
 Complex Numbers are also real numbers with  Non-perfect square roots ( √12 =
3.4610161514…)
imaginary part zero.
Integers
Real Numbers  −ve integers  . . . -6, -5, -4, -3, -2, -1

 Rational Numbers : that can be written as a  Zero  0

fraction or a ratio. Examples  +ve integers  1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . .
 Integers: all integers are rational since those can be  Natural Numbers
written as fractions ( 3 = 3/1, 18 = 36/2)
 Repeating Decimals (0.66666… = 2/3)
 Non-repeating decimals that are finite (4.24 = Whole Number = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . }
424/100)
 Perfect square root ( √25 = 5/1)
Arithmetic – Number System
Natural Numbers (counting numbers) Imaginary Numbers
 Prime  which have only 1 factor (2, 3, 5, 7. 11,  𝑖 = −1  𝑖 = −1 = 𝑖
13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, …)
 Composite  2 or more factors ( 4 = 2 x 2,  𝑖 = −1  𝑖 = −1 = 𝑖
6=3x2, 30 = 5 x 3 x 2, etc.)  𝑖 = −𝑖  𝑖 = −𝑖 = 𝑖
 1 is neither prime nor composite  𝑖 =1  𝑖 =1=𝑖
 *Except 2, all primes are odd

Even numbers and Odd numbers

Fractions ( a/b, b not = 0 )
 Even Numbers: numbers which are divisible by 2
 Proper fractions: |a| < |b|
½, 2/3, 5/7, -11/38
-16, 4, 990, 540, -78
 Improper fractions: |a| > |b|  Odd Numbers: not divisible by 2
3/2, 7/4, -26/11 -11, 5, 991, 539, -77
 Mixed fractions: an improper fraction written as
an integer with a fraction.
3 ¾, 8 ½ ,
Arithmetic – Number System
Properties based on odd and even Prime Number & Composite Numbers
 24+16 = 40  Even + Even = Even  Prime Numbers: Numbers which are perfectly
divisible either by 1 or by itself
 7 + 45 = 52  Odd + Odd = Even
25 prime numbers are there between 1 to 100
 3+5+7 = 15  Odd + Odd + Odd = Odd
(2, 3, 5, 7, 11,13 . . . . . . . . 97)
 7 x 9 = 63  Odd x Odd = Odd
2 is the only even prime number
 7 x 8 = 56  Odd x Even = Even
All prime numbers greater than 5 can be
 6 x 8 = 48  Even x Even = Even
expressed as (6 n +-1) where n is any natural
 4 = 64  𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛 = 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛 number, but all the numbers in form of (6n+-1) form
 3 = 81  𝑂𝑑𝑑 = 𝑂𝑑𝑑 are not necessarily prime.

 2 =4  𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛 = 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛  Composite Numbers: can be factorized into

multiple prime numbers.
 3 = 27  𝑂𝑑𝑑 = 𝑂𝑑𝑑

 1 is neither prime nor composite.

Arithmetic – Number System
How to check whether given number is Divisibility check:
prime or not:  Divisibility by 2
 A number is divisible by 2 if the unit digit is zero or
1. Take the square root of number divisible by 2. (Ex- 54, 126, 8898 etc.)
2. Consider the prime numbers, starting from 2 till  Divisibility by 3
number. Take all prime numbers upto this  A number is divisible by 3 if the sum of the digits in the
square root value or nearest higher integer. number is divisible by 3. ( 1152  1+1+5+2=9
divisible by 3, hence 1152 is divisible by 3)
3. If the number is divisible by any of these prime  Divisibility by 4
numbers, then number is composite.  A number is divisible by 4 if its last two digit are
divisible by 4. (524  24 is divisible by 4 524 is
divisible by 4)
Example: 181  Divisibility by 5
Square root of 181> 13  A number is divisible by 5 if its unit digit is 5 or 0. (885,
600, 1075 etc)
So, we need to check divisibility of 181 against 2, 3,  Divisibility by 6
5, 7, 11, 13, 17  A number is divisible by 6 if the number is even and sum
of digit is divisible by 3.
181 is not divisible by either of these hence it is a  612  even and 6+1+2 = 9 divisible by 3, hence 612 is
prime number divisible by 6
Arithmetic – Number System
Divisibility check: HCF and LCM of Numbers
 Divisibility by 8  Highest Common Factor (HCF)/ Greatest
 A number is divisible by 8 if its last three digits are Common Divisor (GCD) : HCF of two or more
divisible by 8. ( 7416  416 divisible by 8, hence 7416 numbers is the greatest number that divides each
is divisible by 8) one of them exactly.
 Divisibility by 9  7 is the HCF of 14 and 35.
 A number is divisible by 9 if sum of its digits is divisible
by 9. (1548  1+5+4+8 = 18 is divisible by 9 1548 is
divisible by 9)  Least Common Multiple (LCM): LCM of two or
more number is the least or a lowest number
 Divisibility by 10 which is exactly divisible by each of them
 A number is divisible by 10 if its unit digit is 0. (880, 60,  LCM of 6 and 15 is 30.
10750 etc)
 LCM and HCF of Fractions:
 Divisibility by 11
 A number is divisible by 11 if the difference of sum of  Fraction =
digits at odd places and sum of digits at even places is
either 0 or divisible by 11.
 HCF of Fraction =
 2453  sum of odd place digits = 2+5 =7, sum of even
place digit = 4+3=7, 7-7 = 0  2453 is divisible by 11
 LCM of Fraction =
Arithmetic – Number System
Some important formulae from Algebra Conditions of divisibility for algebraic
functions
 (𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑎 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏
 𝑎 + 𝑏 is exactly divisible by a+b only when n is
 (𝑎 − 𝑏) = 𝑎 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 odd
 (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑎 − 𝑏  Ex: 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑎 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 is divisible by
(a+b), also 𝑎 + 𝑏 is divisible by a+b.
 (𝑎 + 𝑏) + (𝑎 − 𝑏) = 2(𝑎 + 𝑏 )  𝑎 + 𝑏 is never divisible by a-b only (whether n
 (𝑎 + 𝑏) − (𝑎 − 𝑏) = 4𝑎𝑏 is odd or even)
 Ex: 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑎 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 is not divisible by
 (𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑎 + 3𝑎 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 (a-b), also 𝑎 + 𝑏 is also not divisible by a-b.
 = 𝑎 +𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 𝑎 + 𝑏  𝑎 − 𝑏 is always divisible by a-b (whether n is
odd or even).
 (𝑎 − 𝑏) = 𝑎 − 3𝑎 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏  Ex: 𝑎 − 𝑏 is exactly divisible by (a-b), also 𝑎 −𝑏
is divisible by a-b.
 = 𝑎 −𝑏 − 3𝑎𝑏 𝑎 − 𝑏
 𝑎 − 𝑏 is divisible by a+b only when n is even
 𝑎 + 𝑏 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 −𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 ) natural number.
 𝑎 − 𝑏 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎 +𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 )  Ex: 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑎 − 𝑏 (𝑎 +
𝑏) 𝑎 + 𝑏 , hence 𝑎 − 𝑏 is always divisible by (a+b),
but 𝑎 − 𝑏 will not be.
 = 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
Arithmetic – Number System
Factors of Composite Number How to Count Number of Trailing 0s in n!
 42 = 2 × 3 × 7  Number of zeros at the end of 8! = ?
 504 = 2 × 3 × 7 8! = 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1
( ) ( ) ( ) we need to count number of 5 actually, because multiplication
 Composite Number = 𝑃 ×𝑃 ......𝑃 of 5 by any even number will result in 0. In 8! we have one 5 thus
the total number of zeros will be one.
𝑃 , 𝑃 , 𝑃 , . . . . . . 𝑃  distinct prime numbers
𝜆 , 𝜆 , 𝜆 , . . . . . . 𝜆  their respective powers
 Short Cut method:
counting number of zeros at the end of n!
Factors of composite number
= (𝜆 + 1)(𝜆 + 1) . . . . . . (𝜆 + 1) value will be = + + + ......
the integral value of the sum will be the total
number of zeros
Example: 504 = 2 × 3 × 7
Example: number of zeros at the end of 127!
Factors = (3+1)(2+1)(1+1) =4x3x2 =24
= + + + = 25 + 5 + 1 = 31 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠
Arithmetic – Number System
Cyclicity  Cyclicity of 3  Cyclicity of 6  Cyclicity of 9
3 =3 6 =6 9 =9
 Cyclicity of 1 3 =9 6 = 36 9 = 81
 In 1 , unit digit will 3 = 27 6 = 216 9 = 729
always be zero 3 = 81 6 = 1296 9 = 6561
3 = 243
 Cyclicity of 2 3 = 729
Unit digit will always be 6. Cycle of 9 is 9,1.
2 =2 3 = 2187  Cyclicity of 7
2 =4 3 = 6561 7 =7 Cyclicity Table (Remember)
2 =8
cycle of 3 is 3,9,7,1. 7 = 49
2 = 16
2 = 32
7 = 343 1: 1
 Cyclicity of 4 7 = 2401
2 = 64
4 =4 7 = 16807 2: 2, 4, 6, 8
2 = 128
2 = 256
4 = 16 7 = 117649 3: 3, 9, 7, 1
4 = 64 7 = 823543
After every four 4 = 256 7 = 5764801 4: 4, 6
intervals it repeats, so cycle is 4,6. cycle of 7 is 7,9,3,1. 5: 5
cycle of 2 is 2,4,8,6
 Cyclicity of 5  Cyclicity of 8 6: 6
Ex: Unit digit of 2 5 =5 8 =8 7: 7, 9, 3, 1
Here 2,4,8,6 will repeat 5 = 25 8 = 64
after every four 5 = 125 8 = 512 8: 8, 4, 2, 6
interval till 320, next 5 = 625 8 = 4096 9: 9, 1
digit will be 2,4, 8. so Unit digit will always be 5. 8 = 32768
unit digit will be 8. cycle of 8 is 8,4,2,6. 0: 0
Arithmetic – Number System
Remainder Theorem Polynomial Theorem (to find remainder)
× ×  𝑥+𝑎 =𝑥 + 𝐶 𝑥 𝑎+ 𝐶 𝑥 𝑎
 Remainder of expression (i.e. p× 𝑞 × 𝑟
when divided by n ) is equal to the remainder of
× × + 𝐶 𝑥 𝑎 ...... 𝐶 𝑥 𝑎 +𝑎
expression (i.e. 𝑝 × 𝑞 × 𝑟 when
divided by n ). Where
(
 𝑝 is remainder when p is divided by n.
 𝑞 is remainder when q is divided by n. ...... )
 =
 𝑟 is remainder when r is divided by n.
 Remainder of the 2nd eqn = remainder of
Example:
× × because rest terms contains x are completely
Find the remainder of divisible by x.
× ×
Remainder => = => 3  Ex: =

Remainder = remainder of =1
Arithmetic – Number System
Remainders ** Remainders **
 Case-1: on dividing a number by a, b & c if we get  Case-1: on dividing a number by a, b & c if we get k
a-k, b-k and c-k as remainder respectively then as remainder always, then that number will be (n-
1) LCM of [a, b, c] + k.
that number will be n x LCM of [a, b, c] – k.
Example: on dividing a number by 5, 6 and 7 we get
Example: on dividing a number by 5, 6 and 7 we 2 as remainder always. Find that number
get 3, 4, and 5 as remainder. Find the number That number will be:
5, 6, 7 (n-1) x LCM of (5, 6, 7) + 2
Remainder 3, 4, 5 2 is such smallest number
Next number will be= 210 + 2 = 212
Which is equal to (5-2), (6-2), (7-2)
 Case-3: if a number after adding k is divisible by a, b
That number will be: and c, then that number will be n x LCM of [a, b, c]
- k.
n x LCM of (5, 6, 7) – 2 = 210 – 2 = 208
Example: find a number which after adding 7 is
Note: here we have taken value of n as 1. divisible by 10, 11 and 12.
That number will be:
n x LCM of (10, 11, 12) - 7
If n =1 then 660-7 = 653 ans.
Arithmetic – Number System
Squares of Squares of
Numbers Numbers
 75^2 =?
 1 =1  11 = 121
 2 =4  12 = 144
 3 =9  13 = 169  Squares of two digit number having 5 in unit
place can be calculated very easily
 4 = 16  14 = 196
 5 = 25  15 = 225
 N5 here n may be 1 to 9.
 6 = 36  16 = 256 (n5)^2 = [n*(n+1)]25
 7 = 49  17 = 289
 8 = 64  18 = 324  75^2 =?
 9 = 81  19 = 361 = [7*(7+1)] 25 = 1400
 10 = 100  20 = 400

Squares of a number always ends

with 0, 1, 4, 5, 6 and 9 as unit digit.
and never ends as 2, 3 , 7 and 8 as
unit digit
Arithmetic – Percentages
Percent =per cent=> /100 = out of hundred  Q. A man’s wages were decreased by 20%. The
reduced wages were increased by 20%. He had a
loss of :
 Percentage calculation = × 100 % A. 2%
 Percent to fraction B. 3%
N% = N/100 C. 4%
Example: 5% = 5/100 = 1/20 D. None of these

Which is largest among following:  Ans. C

i. 10% of 120 ii. 8% of 200 Here x = -20, y = 20
iii. 700% of 2 iv. 15 Hence the change in wages
10% of 120 = 12 = ( x+y+ xy/100)%
= (-20 + 20 – 20x20/100) %
8% of 200 = 16
= - 4%
700% of 2 = 14
option ii. is correct
Arithmetic – Profit and Loss
 Cost Price (CP)  Expenditure incurred on the  Mark up: increment on the cost price before the
purchase/ production. article is sold.
 Selling Price (SP)revenue generated by selling.  False Weight: sometimes the shopkeeper keeps
 If SP>CP => Profit = SP- CP the CP and SP the same, but instead of giving
 If CP>SP => Loss = CP-SP indicated quantity he supplies less quantity.
Some Basic Formulae:
 % Profit / Loss =
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒇𝒊𝒕/𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎  When SP and Gain % are given then
𝑪𝑷
/ CP = ( ) × 𝑆𝑃
 % Margin = × 100 %
 When CP and Gain % are given then
%
 Marked Price: the price of the product generally SP = ( ) × 𝐶𝑃
displayed on the label. (generally as MRP)
 When CP and Loss % are given then
%
 Discount: Rebate given to customer before SP = ( ) × 𝐶𝑃
selling. Generally discount is given on Marked
Price.  When SP and Loss % are given then
CP = ( ) × 𝑆𝑃
%
Arithmetic – Profit and Loss
Some Basic Formulae:  A merchant uses faulty measures and sells his
goods at gain/loss of x%. The overall %
 If the cost price (CP) of m articles is equal to
gain/loss(g)
selling price (SP) of n articles, then
% gain or loss = ( ) × 100 =

if m>n => % gain, if m<n => % loss

Discount
 When two different articles are sold at the same  If two successive discount of an article are m%
SP, getting gain/loss of x% on the first and and n% respectively, then a single discount
gain/loss of y% on the second, the overall % gain equivalent to the successive discount will be
or loss in the transaction is given by (m + n − )
%
Other method to calculate:
100 − 𝑚 100 − 𝑛
 When two different articles are sold at the same 100 − 100 × × %
100 100
SP getting gain of x% on first and loss of x% on
second, overall % loss is ( ) %.
Arithmetic – Simple Interest & Compound Interest
Simple Interest  Case 1: when interest is compounded annually
× ×
 SI = A=P 1+
P = Principle amount
 Case 2: when interest is compounded half yearly
R = % rate of interest
T = time duration /
A=P 1+
 Case 3: when interest is compounded quaterly
Compound Interest
/
 The previous year interest are added A=P 1+
to the principle for CI calculation.
 Case 4: when differential rate of interest is charged i.e. if
 CI = P 1 + −𝑃 rate of interest is
𝑅 % for first year
P = Principle amount
R = % rate of interest 𝑅 % for second year
T = time duration 𝑅 % for third year
A=P 1+ 1+ 1+
Arithmetic – Ratio and Proportion
 Ratio = a/b or a:b Proportion
 > if a < b …………(i)  It is comparison of two equal ratio. When the two
ratios are equal then all the quantities comprising
 < if a > b …………(ii) the ratios are called in proportion i.e. = then
 = if a = b a, b, c & d are in proportion & ‘d’ is called as
fourth proportion of a, b & c.
(i) and (ii) was considering x = +ve
If x = -ve (i) and (ii) inequalities will reverse  If three quantities a, b & c are taken then = ,
here c is called as second proportion or mean
Ratio as a part of total value proportion of a & c.

If two quantities A & B are in the ratio p:q then so 𝑏 = ac or b = 𝑎𝑐

𝐴 𝑝 so mean proportion is the geometric mean of the
= ⇒ 𝐴 = 𝑝𝐾, 𝐵 = 𝑞𝐾
𝐵 𝑞 two quantities. Here the quantities b and c will be in
So A+B = (p+q)K ‘continued proportion’ similarly if a,b c, d are in
So = ⇒𝐴= (𝐴 + 𝐵) continued proportion then = = or in other
way we can say that if terms are in G.P. then they
So A will be part of total sum of quantities will be in continued proportion.
Similarly B will be part of total sum of quantities
Arithmetic – Ratio and Proportion
Application of Proportion Compound Ratio and Partnership
 Useful in removing complexity of problems in ratios
 If there are two ratio a:b and c:d then their
 If a, b, c, d are in proportion i.e. = then compound ratio will be axc : bxd.
 = (componendo rule)  In partnership, the profit among the partners is
always divided in the compound ratio of
 = (dividend rule) investment ratio and time of investment ratio.
 Suppose partners’ investment is A1:A2:A3, and
 = (componendo-dividend rule) their invest time ratio is t1:t2:t3, then the profit
ratio will be A1t1:A2t2:A3t3.
 = (invertendo rule)

 = (alternendo rule)

And if = = then

 = = =
Arithmetic – Average, Mixture and Alligation
Average Weighted Average
 Average = arithmetic mean or simply mean  When there is two or more than two different
groups, the overall average will depend on
 Average of 5, 10, 45, 60 =?
average of groups as well as number of entities in
 Average = each group. suppose there are three groups with
. averages 20 , 40 , and 60 respectively, with there
numbers 10, 20 and 10 respectively.
 Average of 5, 10, 45, 60 = = 30
∗ ∗ ∗
 If the value of each item is increased or decreased then overall average =
by some value k, then the average value will also
increase or decrease by k.
 If the value of each item is multiplied or divided  Weighted average =
by some value k, then the average value will also ∗ ∗ ∗ ………
increase or decrease by k. ⋯……
 The average value always lie between the smallest
and largest value of the group.  n1, n2, n3, ……… number of elements in group
 W1, W2, W3,…… average of groups
Arithmetic – Average, Mixture and Alligation
Technique of Mixture and Alligation  Alligation technique provides ratio of
 Weighted average is used for mixing two different quantities. mixing directly.
If two solutions of concentration c1 and c2 are mixed in the  Alligation technique has to be used when
ratio m : n. Then the weightage concentration c will be the weighted average is given as &
c=
∗ ∗ weighted average formula has to be used
when weighted average is not given.
or it can be rearranged as =
this is known as alligation formula. Replacement
( Ist conc.) (IInd conc.)
 One part of solution is taken out and is
c1 c2 replaced with another ingredient.
 During replacement if the solution that is
c (weighted avg. conc.) being replaced is P% of the total solution,
then the ingredient having single-
directional flow will decrease by P%
c2 - c c1 – c after every cycle.
(IInd conc–Weighted avg conc) (Weighted avg conc -IInd conc)
m n
Arithmetic – Time and Work
 Capacity = Wages
Suppose three people A, B and C can finish work  If the work is finished by more than one persons
individually in a, b and c days respectively, then the wages for them will be distributed among
them based on the amount of work done by them.
 If all three of them start working on some So
alternate pattern then if a > b > c 𝜖 N.
Ratio of wages = Ratio of work finished
+ + =
a, b, c & N all are natural number then work will
get completed in integral number of days who is
Pipes and Cisterns
starting the work will not effect the total time taken.  The inlet pipe always does the positive work
while the outlet pipe does the negative work.
 But if + + ≠ then in order to get the job
done in minimum no. of days, we should use most
efficient person on day one, 2nd best person on day Man x Day x Hour
2 and least efficient person on day 3 and so on.
 M1 x D1 x H1 = work = M2 x D2 x H2
Arithmetic – Speed, Time & Distance
 Speed = Train Problems
 Average Speed =  When a train crosses anybody it has to cover its
own length and length of other object. Thus,
 Where equal distances are covered with different relative distance will be sum of lengths of train
uniform speed, the value of distance does not matter and object.
while calculating the average speed.
 Suppose 𝐿 is length of train, 𝐿 is length of
object, 𝑈 is speed of train, and 𝑈 is speed of
Relative Speed object, then time taken for crossing
 Speed of one moving body with respect to another moving
body. If two bodies are moving with speed ‘u’ and ‘v’ then t= + for same and –ve for opposite
relative speed of one body when ±

 They are moving on same plane Boats / Rivers

(u – v) for same direction  Upstream  moving against river flow
(u + v) for opposite direction
 Downstream moving along river flow
 They are moving as one or another (as man on a moving
escalator)  If u is speed of object, and v is speed of river, then
(u + v) for same direction for upstream: relative speed = u – v
(u – v) for opposite direction
for downstream: relative speed = u+v
Arithmetic – Speed, Time & Distance
Circular Tracks Application of variation
 Time interval between any two consecutive  When distance is constant,
meeting is same. Three important things
First ever meeting time => 𝑇 Speed ∝ (inverse variation)
First meeting time at starting point => 𝑇
No. of distinct point on the track where the i.e. if speed becomes m/n times of previous speed
meeting occurs => n then time will become n/m times of previous time.
Two cases are there:
 Case-1: when two persons are running on the Races
track. If the length of track be D and sped of
persons be a and b then  There are two types of comparisons in races
generally
𝑇 = (based on direction)
±  Comparison of distance & speed.
 Comparison of speed & time.
 Case 2: when more than two persons are running
𝑇 = 𝐿𝐶𝑀 𝑜𝑓 { , , ,……}
𝑇 = 𝐿𝐶𝑀 𝑜𝑓 { , , , … … }
𝑇
𝑛=
𝑇
Algebra & Set Theory – Surds, Indices & Logarithms
Laws of Indices Laws of Surds Logarithms
 𝑎 ×𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑎 = 𝑎 ⁄ is called surd  log 𝑚 × 𝑛 = log 𝑚 × log 𝑛
of order n.
 =𝑎  log ( ) = log 𝑚 − log 𝑛
⁄
 ( 𝑎) = (𝑎 ) =𝑎
 log 𝑚 = 𝑛 log 𝑚
 (𝑎 ) = 𝑎
 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎. 𝑏
 (𝑎 × 𝑏) = 𝑎 × 𝑏  log 𝑚 = log 𝑚
 =
( ) =  log 𝑏 =
 ( 𝑎) = 𝑎
 𝑎 =1  log 𝑥 = =
 𝑎 = 𝑎 iff  𝑎= 𝑎=
 log 𝑏 × log 𝑎 = × =1
x=y or x=0 or y=o 𝑎
 When base is not mentioned it is taken as 10. Log
𝑎 = to base 10 is known as common log.
 log 𝑎 = 1
𝑎 =
 log 1 = 0
 𝑎 =𝑥
Algebra & Set Theory – Progressions
Arithmetic Progression (AP) Arithmetic Progression (AP)
 a, a+d, a+2d, a+3d, . . . . . ., a+(n-1)d  If in an AP, mth term is ‘n’ and nth term is ‘m’ then
 nth term, 𝑇 = 𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑  The common difference will be
 Sum of n terms,  The (m+n)th term will be ‘zero’
 The first term will be ‘(m+n-1)’
𝑆 = ∑𝑇 = 2𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
 If sum of n terms of an AP is equal to the sum of n
= 𝑎+𝑇 terms of same AP, then the AP will have 𝑡ℎ
 If three numbers are in AP, they can be assumed as term as ‘zero’. Valid only when (m+n) is odd.
a-d, a, a+d.  When (m+n) is even, there is no possibility that
 If four numbers are in AP, they can be assumed as term will be zero.
a-3d, a-d, a+d, a+3d.  If two Aps are compared & ratio of 𝑇 of first AP to
 If 5 numbers are in AP, they can be assumed as (a- 𝑇 of second AP is p : q then they will have the ratio
2d), (a-d), a, (a+d), (a+2d). of sums determinable only in one case & that will
be
 If in an AP, sum of n terms is ‘m’ and sum of ‘m’
terms is ‘n’ then sum of (m+n) terms will be = ( )
“-(m+n)”.
Algebra & Set Theory – Progressions
Arithmetic Progression (AP) Geometric Progression (GP)
Important Applications  𝑎, 𝑎𝑟, 𝑎𝑟 , 𝑎𝑟 , . . . . . . , 𝑎𝑟
 Sum of first n natural numbers  nth term = 𝑎𝑟
( )
𝑆 = ∑𝑛 =  Sum of n terms 𝑆 = 𝑎 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟 > 1
 Sum of squares of first n natural numbers 𝑆 =𝑎 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟 < 1
( )( )
(𝑆 ) = ∑ 𝑛 =
 Infinite GP: infinite number of terms (n → ∞)
 Sum of cubes of first n natural numbers
𝑆 =∞ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟 > 1
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
(𝑆 ) = 𝑆 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟 < 1
2
 Assumption for three terms AP: , 𝑎, 𝑎𝑟
 Assumption for four terms AP: , , 𝑎𝑟, 𝑎𝑟
Algebra & Set Theory – Progressions
Harmonic Progression (HP) Geometric mean (GM)
 If all the terms of an Arithmetic Progression (AP)  GM = (𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 ......𝑎 ) ⁄
are reversed then the series obtained will be
hormonic series.  GM of two numbers a, b => 𝑎𝑏
 AP => 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, . . . . . .
 HP => , , , , , ...... Harmonic mean (HM)
 nth term of HP: first find nth term of AP and  GM of two numbers a, b => HM=
inverse it.

Arithmetic Mean (AM) Relation between AM, GM, and HM

 For n terms 𝑎 , 𝑎 , 𝑎 , 𝑎 , 𝑎 , . . . . . . , 𝑎  AM ≥ 𝐺𝑀 ≥ HM
......  For two terms a and b
AP =
HM × 𝐴𝑀 = 𝐺𝑀
Algebra & Set Theory – Permutation and Combination
Multiplication rule: if a task A can be done in m Combinations
ways and a second task B can be done in n ways, the  Selection of a group of certain things out of a given
number of ways of doing both the task one after set.
another is mxn ways.  Combination of ‘r’ things out of ‘n’ distinct things
𝑛!
Additive rule: if a task A can be done in m ways 𝐶 =
(𝑛 − 𝑟)! × 𝑟!
and a second task B can be done in n ways, then
--------------------------------------
total number of ways of doing either of task =
(m+n) ways  Linear permutation of ‘n’ distinct things taken ‘r’ at a
time without repetition
Permutations 𝑃 =
!
( )!
 Number of ways of arranging particular things in n! = 1x2x3x4x5………xn
certain order. 0! = 1
 Distinct permutations of ‘r’ things taken outnof ‘n’  Number of combinations of ‘n’ distinct things taken
things taken at a time ‘r’ at a time
𝑛! = 𝐶 =
!
𝑃 = ! !
(𝑛 − 𝑟)!
 Permutation ⇔ arrangement 𝐶 = 𝐶
Algebra & Set Theory – Permutation and Combination
 Number of arrangements of ‘n’ items of which  Number of circular permutations of n distinct things = (n-
‘P’ one of one type, ‘q’ second type and rest 1)! [when clockwise and anticlockwise arrangements are
!
are dinstinct = ! ! ! different]
 Number of Permutations of ‘n’ distinct items =
( )!
[when c/w a/c not different]
where each can be use any number of time
(repetition allowed) =𝑛  No. of ways of distribution of n identical things amon r
 Number of ways of selecting one of more people
items from n given items = (2 − 1)  When few people can have zero things = 𝐶
= 𝐶 + 𝐶 + 𝐶 +. . . . . . 𝐶  When each person have atleast one thing = 𝐶
Division into groups  The total no. of ways in which a selectioncan be made by taking
some or all out P+q+r+…… things where P are of one kind. Q alike
 Dividing (p+q+r) things into group of P thing, of second kind, r of a third kind and so on. [{(P+1)(q+1)(r+1)…}-1]
q things and r things
( )!  𝐶 = 𝐶 + 𝐶
=
! ! !
 𝑃 =𝑟× 𝑃 + 𝑃
Special Case
 𝐶 + 𝐶 + 𝐶 + 𝐶 +. . . . . . 𝐶 = 2
(i). Dividing 3(P) things into three
( )!
distinguishable grouping P items each = (  𝐶 + 𝐶 + 𝐶 +. . . . . . = [2 − 1]
!)
(ii). Dividing 3(P) things into three identical  𝐶 + 𝐶 + 𝐶 +. . . . . . . = 2
( )!
group of P items each = ×
( !)
Algebra & Set Theory – Probability
.  Random experiment: An experiment whose
 Probability (P) =
outcome has to be among all of events that are
 Die: it’s a small cube used in game of chance, it completely known but whose expected outcome is
has six faces and numberings: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 unknown. Ex. Throwing of a dice, tossing a coin
 Playing Card: 52 cards in a pack, divided in four  Sample space: the set representing all the possible
suits: Spades (Black), Clubs (Black), Hearts outcomes of the random experiment.
(Red), Diamonds (Red) Sample space when a coin is tossed: {H,T}
each suit having 13 cards When a dice thrown: (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
nine number cards: 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 ,8 ,9 10  Event: the set representing the desired outcome of
an ace (A), a king (K), a queen (Q) and a jack (J) a random experiment. Probability of getting a
number divisible by 5 in a single throw of a die
king, queen, jack => the court cards =1/6 ( there is only 5 divisible, not 1,2,3,4,6)
A>K>Q>J>10>9>8>7>6>5>4>3>2  Non-event: outcome opposite of desired outcome
 Unbiased coin: it have two faces: Head (H) and  Impossible event: event that can never occur
Tail (T)
(probability of occurrence of 7, when a dice with
numbers 1-6 is thrown)
Algebra & Set Theory – Probability
 Mutually exclusive events: a set of event is  Concept of AND and OR:
mutually exclusive when the occurrence of any
AND => x
one of them means that the other event cannot
occur. OR => +
 Equally likely events: if two events have same
probability of occurrence
 Exhaustive set of events: includes all possibilities
 Independent Event: if the occurrence of an event
has no effect on probability of occurrence of
another event.
 Conditional probability: Probability of occurrence
of an event A given that event B has already
occurred. It is denoted by P(A/B)
Ex. The probability that in two throws of a dice we
get a total of 8 or more given that in the first throw
of the dices number 5 has occurred.
Algebra & Set Theory – Set Theory
Venn Diagram involving two attributes Venn Diagram with three attributes

A B
A B
x z y
x u
y
p
None =n
w v
4 regions are there (x, y, z, and n)
 z => things that belong to both A and B z C
 x => things that belong to A but not B
None =n
 y => things that belong to B but not A
 n => thing which neither belong to A nor to B

 n(AUB) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A⋂ 𝐵)

Reasoning & DI – Blood Relationship
 A family tree diagram can be drawn, and levels Some standard coding technique
can be increased as per hierarchy as shown below:
 Proper noun should always be denoted by capital
Grandparents > Parents > Siblings/spouses/in-laws- letters ex. Paul –P, Ram –R, etc.
brother sisters/Cousin > children > grand children  Sex (male/female) has to be noted by M/F,
 Mother’s or father’s brother => uncle
wherever crucial.
 Mother’s or father’s sister => aunt
 Mother’s or father’s mother => grandmother
 Mother’s or father’s father => grandfather
 Granf father/mother’s brother=> grand uncle
 Granf father/mother’s sister=> grand aunt
 Children’s children(grandson/daughter)=> grand children
 Uncle/aunt’s son/daughter => cousin
 Son’s wife => Daughter-in-law
 Daughter’s husband => son-in-law
 Sister/brother’s son => nephew
 Husband/wife’s brother or sister’s husband => brother-
in-law
 Husband/wife’s sister or brother’s wife => sister-in-law
Reasoning & DI – Coding & Decoding
 If ‘Rat is called Dog’, ‘Dog is called Mongoose’,  In the sequence of alphabets, which letter would
‘Mongoose is called Lion’, ‘Lion is called Snake’ be eighth to the right of the letter which is
and ‘Snake is called Elephant’, which animal is sixteenth from the left?
reared as pet?
a. G b. Y c. Z d. X
a. Rat b. Dog c. Mongoose d. Lion  Ans: d
 Ans: ‘Dog’ is reared as pet, but ‘Dog’ is called
‘Mongoose’, so ‘Mongoose’ is reared as pet.
 CEGJLN___XZB. The missing group of letters in
the series are:
 In a certain code language, ‘Pat Zoo Sim’ means
a. QSU b. NPR c. PRT d. TUX
‘Eat Good Mangoes’, ‘Pus Sim Tim’ means
‘Mangoes and Sweets’ and ‘Tim Zoo Kit’ means  Ans:a
‘Purchase Good sweets’, which word in the
language means Good?
a. Zoo b. Pus c. Sim d. Tim
 Ans: from first and third statements, Zoo means
Good
Reasoning & DI – Cubes and Dice
Cubes

 No. of corners/vertices: 8
 No. of faces: 6
 No. of edges: 12
 no. of edges = no. of vertices + no. of face -2
 If n equidistance cuts are made (all parallel to
same surface), cube will be divide into (n+1)
identical cuboidal pieces.
Reasoning & DI – Direction Sense Test
+y

N
N-W N-E
+x

W E
Some Pythagorean
Triplets to remember
S-W S-E  3, 4, 5
 5, 12, 13
S  8, 15, 17
 7, 24, 25
Reasoning & DI – Line Graphs
 Line graph is the simplest way to represent data. 350
Single set or multiple sets of data can be shown in 310
a graph. Normally following things are required to 300
analyse:
250

Expected Profits (INR Cr.)

 Increase in profit (absolute value)
250
 Increase in profit (%) 220
 Growth rate of given duration
200
 Average annual growth rate
 Average profit
150
 Capacity utilization
 In case of trade, trade deficit and trade surplus 98
100
 ………… 65

50
 Growth rate of the duration = (final year’s profit – base
year’s profit)/ base year’s period
0
 Avg. annual growth rate = 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026
Years
×
Capacity utilization = × 100
 Avg. profit =
.
Reasoning & DI – Bar Diagram and Table
5 Chart Title
4
Axis Title

3 5
2 4
1 3
0 2
1
0
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4

Series 1 Series 2 Series 3

Axis Title
Chart Title
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4
Series 1 Series 2 Series 3
Reasoning & DI – Pie-chart
Sales
 100 % = 360

 1% = 3.6 = ( )
Or
1 = %

1st Qtr 2nd Qtr 3rd Qtr 4th Qtr

Reasoning & DI – Logical Venn Diagrams
 When there are only two articles  When there are only three articles
A B
A B
𝐼 𝐼𝐼
𝐼
𝐼 𝐼𝐼 𝐼 𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼

𝐼 C

here
 𝐼 => A only (and not B) A, B, C, … can be
represented in any shape
 𝐼 => B only (and not A)
( triangle, circle,
 𝐼𝐼 => A and B only (both A and B) rectangle, etc.), the logic
will remain same.
Reasoning & DI – Figure based Reasoning, Paper Folding, Cutting
Figure based Reasoning Mirror Image
 A certain pattern has to be searched.  In a mirror, top and bottom of an image does not
change.
 A set of related rules/ flowchart has to be
followed.  But, left hand side becomes right hand side, and
vice versa.

Paper cutting, folding

 Similar analogy as above
 A paper usually of square shape is is cut and
folded. We are asked to find how the unfolded
version will look
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