that gives more information about the subject.

In Kim is a
plumber, a plumber is the complement of the verb is. An object
complement gives more information about the object: They named
him Cecil (see 79)

complement clause: a subordinate clause that completes the meaning of

a verb, adjective, noun or preposition, as in I think it will rain. It’s
hard to tell (see 76, 88)

conditional clause: a clause that usually starts with if, which tells us
about possible or hypothetical situations (see 43)

conjunction: a word like and, but, so, that links two clauses, or phrases,
or words (see 76, 98)

corpus: a collection of naturally-occurring language, stored digitally,

and accessible for research purposes (see 3)

countable noun: a noun that has both singular and plural forms, and
which can be used with a/an and numbers: a cat, three cats (see
12, 13)

determiner: a word, like the, some, my, many, no, etc. that belongs to the
class of words that can go at the beginning of a noun phrase: the
black taxi; my many cats (see 18, 19, 21)

discourse: language in use in the form of connected speech or writing

(see 9)

dummy subject: a word like there or it that fills an otherwise empty

subject slot: There was a dragon. It was raining (see 92, 93)

end-focus: the principle by which new or important information is

placed towards the end of a sentence or clause (see 92–94)

end-weight: the principle by which long phrases tend to be placed at the

end of a sentence or clause (see 72, 88)

finite (verb/clause): a verb that is inflected for tense, or a clause that has
such a verb (see 75, 76)

genitive: the form of the noun taking ’s to indicate possession: the dog’s
breakfast (see 30)

­110 Scott Thornbury’s 101 Grammar Questions

head: the core word in any phrase and the one that specifies what kind
of phrase it is, e.g. a noun phrase: the dog’s breakfast (see 11, 78)

imperative: the uninflected form of the verb used to give commands, not
normally having a subject: Go away! (see 75)

infinitive: the non-finite verb form, either on its own (the bare infinitive)
as in you made me love you, or preceded by to (the to-infinitive) as
in I want to dance (see 39, 79)

inflection: a suffix added to verb stems, nouns or adjectives, that has a

grammatical meaning, such as the past tense -ed in asked (see 2, 34)

intransitive verb: a verb that does not take an object: The train arrived
(see 77)

lexical aspect: the way a verb’s meaning is understood, e.g. as a state (as
in stative verbs) or as an activity, and, if an activity, whether one
that has duration (she slept) or one that happens momentarily (she
shouted) (see 50)

modal verb: a type of auxiliary verb such as can, may, should, must,
etc. which is used to express possibility and to make offers,
suggestions, commands, etc. (see 44, 58–68).

modality: the lexical and grammatical means, including modal verbs, by

which logical and personal meanings are expressed (see 58–68)

modifier: any word that precedes or follows the head of a phrase to add
an extra layer of meaning: a red bus; the man in the suit (see 11,
29, 78)

non-finite (verb/clause): the form of the verb that is not inflected for
tense or person, as in participles and infinitives, or a clause whose
main verb is non-finite (see 38, 76)

noun: a word like bus, driver, journey, fare, request, etc. that can be used
after a determiner as the subject or object of a sentence (see 74)

noun modifier: a noun that modifies another noun, as in business hours,

summer term (see 11, 29)

Glossary 111
noun phrase: a word or group of words consisting of at least a noun or
a pronoun and which functions like a noun: last night; your old
car; I; those big red London buses (see 11)

object: a noun phrase which refers to what or who is affected by the

action described by the verb: I caught the bus. I paid the driver
(= indirect object) the fare (= direct object) (see 76, 82, 91)

particle: an adverb or preposition that combines with a verb to form a

phrasal verb: get back, look after (see 42)

participle: the forms of the verb that take -ing (present participle) and
-ed in regular verbs (past participle) (see 35, 38, 40)

passive: a verb form such as is made or was written where the subject is
the person or thing that is affected by the action, as compared to
the active (makes, was writing) (see 71–73)

phrasal verb: a verb and particle combination, which often has

idiomatic meaning. For example: What time did you get back?
I take after my mother (see 42)

phrase: a word group consisting of a head and optional modifiers (see 78)

predicate: the part of the sentence that gives information about the
subject (see 75)

preposition: a word, or group of words, like in, on, behind, in front of,
which can indicate place or time, and is always followed by a noun
phrase: in the bedroom, on Monday, out of the window (see 96)

prepositional phrase: a phrase consisting of a preposition plus noun

phrase: in the bedroom, on Monday, out of the window (see 78)

pronoun: a word like she, me, it, you, etc. that can be used in place of a
noun phrase as subject or object of a sentence (see 22)

quantifier: pronouns or determiners that express quantities: all, both,

lots, some (see 13, 18)

quotative: an expression that introduces direct speech: she said ‘Hello’;

he’s like ‘Hey!’ (see 87, 101)

­112 Scott Thornbury’s 101 Grammar Questions

relative clause: a clause that comes after and modifies a noun: the man
who came to dinner (see 83, 84)

stative (or state) verb: a verb that describes a state rather than an action:
she is at work; it costs $10 (see 50)

subject: the noun phrase that typically comes before the verb and tells
you who or what is the agent or topic of the clause: I caught the
bus. The bus was crowded. (see 75, 76, 91)

subordinate (or dependent) clause: a clause that cannot stand on its own,
such as a relative clause or an adverbial clause (see 75, 76, 86)

syntax: the grammatical system concerned with how words combine to

form clauses and sentences (see 74–76)

tense: the verb form which shows whether the speaker is referring to
past, present, or future. In English, technically, there are only two
tenses: present (they go), and past (they went) (see 45–47, 49)

transitive verb: a verb that takes an object: She fed the cat (see 79)

uncountable noun: a noun which cannot be counted, and which

therefore has no plural form and does not follow a/an or numbers:
some bread, a lot of noise (see 12, 18, 19)

verb: a word or words such as has, worked, costs, takes off, that follows
the subject of a clause, and expresses states or processes (see 74, 75)

voice: the choice of active or passive verb phrase (see 71–73)

zero article: the absence of a determiner before a noun: I like Ø

ice cream (see 15, 20)

Glossary 113
Index
A/An 23 bring 102
Active voice 76 British English (BrE) 5
Adjective phrases 84 but 105
Adjectives
comparing 29 Can 64
gradable 30 Clauses
order of 34 inversion 95
as pre-modifiers 31 meaning of 82
questions about 12 subordinate clauses 81, 82
and verbs 33 Cleft sentences 100
word classes 80 Collective nouns 15
Adverb phrases 84, 86, 87 Comparative clauses 82
Adverbial clauses 68, 82, 87 Complement clauses 82, 85, 94
Adverbials 86, 87 Complements 85
Adverbs Conditional clauses 75
and adverbials 86 Conditionals 46
conjunctions 105 Conjugations 37
like 108 Conjunctions
modifiers 31 like 108
stacked adjectives 34 linking devices 105
word classes 80 word classes 80
American English (AmE) 5 Continuous aspect 54, 58–59
Any 20 Coordinating conjunctions 105
Articles 16 Core grammar 11
definite article 18 Corpora 4
indefinite article 19 Countables
questions about 12 collective nouns 15
zero article 17 few/fewer 21
Aspect in/on 22
have gone 47 money 14
meaning of 54 some and any 20
past perfect 61
perfect 54 Defective verbs 71
present perfect 55 Definite article 18
progressive 54, 58–59 Descriptive grammar 4
questions about 48 Determiners
Auxiliary verbs 40 few/fewer 21
do 44 my/mine 25
modals 46, 47, 63–65, 75 one and a/an 23
negation 52 word classes 80
question forms 92 Difficulty, set order of learning 7
question tags 96 Discourse, meaning of grammar 2
Ditransitive verbs 88
Backshift 75, 93 Do 44
Basic English 3 Dummy auxiliaries 44, 52, 95
been to 57 Dummy subjects 98, 99

­114 Scott Thornbury’s 101 Grammar Questions

Dynamic verbs 59 Inflections
verbs 37
End-focus 77, 99 -ing 41–43
End-weight 77 Interchangeable words 73
English language Inversion 92, 95, 97
British and American grammars 5 Irregular verbs 38
It 28
Few/Fewer 21 It is 99
Finite verbs 81 It-clefts 100
For 104 Its, as gender-neutral pronoun 26
Future
adverbial clauses 68 Learning grammar 7, 8
going to and will 67 Less 21
and tense 51 Lexical verbs 52, 53
will and won’t 70 Like 108
Line prepositions 103
Gender-neutral pronouns 26 Linking devices 105
Genitive ’s 32 see also adverbs; conjunctions
Gerunds 43 Long passive 77
Get-passive 78
Globish 3 Marginal modals 65
Going to 67 May 73
Gone to 57 Might 73
Gradable adjectives 30 Mine 25
Grammar Modal auxiliaries 40, 63, 64, 65, 70
beyond sentence level 10 Modal verbs 46, 47, 63–65, 75
British and American varieties 5 see also pure modals
core 11 Modality, questions about 62
general questions 1 Modal-like verbs 53
purpose of rules 9 Modifiers 18, 31
set order of learning 7 Money, as uncountable 14
spoken and written varieties 6 Moods 74
what counts as 2 Morphology 2, 79
Grammatical moods 74 Must 71–72
My 25
Have gone 47
Have got 53 Negation 52
Have to 65, 72 Non-defining relative clauses 90
Here and there 98 Non-pro-drop 99
Hope 75 Noun modifiers 31
However 105 genitive ’s 32
stacked adjectives 34
If 106 Noun phrases 13
Imperative 74, 81 complements 85
In 22 pre-modifiers 31
Indefinite article 19 pronouns 24
Indicative 74 relative clauses 90
Infinitives 42, 47 word classes 84

Index 115
Nouns one 23
and pronouns 24, 25 purpose of 24
questions about 12 questions about 12
as verbs 35 reflexive 27
word classes 80 relative 89
see also countables this/that/it 28
who and whom 91
Objects 88 word classes 80
On 22 Pure modals 63, 65, 69, 71
One 23
Orientation 102 Question forms 92, 97
Ought to 65 Question tags 96
Quite 30
Parts of speech 80, 84, 108
Passive voice 76–78 Reflexive pronouns 27
Past perfect 61 Regular verbs 38
Past tense 50, 56–57, 71 Relative clauses 82, 90
Perfect aspect 54 Relative positions 102
Phrasal verb particles 45, 107 Relative pronouns 89
Phrasal verbs 45 Reported speech 93
Phrases 84 Rules
Plurals definite article 18
countables 15 prescriptive and descriptive grammar 4
gender-neutral pronouns 26 purpose of 9
this/that/it 28
Point prepositions 103 Sentences
Possessive ’s 32 clefts 100
Pre-modifiers 31 grammar beyond sentence level 10
Prepositional phrases 84, 87, 88 meaning of 81
Prepositions Shall 69
for and since 104 Short passive 77
like 108 Since 104
time 103 Some 20
up 107 Spoken grammar
word classes 80 backshift 93
Prescriptive grammar 4, 5 best way to teach 8
Present perfect 47, 55–57, 104 British and American varieties 5
Present perfect progressive/simple 60 differences from written 6
Present progressive 58–59 like 108
Present tense parts of speech 80, 84
used to 66 question tags 96
will and won’t 70 Stacked adjectives 34
Progressive aspect 54, 58–59 Stative verbs 59
Pronouns Subjects
few/fewer 21 dummy 98, 99
gender-neutral 26 subject-verb inversion 95
like 108 there and here 98
my/mine 25 Subjunctive 74–75

­116 Scott Thornbury’s 101 Grammar Questions

Subordinate clauses 81, 82 Used to 66
Subordinating conjunctions 105 Utility, set order of learning 7
Suffixes
adjectives 29 Verb forms
conjugations 37 core grammar 11
-ing 41–43 questions about 36
Surface prepositions 103 subjunctive 74
Syntax Verb particles 45, 107
end-focus 99 Verb patterns 83
inversion 95 Verb phrases 84
meaning of grammar 2 Verbs
non-pro-drop 99 and adjectives 33
questions about 79 conjugations 37
finite 81
Take 102 like 108
Teaching grammar 7, 8 modals 46, 47, 63–65, 75
Tense nouns as 35
future 51, 67, 68, 70 questions about 48, 62
have gone 47 regularity 38
have got 53 stative and dynamic 59
number of tenses 49 word classes 80
past 50, 56–57, 71 see also auxiliary verbs
past perfect 61 Verticality 107
present 66, 70 Very 30
present perfect 55–57, 104 Vocabulary, meaning of grammar 2
present perfect progressive/simple 60 Voice
questions about 48 have gone 47
That 28 passive and active 76–78
That-clauses 94 questions about 62
The 18 Volume prepositions 103
There and here 98
Third person -s 39 Wh-clefts 100
This 28 Who and whom 91
Time Wh-questions 97
prepositions 103, 104 Will 67, 68, 70
and tense 49–50 Wish 75
see also tense Won’t 70
To- infinitive 42 Word classes 80
Topic consistency 77 Written grammar
Transitive verbs 27 best way to teach 8
differences from spoken 6
Unless 106
Up 107 Zero article 17
Usage
core grammar 11
meaning of grammar 2
prescriptive and descriptive grammar 4
spoken and written grammar 6

Index 117