UNIT 4 ELECRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF SOLIDS

QUANTUM PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS

Computer Science Stream- (CS, AI, CY, CD, IS, and BT)

Content
Electrical Conductivity in Solids: Postulates of Classical free electron
theory (CFET), Concept of Phonon, Matheissen’s rule. Quantum free
electron theory (QFET), Density of states in three dimensions (qualitative)
and Fermi factor. Fermi energy: variation of Fermi factor with temperature.
Band theory of solids (qualitative approach), electron concentration in
metals at 0K. Intrinsic semiconductors:electronic concentration in
conduction band and hole concentration (qualitative), Fermi level in intrinsic
semiconductors, Extrinsic semiconductors: Variation of carrier
concentration with temperature and Fermi energy with doping, Hall effect
for metals and semiconductors, Numerical problems.

Introduction:
Conducting materials play a vital role in Engineering. It is very
essential to know the electrical properties of materials for specific
application of the materials. The properties of metals such as electrical
conduction, thermal conduction, specific heat etc., are due to the free
electrons or conduction electrons in metals. The first theory to explain
the electrical conductivity of metals is Classical free electron theory
and it was proposed by Drude in the year1900 and later developed and
refined by Lorentz. Hence classical free electron theory is known as
Drude-Lorentz theory.

Assumptions of Classical Free Electron Theory:

1. A metal is imagined as a three-dimensional ordered network of
positive ions with the outermost electrons of the metallic atoms
freely moving about the solid. The electric current in a metal, due
to an applied field, is a consequence of drift velocity of the free
electrons in a direction opposite to the direction of the field.
2. The free electrons are treated as equivalent to gas molecules and
thus assumed to obey the laws of kinetic theory of gases. As per
kinetic theory of gases, in the absence of the field the energy

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3
associated with each electron at a temperature T is kT , where k
2
is Boltzmann constant. It is related to the kinetic energy through
the relation.
3 1
kT  mvth2
2 2
where vth is the thermal velocity of the electrons.
3. The electric potential due to the ionic core (lattice) is taken to be
essentially constant throughout the metal.
4. The attraction between the free electrons and the lattice ions and
the repulsion between the electrons are considered insignificant.
Drift Velocity
Initially the electrons in the metal which are in thermal equilibrium
will move in random directions and often collide with ions with no net
displacement. When electric field is applied, the equilibrium condition
is disturbed and there will be net displacement in randomly moving
free electron’s positions, with time in a direction opposite to the
direction of the field. This displacement per unit time is called drift
velocity which will be constant for the free electrons in the steady
state. This accounts for the current in the direction of the field.

If ‘E’ is the electric field applied to the metal, ‘  ’ is mean collision

time, then drift velocity for conduction electron in a metal is given by
eE
vd  
m
Where ‘e’ and ‘m’ are charge and mass of electron respectively.
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Current density (J):

It is the current per unit area of cross section of an imaginary plane
held normal to the direction of current in a current carrying conductor.
i.e. J = I/A where A is the area of cross section.

Electric Field (E):

Electric field across homogeneous conductor is defined as the potential
drop per unit length of the conductor.
If ‘L’ is the length of a conductor of uniform cross section and uniform
material composition and ‘V’ is the potential difference between its
two ends, then electric field ‘E’ is given by
E = V/L

Mean Free Path (  ):

It is the average distance travelled by the conduction electrons between
successive collisions with lattice ions.

Mean Collision Time (  ):

It is the average time that elapses between two consecutive collisions
of an electron with the lattice ions.

Relation between v,  and  :

If ‘v’ is the total velocity of the electrons, then the mean collision time
‘  ’ is given by


v
Resistivity (  ):
For a material of uniform cross section, the resistance ‘R’ is directly
proportional to length ‘L’ and inversely proportional to area of cross
section ‘A’

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L L
i.e. R R    
A  A
Where ‘  ’ is called resistivity. It is the property of the material and
gives the measure of opposition offered by the material during the
current flow in it.
RA
 
L

Conductivity (  ):
It is reciprocal of resistivity. It is a physical property that characterizes
conducting ability of a material.
1 L
 
 RA
Relation between J,  and E:
From ohms law
l
V=IR  I .
A
I V 1
 .
A l 
I 1
 J and  
A 
J  E

Expression for electric current in a conductor: (I)

I  nevd A
n - Number of free electrons in unit volume of the
conductor
vd - Drift velocity of electrons
A - Area of cross section of the conductor
e – Charge of an electron

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Expression for Conductivity:

The current through the conductor is given by

We know that drift velocity (vd) is given by

Substituting for vd in the above equation

) where ‘L’ is the length of the conductor

Rearranging the terms of the above equation

Therefore σ =

Mobility of electrons:
Mobility of electrons (  ) is defined as the magnitude of drift velocity
acquired by the electron in unit field.
vd 1  eE  eE
i.e.    
E E m  m

Failures of classical free electron theory:

Although electrical and thermal conductivity in metals can be
explained successfully through classical free electron theory, it failed
to account for many other experimental facts such as specific heat,
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temperature dependence of conductivity and dependence of electrical

conductivity on electron concentration.
3
1. The molar specific heat of a gas at constant volume is Cv  R ,
2
where R is a universal constant. But the experimental value of
electronic specific heat is Cv =10-4RT which the classical theory
could not explain. Also, the experimental value shows that the
electronic specific heat is temperature dependent, whereas the
classical free electron theory says that it is temperature
independent.
2. The electrical conductivity of a metal is inversely proportional to
temperature. According to classical free electron theory, electrical
conductivity is inversely proportional to the square root of
1
temperature, i.e.,   .
T
ne 2 
3. Electrical conductivity is given as  
m
According to classical electron theory electrical conductivity is
directly proportional to the electron concentration. But
monovalent metals like copper found to have high electrical
conductivity than the divalent & trivalent metals like Zinc and
Aluminium. Hence CFET fails to explain the observation.
4. Though metals are expected to exhibit negative Hall co-efficient
since the charge carriers in them are electrons, some metals like
zinc have positive Hall co-efficient. The free electron theory could
not explain the positive Hall co-efficient of metals.

Concept of Phonon
In condensed matter physics, a unit of vibrational energy that
arises from oscillating atoms within the crystal is called
phonon. Any solid crystal consists of atoms bound into a

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specific repeating three-dimensional spatial pattern called a

lattice.
Because the atoms behave as if they are connected by tiny
springs, their own thermal energy or external forces make the
lattice vibrate. A packet of these waves can travel throughout
the crystal with a definite energy and momentum, so in
quantum mechanical terms the waves can be treated as a
particle, called a phonon. A phonon is a definite unit or
quantum of vibrational mechanical energy, just as a photon is a
quantum of electromagnetic or light energy.

Effect of Temperature and Impurity on Electron Resistivity of

metals:

The variation of electrical resistivity ρ with temperature T in the low

temperature region for sodium is as shown in the graph below.

Except for metals that are superconducting, the variation shown in the
above graph applies to all conductors. The resistivity does not become

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zero at T= 0 kelvin but has a small constant value. The resistivity

increases slowly with temperature, later it assumes linear with a faster
variation. The linearity in variation is continued throughout till the
metal’s melts.

In metals, the resistivity is attributed to the scattering of conduction

electrons. It takes place under two mechanisms which give rise to two
components of resistivity which are described below:

1) Resistivity ρph due to scattering of electrons by lattice

vibrations (phonons) increases with temperature. It is the
resistivity exhibited by a pure specimen that is free of all
defects, and hence called the ideal resistivity.
2) Resistivity ρi due to scattering of conduction electrons by the
presence of impurities, and imperfections such as dislocation
vacancies and grain boundaries. This type of scattering is
independent of temperature and contributes to resistivity even
at temperature T= 0 kelvin. ρi is called residual resistivity.
If ρ is the total resistivity of the metal, then ρ is given by

ρ =ρph+ρi …………….(1)

The above equation is called Matthiessen’s rule. It states that the total
resistivity of a metal is the sum of resistivity due to phonon scattering
which is temperature dependent and the resistivity due to scattering by
impurities which is temperature independent.

Since the resistivity ρ= and σ= , the equation for ρ can be written

as,

ρ=

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If τph is the mean collision time, assuming there is no scattering by

impurities, then

ρph=

Similarly, if τi is the mean collision time assuming there is no

scattering by lattice vibrations, then,

ρi =

Therefore equation (1) can be written as,

ρ=

At low temperatures, the amplitude of vibration become small because

of which, the scattering of electrons by lattice ions become less. This
results in τph becoming larger, and ρph tends to zero at very low
temperatures. It essentially means ρ=ρi at very low temperatures.

Accordingly, it is observed from the graph that the resistivity has a

residual value ρi at T=0 kelvin.

On the other hand, when the temperature becomes high, the amplitude
of lattice vibration increases proportionately which results in large
scale scattering of electrons. Consequently, the resistance curve takes
an upswing, and the resistivity becomes linearly dependent on
temperature. At sufficient high temperatures, the scattering effect due
to phonons swamps the effect due to scattering by impurities. Thus, at
temperatures near room temperatures, the resistivity curve is
essentially linear.

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Assumptions of quantum free electron theory:

The main assumptions of quantum free electron theory are.
1. The energy values of free electrons are quantized. The allowed
energy values are realized in terms of a set of energy levels.
2. The distribution of electrons in the various allowed energy levels,
follows Pauli’s Exclusion Principle.
3. Distribution of electrons in energy states obey Fermi-Dirac
statistics.
4. The free electrons travel in a constant potential inside the metal
but stay confined within its boundaries.
5. The attraction between the free electrons and lattice ions, the
repulsion between the electrons themselves are ignored.

Fermi level and Fermi energy:

If we assume the number of electrons per unit volume as ne then these
electrons should be accommodated in the various energy levels. At
absolute zero temperature, the electrons occupy the lowest available
energy levels. The highest occupied level in metals at zero Kelvin is
called as the Fermi level and the corresponding energy value of that
level is called as the Fermi energy, it is denoted by EF. Thus, at 0K all
levels up to the Fermi level are occupied while the levels above it are
vacant.

EF

E0
Energy band
The dotted level is the Fermi level. Levels from Eo up to EF are
occupied while levels above EF are empty.

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Fermi-Dirac statistics:
Under thermal equilibrium the free electrons are distributed in various
available energy states. The distribution of electrons among the energy
levels follows statistical rule known as Fermi-Dirac statistics.
Fermi-Dirac statistics is applicable to fermions. Fermions are
indistinguishable particles with half integral spin. Since electron has
half spin they obey Fermi-Dirac statistics, and they are called
Fermions.
Fermi factor represents the probability that a quantum state
with energy E is occupied by an electron, is given by Fermi-Dirac
distribution function,
1
f (E) 
 E  EF 
1  exp 
 kT 

Where k is the Boltzmann’s constant, T is the temperature in Kelvin, E

is the energy and EF is the Fermi energy.

Dependence of Fermi factor on temperature:

The dependence of Fermi factor on temperature at T=0K is given in
the figure.

At T=0K
EF

0 1
f (E)
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Case 1: the probability of occupation for E < EF at T = 0K

Substituting the value of T = 0K in the Fermi function we get
1 1 1
f  E   EE    1
e F kT 1 e  1 0  1
f(E)=1 implies that all the levels below EF are occupied by electrons.

Case 2: the probability of occupation for E>EF at T = 0K.

Substituting the value of T = 0K in the Fermi function, we get
1 1 1
f  E   EE    0.
e
 kT  e  1 
F 1

This shows that all energy levels above EF are vacant.

Case 3: Probability of occupation at temperature > 0K

1. At ordinary temperatures, though the value of probability is 1 for

E<< EF, it starts decreasing from 1 as the values of E become
closer to EF.
2. The value of f(E) become ½ at E=EF. This is because at E = EF

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1 1 1 1
f E    
e
 E  EF
kT  1 e 1 11 2
0

3. For values just beyond EF, f(E)>0

4. Further above E > EF, the probability value falls off to zero
rapidly.

It implies that the probability of occupancy of Fermi level at any

temperature other than 0K is 0.5.

Hence Fermi level is defined as the energy level at which the

probability of electron occupancy is half. Also, Fermi energy, EF is
the average energy possessed by the electrons which participate in
conduction process in conductors at temperatures above 0K.

Density of states g (E):

The permitted energy levels for electrons in a solid will be in terms of
bands. Each energy band spread over an energy range of few eV. The
number of energy levels in each band will be extremely large and
hence the energy values appear to be virtually continuous over the
band spread. Each energy level consists of two states and each state
accommodates only one electron. Therefore, energy level can be
occupied by two electrons only, having opposite directions of spin.
The exact dependence of density of energy states on the energy is
realized through a function denoted as g (E) and is known as density of
states function.
It is defined as, the number of available states per unit volume per unit
energy interval.

The number of states lying in the range of energies between E and

E+dE is given by

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4
g ( E )dE 
3
( 2m) 3 / 2 E 1 / 2 dE .
h
Where E is the kinetic energy of the electron in the energy level E.

Carrier concentration in metals and Fermi energy at 0K

Number of free electrons /unit volume which possess energy in the
range E and E+dE is given by N (E) dE = g(E)×dE× f(E)
The number of free electrons/unit volume of the material, i.e., n is
equal to the total number of electrons that are distributed in various
energy levels upto EF. Thus, we have
EF EF

n  N ( E )dE
E 0
n  g ( E ) f ( E )dE
E 0

But f (E) =1, at T= 0K

EF

n  g ( E )dEx1
E 0

4
g(E) dE is given by, g ( E )dE  3
( 2m) 3 / 2 E 1 / 2 dE
h
4
E F

n 
3/ 2
3
( 2 m ) E 1 / 2 dE
h E 0

4 2
n 3
( 2m ) 3 / 2 ( E F ) 3 / 2
h 3
8 2 2
n3
m 3 / 2 x ( E F ) 3 / 2
h 3
8
n  3 ( 2m ) 3 / 2 ( E F ) 3 / 2
3h
This is the equation of concentration of electrons in a metal at 0K.
h 2 3n 2 / 3
Expression for the Fermi energy at 0K is given by E F  ( )
8m 
E F  Bn 2 / 3
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h2 3 2/3
Where B= ( )( ) is a constant=5.85x10-38J.
8m 
Success of Quantum Free Electron theory
1. The theory could successfully explain the specific heat capacity
of metals.
2. It could also explain temperature dependence of electrical
conductivity.
3. It explained the dependence of electrical conductivity on
electron concentration.
4. It also explained photoelectric effect, Compton effect, Black
body radiation, Zeeman effect etc.,

BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS:

The energy band structure of a solid determines whether it is a
conductor, an insulator, or a semiconductor.
The electron of an isolated atom has certain definite energies such as
1s, 2s, 3p, 3s, etc. Between two consecutive allowed values of energy
there is forbidden gap. As we bring together large number of identical
atoms to form a solid, significant changes take place in the energy
levels. The energy levels of each atom will interact with the other
identical atoms. The wave functions of each atom will overlap and as a
result the energy levels of each atom overlap slightly and split into
several levels corresponding to the number of atoms. The split energy
levels are very close to each other, and they form a narrow band
known as energy band.

The range of energies possessed by electrons in a solid is known as

energy band.

The energy band formed by the energy levels of the valence electrons
is called valence band. The energy band immediately above the

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valence band where the conduction electrons are present is called

conduction band.

The separation between the upper level of valence band and the
bottom level of conduction band is known as forbidden energy gap,
Eg.

The forbidden energy gap is a measure of the bondage of valence

electrons to the atom. The greater the energy gap more tightly valence
electrons are bound. When energy is supplied, electrons from the
valence band jump to the conduction band and thereby the material
starts conducting.

SEMICONDUCTORS
Pure semiconductors are the materials having electrical conductivity
greater than that of insulators but significantly lower than that of a
conductor at room temperature. They have conductivity in the range of
10-4to 104 S/m. The interesting feature about semiconductors is that
they are bipolar, and current is transported by two types of charge
carriers of opposite sign namely electrons and holes. The number of
carriers can be drastically enhanced by doping the semiconductor with
suitable impurities. The doped semiconductor which exhibits higher
conductivity is called an extrinsic semiconductor. The conductivity of
an extrinsic semiconductor depends on the doping level which is
amenable to control. The current transportation in extrinsic
semiconductor occurs through two different processes namely drift and
diffusion. Pure semiconductors are of relatively less importance
whereas extrinsic semiconductors are widely used in fabricating
devices. These devices are more generally known as solid-state
electronic devices.

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INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
A semiconductor in an extremely pure form is known as an intrinsic
semiconductor.
Intrinsic carriers in pure semiconductors
At room temperature in pure semiconductors, a single event of
breaking of bonds leads to two carriers: namely electron and hole. The
electron and hole are created as a pair & the phenomenon is called
electron-hole pair generation. At any temperature T the number of
electrons generated will be equal to the number of holes generated. If
‘n’ denotes number density of electrons in the conduction band & ‘p”
denotes the number of holes in the ‘valence band then n = p = ni
where, ‘ni’ is called intrinsic concentration or the intrinsic density
After the generation, the carriers move independently; the electrons
move in the conduction band & the holes move in the valence band.
The motion of these two carriers is random in their respective band if
no external field is applied.

Concept of Effective Mass of the Electron and Holes:

Consider an isolated electron of mass m and charge –e in an electric

field of strength E. The electric force acting on it is –eE. The electron
gets accelerated, then -eE = ma. However, an electron within a crystal
is in a periodic potential due to positive ion cores. The neighbouring
ions and electrons in the crystal do exert some force on the electron in
a crystal. Then ma= -eE plus force due to neighbouring ions and
electrons. Since the latter force is not known quantitatively, we can
write the above equation as me*a= -eE or me*= -eE/a where me* is
called the effective mass of the electron within the crystal. Thus, it is
inferred that the effective mass of an electron depends on its location
in the energy band. Electrons near the bottom of the conduction band
have an effective mass which is almost equal to the effective mass of a
free electron. Electrons near the bottom of the valence band have
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negative effective mass. The removal of an electron with a negative

effective mass is identical to creating a particle of positive mass. Thus,
hole is given the status of particle with positive effective mass mh*.

Carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductor

The actual number of electrons in the conduction band is given by
top of the band

n 
Ec
f ( E ) g c ( E )dE

(1)
Since F-D function describes the probability of occupancy of energy
state. Under thermal equilibrium condition, the electron concentration
obtained from eqn. (1) is the equilibrium concentration.
As f(E)rapidly approaches zero for higher energies, the integral in eqn.
(1) can be re-written as

n 
Ec
f ( E ) g c ( E )dE

4
3 1
gc (E) 
3
( 2m e* ) 2 ( E ) 2 dE
h
Where, E is the kinetic energy of the electron.

Ec
Conduction band
In the above fig. the bottom edge of conduction band EC corresponds
to the potential energy of an electron at rest in conduction band.
Therefore the quantity (E – EC) represents the kinetic energy of
conduction level electron at high energy level.

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4
3 1
gc (E)  3
( 2m e* ) 2 ( E  E c ) 2 dE (2)
h
1

4 (E E c) 2
3
n   3 ( 2me* ) 2 dE (3)
h  (E  EF ) 
Ec
1  exp 
 kT 
E  EF E  EF E  EF
As E >EF: e kT
 1 : 1  e kT
e kT

 ( E  EF )
1
Therefore E  EF
e kT

1 e kT

Using this equation in eqn. (3) we get

3   ( E  EF )
4
1
n 3
( 2me* ) 2  ( E  E c ) 2 e kT
dE
h Ec

Add and subtract Ec to the exponential term in the above equation.

( E F  Ec )   ( E  Ec )
4
3 1
n  3 ( 2me* ) 2 e
h
kT
 (E  E
Ec
c
2
) e kT
dE

Let E-Ec = x then dx = dE

Lower limit when E=Ec x = Ec– Ec= 0
Upper limit when E=  x =  - Ec = 
( E F  EC ) 
4
3 1
Therefore n  3 ( 2me* ) 2 e
h
kT
x
0
2
e ax dx (4)

The integral is similar to standard integral.

The solution of eqn.(4) is given by

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

x
1/ 2  ax
e dx  , where a=1/kT
0 2a a
4   
3 
2me*  e( EF  Ec ) kT
32
n =  ( KT )3/ 2 
h  2 
Rearranging the term, we get
3/ 2
 2 me*kT 
n  2 2  e ( EC  EF ) kT (5)
 h 
3/ 2
 2 me*kT 
Let N C  2  2 
 h 
 n  NCe( EC  EF ) kT (6)
Nc is temperature-dependent material constant known as effective
density of states in the conduction band.

Expression for hole concentration in valence band

If f (E) is the probability for occupancy of an energy state at E

by an electron, then probability that energy state is vacant is given by
[1- f(E)]. Since hole represents the unoccupied state in valence band,
the probability for occupancy of state at E by a hole is equal to
probability of absence of electron at that level. The hole concentration
in valence band is therefore given by
Ev

p  1  f ( E ) g ( E )dE
bottomband
v

(7)

Ev
E

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 ( E F  Ev )
Solving equation 7 we arrive at hole concentration, p  N v e kT

where, Nv is temperature-dependent material constant known as

effective density of states in the valence band.
3/ 2
 2 mh*kT 
Let N v  2  2 
 h 
Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor
In an intrinsic semiconductor electron and hole concentrations are
equal.
Therefore n=p

 ( EC  E F )  ( E F  EV )

Nce kT
 NV e kT

Taking logarithm on both side and rearranging the term, we get

=> ( )
Multiplying by kT, throughout
N 
=>  EC  E F  kT ln V   E F  EV
 NC 
N 
=> 2 E F  kT ln V   EC  EV
 NC 
 E  EV  1 N 
=> E F   C   kT ln V 
 2  2  NC 
Substituting the values of NV and NC and after simplification we get
 E  Ev  3  m*h 
EF   C   kT ln  * (1)
 2  4  me 
As kT is small and the effective mass m *e and m*h do not differ much,
the second term in the eqn. (1) may be ignored.

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If m *e = m*h , then we get

 E  Ev 
EF   C  (2)
 2 
we can write eqn. (2) as
 E  Ev  Ev  Ev  EC  Ev
EF   C   Ev
 2  2
but EC  Ev  Eg
Eg
 EF   Ev
2
Eg
If top of the valence band Ev is taken as zero level, then EF 
2
Thus, Fermi level in the intrinsic semiconductor lies at the centre of
the energy gap as shown below:

Ec

Eg
E

Ev

k
Extrinsic semiconductor
The intrinsic semiconductor has low conductivity which is not
amenable to control. However, a judicious introduction of impurity
atoms in an intrinsic semiconductor produces useful modification of its

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electrical conductivity. The method of introduction of controlled

quantity of impurity into an intrinsic semiconductor is called doping.
The impurity added is called dopant. The semiconductor doped with
impurity atoms is called extrinsic semiconductor. There are two types
of extrinsic semiconductor namely p-type & n-type which are
produced depending on the group of impurity atoms.
n-type semiconductors are produced when pure semiconductors
are doped with pentavalent impurity atoms such Phosphorous, Arsenic
etc.
p-type semiconductors are produced when pure semiconductors
are doped with trivalent impurity atoms such as Aluminum, Boron etc.

Temperature variation of carrier concentration in extrinsic

semiconductor
The dependence of electron concentration on temperature for n-type
semiconductor is as shown in the figure below.
Ionization

Intrinsic
region
region

Depletion

II III
I

Td T Ti

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At 0K the donor levels are filled which means that all the donor
electrons are bound to the donor atoms. At low temperature,
corresponding to region- I, there is not enough energy to ionize all the
donors and not at all enough to break covalent bond. As temperature
increases, the donor atoms get ionized and donor atoms go into the
conduction band. The region-I is known as ionization region.
Occasionally a covalent band maybe broken out, but number of such
events will be insignificantly small. At about 100K all donor atoms are
ionized, once all electrons from donor level are excited into conduction
band, any further temperature increase does not create additional
electrons and the curve levels off. The region II is called depletion
region. In the depletion region the electron concentration in the
conduction band is nearly identical to the concentration of dopant
atoms.
If ND is donor concentration, then
nn = ND ( depletion region)
where nn – electron concentration in n-type
As temperature grows further, electron transitions from valence band
to conduction band increases. At high temperature (region-III) the
number of electron transition becomes so large that the intrinsic
electron concentration exceeds the electron concentration due to donor.
This region is therefore called intrinsic region. In intrinsic region, nn =
ni
P type semiconductor
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Similarly in p-type semiconductor, the acceptor levels are

vacant at 0K & valence band is full. As temperature increases in the
ionization region, the electrons from the valence band jump into
acceptor level. However, the electrons do not acquire enough energy to
jump into conduction band levels. At the temperature Ts, the acceptor
levels are saturated with electrons. The region- II lying between Ts
(saturation temperature) and Ti is called the saturation region. In case
of p-type materials within this temperature interval the hole
concentration remains constant as thermal energy is not yet sufficient
to cause electron transition from valence band to conduction band. In
the saturation region, the hole concentration is equal to the acceptor
impurity concentration. Thus pp = NA
With increase of temperature beyond T, electron transition due to
intrinsic process commence & hole concentration due to intrinsic
process far exceeds that due to impurity atoms.
In region-III, pp = ni
Fermi level in extrinsic semiconductor
N-type semiconductor
The carrier concentration in extrinsic semiconductors varies
with temperature as discussed earlier. It follows that the probability of
occupancy of respective bands & position of Fermi level varies with
temperature.
In n-type semiconductor, in low temperature region the
electron in the conductor band is only due to the transition of electrons
from donor levels. Therefore, Fermi level lies between the donor level
ED& the bottom edge of conduction band.

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As temperature increases the donor level gradually gets depleted & the
Fermi level shifts downward. At the temperature of depletion Td, the
Fermi level coincides with the donor level ED

i.e., EFn = ED.

As temperature increases further above Td, the Fermi level
shifts downward approximately in a linear fashion, though electron
concentration in the conduction band remains constant. This is in
E  E D kT N c
accordance with the relation E Fn  c  ln .
2 2 ND
At temperature Ti, where intrinsic process contributes to electron
concentration significantly, the Fermi level approaches the intrinsic
value EFi = Eg/2. With further increase in temperature the behaviour of
extrinsic semiconductor transitions into that of an intrinsic type &
Fermi level stay at EFi. Thus
EFn = EFi= Eg/2.

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P-type semiconductor
In case of p-type semiconductor the Fermi level EFp rises with
increasing temperature from below the acceptor level to intrinsic level
EFi as shown in fig 2.
E  Ev
 EFp  A (ionization region)
2
As temperature increases further above Ts, the Fermi level shifts
downward approximately in linear fashion, though hole concentration
in the valence band remains constant. This is in accordance with the
E  E A kT N v
relation E Fp  v  ln .
2 2 NA
EFp = EA at T=Ts

And EFp = Eg/2.

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Effect of variation of impurity concentration:

n-type semiconductor

The addition of donor impurity to an intrinsic semiconductor leads to

the formation of discrete donor level below the bottom edge of
conduction band. At low impurity concentrations the impurity atom is
spaced far apart & do not interact with each other. With an increase in
the impurity concentration the impurity atom separation in the crystal
decreases & they tend to interact. Consequently, the donor level also
undergoes splitting & form energy band below the conduction band.
The larger the doping concentration, the broader is the impurity band
& at one stage it overlaps with the conduction band.
The broadness of donor levels into a band is accompanied by a
decrease in the width of forbidden gap & also the upward displacement
of Fermi level. The Fermi level moves closer & closer to the
conduction band with increasing impurity concentration & finally
moves into the conduction band as donor band overlaps the conduction
band.
In similar way, in p-type semiconductor, the acceptor level
broadens and forms into a band with increasing impurity concentration
which ultimately overlaps the valence band. The Fermi level moves
down closer to the valence band and finally at high impurity
concentration it will shift in to valence band.

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HALL EFFECT:
When a transverse magnetic field ‘B’ is applied perpendicular to
current carrying conductor, a potential difference is developed across
the specimen in a direction perpendicular to both current and the
magnetic field. This phenomenon is called the Hall effect. The Voltage
so developed is called Hall voltage.

Hall effect helps to i) determine the sign of charge carrier in the

material 2) determine the charge carrier concentration and iii)
determine the mobility of charge carrier if conductivity of material is
known. Hall effect measurement showed that the negative charge
carriers, that is the electrons are responsible for conduction in metal

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and it also showed that there exist two types of charge carriers in a
semiconductor.

To explain Hall Effect in metals (conductor), consider a rectangular

plate of a metal having, width w and thickness t. When, potential
difference is applied across its ends, a current ‘I’ flows through it
along x direction that is opposite to the direction of flow of electrons.
The current passing through the metal is given by.
I = nAevd (1)
where n- concentration of electrons
A- Area of cross section of end face
e- charge on the electron
vd- drift velocity of electron
n – concentration of electrons
Therefore vd=I/nAe = I/nwte (2)
where A=wt (w is the width of the sample and t is the thickness of the
sample)

Any plane perpendicular to current flow direction is an equipotential

surface. Therefore, potential difference between front and rare faces is
zero. If magnetic field is applied normal to crystal surface and to the
current flow, a transverse potential difference is produced between the
faces F & F/. It is called Hall voltage VH.
In the absence of magnetic field B, the charge carriers move in a
direction parallel to faces F & F/. On the application of magnetic field
B, the Lorentz force comes into existence and this force deflects the
electrons sideways. The magnitude of this force is given by.
F L = e B vd

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Fig. Hall effect in conductors

Fig. Direction of magnetic force and Hall field in a conductor

In the absence of magnetic field B, the charge carriers move in a

direction parallel to faces F & F/ as shown in the above figure. On the
application of magnetic field B, the Lorentz force comes into existence
and this force deflects the electrons sideways due to the magnetic force
FL. The magnitude of this force is given by.
F L = e B vd
Because of this force, electrons will move towards the front face F and
pile up there. Initially the material is electrically neutral everywhere.
However, as electrons pile up on the front side, a corresponding
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equivalent positive charge is left on the rare face F/. As a result, an

electric field is produced across F & F/. The direction of electric field
(EH) will be from rare face to front face. A condition of equilibrium is
reached when force (FH) due to transverse electric field EH, balances
the Lorentz force (FL). The transverse electric field EH is known as
Hall field.
At equilibrium condition
FL = FH (3)
FH = e EH = e (VH/w) (4)
Substituting for FL and FH in eqn (3) we get
eBvd = eVH/w (5)
Substituting for vd from equation (2) in equation (5)

(6)

Hall voltage VH= (7)

Reciprocal of Carrier charge density is called Hall co-efficient RH

RH= 1/ne
Equation (6) can be written as

RH =
The Hall voltage can be measured with a voltmeter with the direction
of magnetic field & current depicted in fig, the sign of Hall voltage is
negative.

The charge carrier concentration is given by.

1 BI
n 
R He VH te

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The number of charge carriers in metals is of the order of 1028/m3and

in n or p type semiconductors it ranges from 1019-1023/m3.

HALL EFFECT IN SEMICONDUCTORS:

The Hall effect in semiconductors is similar to that of metals. In case

of metals and n -type semiconductors the majority charge carriers are
electrons and hence the same derivation holds good for both. In a p-
type semiconductor the only difference is that majority charge carriers
are holes, with positive charge, hence with slight modifications we can
obtain the Hall effect parameters following the method used for
metals.
Let us consider a rectangular plate of p-type semiconductor. When
potential difference is applied across its ends, a current ‘I’ flows
through it along x direction. If holes are majority charge carriers in p-
type semiconductors, then the current is given by
I = pAevd (1)
Where p- concentration of holes
A-Area of cross section of end face
e- charge on the hole
vd- drift velocity of holes
therefore vd = I/pAe = I/pwte (2)

Any plane perpendicular to current flow direction is an equipotential

surface. Therefore, potential difference between front and rare faces is
zero. If magnetic field is applied normal to crystal surface and also to
the current flow, a transverse potential difference is produced between
the faces F & F/. It is called Hall voltage VH.

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Fig. Hall effect in p type semi conductor

Fig.

Direction of magnetic force and Hall field in p-type semiconductor

Before the application of magnetic field B, the holes move in an

orderly way parallel to faces F & F/. On the application of magnetic
field B, the holes experience a sideway deflection due to the Lorentz
force FL. The magnitude of this force is given by
FL = e B vd

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Because of this force, holes are deflected towards the front face F and
pile up there. Initially the material is electrically neutral everywhere.
However, as holes pile up on the front side, a corresponding equivalent
negative charge is left on the rare face F/. As a result an electric field is
produced across F & F/.The direction of electric field will be from
front face to rare face. It is such that it opposes the further pile up of
holes on the front face F. A condition of equilibrium is reached when
FH due to transverse electric field EH balances the Lorentz force. The
transverse electric field EH is known as Hall field.
In equilibrium condition
FL = FH
FH = e EH = e(VH/w) (3)
Substituting for FL and FH in eqn (3) we get
eBvd = eVH/w (5)
Substituting for vd from equation (2) in equation (5)
(6)

Hall voltage VH= (7)

Reciprocal of Carrier charge density is called Hall co-efficient RH

RH= 1/pe
Equation (6) can be written as

RH =

The Hall voltage is a real voltage & can be measured with a voltmeter
with the direction of magnetic field & current depicted in this fig, the
sign of Hall voltage is +ve.

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For n-type semiconductor Hall voltage will be –ve, when the direction
of current is same as in the fig. Therefore by knowing the sign of Hall
voltage the type of semiconductor & the sign of the majority charge
carriers will be known.
The carrier concentration is given by.
1 BI
p 
R H e VH te
In case of n-type semiconductor
1 BI
n 
R He VH te

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SOLVED NUMERICALS:

1. What is the probability of a level lying 0.01 eV below the Fermi

level not being occupied by electrons at T = 300K?
Solution:
Probability of electrons not being occupied = 1-f(E)
= 1- (e(E-EF)/kBT+ 1)-1
= 1 - (e 0.01/0.026 + 1)-1
= 1-[1/(1.47 + 1) ] = 0.405

2. Find the temperature at which there is 1% occupancy probability of

a state 0.5 eV above Fermi energy.
Solution:
f(E) = 0.01 = 1/[e (E-EF)/kBT + 1] for E-EF= 0.5 eV
Solving we get 0.01 = 1/[e5797/T + 1].
Thus e5797/T = 1/0.01 - 1 = 99.
Taking log we get, T = 5797/4.595 = 1261.1 K

3. The effective mass of holes in a material is 4 times that of electrons.

At what temperature would the Fermi energy be shifted by 10%
from the middle of the forbidden energy gap? Given band gap = 1
eV.
Solution:EF = (EC + EV)/2 + (3kT/4) log(mh/me)
Fermi level is shifted by 10% = 0.1 eV.
Originally Fermi energy was 0.5 eV above EV .
Now it is 0.5+0.1 = 0.6 eV above EF.
(EV+ 0.6) eV = (EC+EV)/2 + (3kT/4)log(4) ----(1)
And (EV+ 0.5) eV = (EC+EV)/2 -----------(2)
Subtracting 2 from 1 we get 0.1 eV = (3kT/4)log(4)
0.1602x10-19J = (3x1.38x10-23xT/4)0.6021.
T = 1116K

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4. For an intrinsic semiconductor with gap width Eg=0.7eV. Calculate

the concentration of intrinsic charge carriers at 300K assuming that
me*=mo (rest mass of electron).

 2mkT 
3/ 2
ni  2   e  Eg / 2 kT ni=33.49x1018 /m3
 h 
2

5. The Fermi level in silver is 5.5eV at 0K. Calculate the number of

free electrons per unit volume and the probability occupation for
electrons with energy 5.6eV in silver at the same temperature.
Solution:
 h 2  3 
2/3

E F0     n2/3 n  5.84 x1028 m 3 .

 8m    

6. Calculate the probability of an electron occupying an energy level

0.02eV above the Fermi level at 200K and 400K in a material.
1
f (E) 
E  EF
1 e
kT
1
f (E)  0.02 x1.6 x1019
=0.24
1  e 1.38 x10 x 200
 23

f(E) =0.36 at 400K.

7. A semiconducting material 12 mm long, 5 mm wide and 1 mm
thick has a magnetic flux density of 0.5 Wb/m2 applied
perpendicular to the largest faces. A current of 20 mA flows
through the length of the sample, and the corresponding voltage
measured across its width is 37µV. Find the Hall coefficient of the
semiconductor.
Solution:
Hall coefficient RH = Ey/JxBz= -1/ne.
Since Ey = Vy/w, RH = Vy/wJxBz

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Thus RH = (37x10-6x10-3)/(20x10-3x0.5) = 3.7x10-6 m3C-1

S. No Sample Questions
1. An electron is accelerated by an electric field of 4V/cm, is
found to have mobility 8x 10-3 m2 / Vs. What is its drift
velocity?
2. How many valence electrons will a donor impurity has in a n-
type semiconductor?
3. What is a hole in context of semiconductors?
4. In Hall effect experiment what is the polarity of Hall voltage for
a n-type semiconductor?
5. What will be the Fermi velocity of an electron in copper if
Fermi energy (EF )= 6 eV ?
6. At 300K, if probability for occupancy of an energy state E by an
electron is 0.75, calculate probability for occupancy of the same
state by a hole?
7. Write any two assumptions of Drude-Lorentz theory?
8. Sketch the graph of Fermi factor f(E) verses E for the case E=EF
at at T> 0K in metals.
9. Define density of states in metals.
10. Write an expression for density of states in metals.
11. Sketch the variation of fermi level with temperature for n type
semiconductor.
12. What are Fermions?
13. Outline the phenomenon of Hall effect in materials.
14. For silicon semiconductor with band gap 1.12eV, determine the
position of the Fermi level at 300K if me*=0.12mo and
mh*=0.28mo.
15. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
16. Find the probability that energy level at 0.2 eV below Fermi

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level being occupied at temperature 1000K?

17. What is the value of Fermi function when E=Efat T>0K?
18. What is the effect of increase of impurity concentration on band
gap in extrinsic semiconductors?
19. Mention any two demerits of classical free electron theory.
20. Find the probability of a level lying 0.01 eV below the Fermi
level being occupied by electrons at T = 0K?
21. What is the magnitude of Lorentz force in Hall effect
experiment?
22. With neat sketch, show the Fermi level position in p-type
semiconductor.
23. What is Fermi factor in Fermi Dirac distribution?
24. Find the relaxation time of conduction electrons in a metal if its
resistivity is 2.5x10-8Ωm and it has 5x1028 conduction
electrons/m3
25. Sketch the position of Fermi level at 0K in a band diagram of a
n-type semiconductor, at low doping
26. Find the Fermi velocity of conduction electron if the Fermi
energy of silver is 8eV.
27. Determine the probability of occupancy of an energy level
situated 0.05eV above the Fermi energy at temperature of 0K
28. Write an expression for carrier concentration of p-type
semiconductor.
29. Write any two postulates of classical free electron theory of
solids.
30. Give the relation between electrical conductivity and mobility
of charge carriers in a conductor.
31. If a system is composed of indistinguishable, half integral spin
particles and obeys Pauli exclusion principle, then what
statistics is obeyed by the system?
32. What is the value of the Fermi factor for metals at room

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temperature?
33. Plot variation of Fermi factor with temperature in a metal.
34. Distinguish between free electron theory and band theory of
solids in terms of influence of lattice on the electron moving in
a metal.
35. Give expression for Fermi level at 0 k in an intrinsic
semiconductor.
36. Find the temperature at which there is 1% probability that a
state with energy 0.5 eV above Fermi energy is occupied?
37. What is Hall Effect?
38. Sketch the variation in the energy of the Fermi level in a ‘n’
type semi-conductor as a function of temperature?
39. A wire of diameter 0.2 meter contains 1028 free electrons per
cubic meter. For an electric current of 10A, calculate the drift
velocity for free electrons in the wire?
40. The fermi level in an intrinsic semi-conductor is at .25 eV.
What is the width of the band gap?
41. The fermi energy for an intrinsic semiconductor is at 5 eV. At
0K, calculate the probability of occupation of electrons at E=
5.5eV?
42. A sample of silicon is doped with 107 phosphorous atoms/cm3.
Find the Hall voltage, if the sample is 100µm thick, Ix=1 mA
and Bz= 10-5 Wb/m2?
43. Write any one drawback of classical free electron theory?
44. Write the relation for specific heat of a metal as per quantum
free electron theory
45. Write the condition at which the value of f(E) = 1 at 0 K.
46. Mention any two assumptions of quantum free electron theory.
47. Find the relaxation time of conduction electrons in a metal of
resistivity 1.54×10-8Ωm. If the metal has 5.8×1028 conduction
electrons per m3.

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48. Find the probability with which an energy level 0.02 eV below
Fermi level will be occupied at room temperature of 300K.
49. A copper strip of 2.0 cm wide and 1.0 mm thick is placed in a
magnetic field of 15000 gauss. If a current of 200 A is setup in
the strip with the Hall voltage appears across the strip is found
to be 0.18 V. calculate the Hall coefficient.
50. Which statistical rule is obeyed by electrons in quantum free
electron theory?
51. Where does the Fermi level lie in case of n type semiconductor
with high impurity concentration?
52. Electron concentration in a semiconductor is 1020m3. Calculate
Hall coefficient?
53. What is doping in semiconductors?
54. Evaluate the probability of occupation of an energy level 0.4 eV
below the Fermi energy level in metal at zero Kelvin.
55. If the probability of absence of electron in an energy level of
valance band of semiconductor is 0.65 what is the probability of
occupation in the same level by a hole?
56. In the band diagram of a p-type semiconductor show the
position of the Fermi level when the doping concentration is
low?
57. Graphically show the variation of ln(ne) with increasing
temperature in Kelvin where ne is the electron concentration in
an intrinsic semiconductor.
58. Write the postulates of classical free electron theory and explain
the failures of classical free electron theory.
59. Write the success of Quantum free electron theory.
60. Explain the variation of Fermi factor in metals with
temperature.
61. Explain Fermi Dirac distribution function. Show that at
temperatures above 0K probability of occupancy of Fermi level

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in metals is 50%.
62. Derive an expression for the electron concentration in metals at
0K.
63. Derive an expression for the electron concentration in intrinsic
semiconductor.
64. Show that Fermi level of an intrinsic semiconductor lies in the
middle of the band gap.
65. With a neat sketch explain the variation of Fermi level in an n-
type semiconductor with the increase in temperature.
66. What is Hall Effect? Arrive at an expressions for Hall voltage
in an n-type semiconductor.
67. Explain the change of band gap with variation in the doping
concentration of an n type semiconductor.
68. Explain the variation the carrier concentration with increase in
temperature in an n type semiconductor.

Appendix
Expression for hole concentration in valence band
If f (E) is the probability for occupancy of an energy state at E
by an electron, then probability that energy state is vacant is given by
[1- f(E)]. Since hole represents the unoccupied state in valence band,
the probability for occupancy of state at E by a hole is equal to
probability of absence of electron at that level. The hole concentration
in valence band is therefore given by

Ev

p  1  f ( E ) g ( E )dE
bottomband
v
(7)

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Ev
E

Valence band
1-f(E ) rapidly approaches to zero for lower energy levels, the above
equation rewritten as
Ev

p  1  f ( E ) g ( E )dE

v

4
Ev

 1  f E  3 2mh 2 Ev  E 2 dE
3 1
p *


h
E  EF
e kT
Now 1  f E   1 
1
 (8)
 E  EF   E  EF 
1  e  1  e 
 kT   kT 
E  EF
For E<EF (E-Ev) is negative. Therefore e 0
kT
 E  EF 
Therefore 1  e  1
 kT 
 ( EF  E )
and equation 8 reduces to 1- f(E)= e kT

 EF  E 
4
p   3 2mh* 2 ( E v  E ) 2 e
E 3 1

kT
dE

h
1
 E E  E  E E 
4
3  F v  v 2  v 
p  3 ( 2m ) e  kT 
 E  E e  kT 
* 2
h v dE
h 

Let Ev-E=x then -dE = dx or dE = -dX

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LowerLt UpperLt
x  E v  (  ) E  E v
x  Ev   x  Ev  Ev  0
x x0
1
 E E   E E 
4  F v  0
3  v 

 E v  E 
2
p * 2
( 2m ) e
h
 kT 
e  kT 
( dE )
h3 
1
 E F  Ev    E E 
4
3   v 


 E  E e
2
p  3 ( 2mh* ) 2 e  kT 
v
 kT 
dE
h 0
 1

 x 2 e dx 
 ax
Above equation is of the standard form where Ev-
0 2a a
1
E= x and a=
kT
 E F  Ev 
4 
3 3

p  3 (2mh* ) 2 e  kT 
(kT ) 2
h 2
3
 2mh * kT  2  ( EFkT Ev )
p  2 2  e
 h 
3/ 2
 2 mh*kT 
Let N v  2  2 
 h 
where Nv is temperature-dependent material constant known as
effective density of states in the valence band.
 ( E F  Ev )

p  Nve kT

Expression for the band gap of a Semiconductor:

The band gap is the energy separation between the conduction
band and the valence band of a semiconducting material.

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The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is given by

  ni e e  ni e h
  n i e(  e   h )
Substituting the value of ni, we get
3 3

 2kTm   m m  4
* *
2  E 
  2 2  x  e 2 h  exp g e(  e   h )
 h   m   2kT 
  Eg 
The above equation can be written as   A exp 
 2kT 
3 3

 2kTm   me mh 
* * 4
2
Where A  2 x  e(  e   h )
 h   m 
2 2

1 E  RA
As   :   B exp  g  We know that   then
  2kT  l
l  Eg 
RB exp  
A  2kT 
 Eg  Bl
R  C exp   Where C 
 2kT  A
Eg
Taking log on both sides ln R  ln C 
2kT
Eg
Therefore  (ln R  ln C )
2kT
The band gap is given by E g  2kT (ln R  ln C )
Eg
ln R  ln C  is of the form y  mx  c : By taking ln R in the y-
2kT
1
axis and in the x-axis, if a graph is plotted, a straight line is obtained
T
as shown in below figure.
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ln R
Slope
N M
Eg
m
2kT
Therefore
E g  ( m )kT
ln C

1/T

By finding the slope of the straight line, the band gap of the
semiconductor is determined using the relation, Eg = 2k x slope of the
straight line drawn between ln R and 1/T.

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