Applied Physics Laboratory

APPLIED PHYSICS PRACTICAL

OBSERVATION AND DATA ENTRY BOOK

Academic year: 2023 – 2024 onwards

Name of the student

Roll No./USN

Section, Batch

Branch

Cluster

Faculty in-charge

Department of Physics
B.M.S. College of Engineering
Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-560019
http://www.bmsce.ac.in/home/Physics-Department-About
Department of Physics, B.M.S. College of Engineering, Bengaluru
 Applied Physics Laboratory

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS FOR COMPUTER SCIENCE / ELECTRICAL / MECHANICAL

CLUSTER

Sl. Signature of the

Experiment Page Date Marks
No. Faculty

1 Wavelength of LASER beam by diffraction 2

2 Divergence angle of a LASER beam 4

3 Numerical aperture of an optical fiber 6

4 Wavelength of transparent LEDs 8

5 Fermi energy of copper 12

Dielectric constant of a material by charging and

6 16
discharging of a capacitor

7 Series resonance in LCR circuits 20

8 Parallel resonance in LCR circuits 22

COMPUTER SCEINCE / ELECTRICAL CLUSTER

9 V-I characteristics of a photodiode 24

Energy gap of a semiconductor using four probe

10 26
method
MECHANICAL CLUSTER
Thermal conductivity of a metal by Forbe’s
9 30
method

Thermal conductivity of a poor conductor by Lee

10 34
Charlton’s method

CIVIL CLUSTER

9 Spring constant of a given spring 38

10 Analysis of X-ray diffractogram 48

Total Marks Scored

Department of Physics, B.M.S. College of Engineering, Bengaluru

 Applied Physics Laboratory

Department of Physics, B.M.S. College of Engineering, Bengaluru

 Applied Physics Laboratory

General instruction to student:

1. Submission of manual and record in every class for evaluation is mandatory.
2. Entries of observations should be made in manual only in blue pen.
3. Calculations and substitutions should be shown explicitly.
4. After completion of the experiment, student should switch off the instruments and
disconnect the circuit.
5. The record book should be written following the format given in the manual.
6. Transfer the readings to the record book only after the evaluation by faculty in-charge in the
manual.
7. An additional graph should be drawn and attached to the record.
8. Mobile phones and smart watches are not allowed to the lab.
9. The student should bring his/her own calculator (except programmable calculator), pen,
pencil, eraser, etc., borrowing the same from others is not permitted.

Safety precautions about LASER:

Students are advised:

➢ Not to look at the LASER beam directly as it is hazardous to eyes

➢ To conduct the experiment only in the presence of faculty

➢ To switch OFF LASER source immediately after the completion of experiment

➢ Not to play with the LASER beam

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 Applied Physics Laboratory

Schematic Diagram:

Observations:
Distance between grating and the screen, d = ________ m
The number of rulings per inch on the grating, N = ________

Tabular column:

For LASER - 1
Order of Distance of the spot from the
diffraction centre in m sin θ λ nm
n Left Right Mean (x)

1
2
3
4
Mean, 1 =

For LASER - 2
Order of Distance of the spot from the
diffraction centre in m sin θ λ nm
n Left Right Mean (x)

1
2
3
4
Mean, 2 =

Error Analysis:
Experiment al value − Expected value
The formula for error analysis is given by: % Error = x 100
Expected value

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Experiment No. Date:

WAVELENGTH OF LASER BEAM BY DIFFRACTION

Aim: To determine the wavelength of the given laser source.

Apparatus: Diode laser source, optical bench, moveable stand and screen and metre scale.

Formula:
1. The wavelength, λ of the laser beam is given by

where, θ is the angle of diffraction

n is the order of diffraction
N is the number of rulings on the grating per inch
2. The angle of diffraction θ is given by

where, x is the distance between the central spot and the spot of nth order
d is the distance of the screen from the grating.

Procedure:
1. Note down the distance d between the grating and the screen. Mount the laser source at one end
of the optical bench.
2. Mount the directional pointer on another stand of the optical bench.
3. Arrange the laser beam to touch the pointer for horizontal alignment of the optical bench.
4. Remove the pointer and mount the grating on that stand to get the diffraction pattern on the
screen.
5. Attach a graph sheet on the screen and mark the central maxima and at least four orders of the
diffraction pattern on either side of the central maxima on it.

Result:

The wavelength of the given laser source is found to be λ1 = .................nm and λ2 = .................nm.

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Schematic Diagram:

Tabular Column:

For LASER - 1
Horizontal Vertical Mean diameter (m)
Spot Distance ‘d’  w
Diameter (wh) Diameter (wv)  w + wv   = tan −1  
No in m w= h   2d 
in m in m  2 
I
II
III
Average θ1 =

For LASER - 2
Horizontal Vertical Mean diameter (m)
Spot Distance ‘d’  w
Diameter (wh) Diameter (wv)  w + wv   = tan −1  
No in m w= h   2d 
in m in m  2 
I
II
III
Average θ2 =

Error Analysis:
Experiment al value − Expected value
The formula for error analysis is given by: % Error = x 100
Expected value

Substitution & Calculation:

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Experiment No. Date:

DIVERGENCE ANGLE OF A LASER BEAM

Aim: To determine the half angle of divergence of the given laser beam.

Definition: Divergence of a laser beam is defined as its spread with distance. It is measured in
terms of angle subtended by the laser spot at the point of origin of the laser beam.

Apparatus: Diode laser source, optical bench, moveable stand and screen and metre scale.

Formula: The half angle of divergence θ of the laser beam is given by

 w
 = tan −1  
 2d 

where, w is the mean diameter of the laser spot

d is the distance of the screen from the source.

Procedure:

1. Mount the laser source at the one end of the optical bench.
2. Mount the directional pointer on the other end of the optical bench.
3. Arrange the laser beam to touch the pointer for horizontal alignment of the optical bench and
then remove the pointer.
4. Now place the moveable stand and screen at distance d1 and note down the horizontal and
vertical diameters of the spot.
5. Repeat the above step for two more distances.

Result: The half angle of divergence of given LASER beam is found to be θ1 = ......................deg.,

and θ2 = ......................deg.

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Schematic Diagram:

Tabular column:

Cable Spot diameter Distance D

D (mm) f (mm) tan  = θ Sin (θAverage)
2f
Cable 1

Average θ
Cable 2

Average θ

Substitution & Calculation: Error Analysis:

NA = sin The formula for error analysis is given by:

Experiment al value − Expected value

% Error = x 100
Expected value

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Experiment No. Date:

NUMERICAL APERTURE OF AN OPTICAL FIBER

Aim: To determine the numerical apertures of the given two optical fibers.

Apparatus: Laser source, optical fiber cables, screen, transverse motion bench and relative
intensity meter.

Formula: The numerical aperture (NA) of an optical fiber is given by

NA = sin

where, θ is acceptance angle of the fiber.

Procedure:
1. Connect one end of the optical fiber cable (OFC) to the LASER source and the other end to the
connector which slides on the transverse motion bench.

2. Slide the connector close to the graduated screen (every line is 2 mm apart), fixed at the end of
the transverse motion bench and note down the spot diameter and the distance between the OFC
connector and the screen.

3. Move the connector to four more different distances from the screen and note down the spot
diameter each time.

4. Disconnect the cable from slide motion bench and connect it to the relative intensity meter and
note down the reading.

5. Repeat the experiment for the second cable.

6. Plot the graph of distance between the source (OFC connector) and the spot diameter.

Result: The numerical apertures of the given two optical fiber cables are:

------------- for cable 1 and ------------- for cable 2.

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Circuit diagram: Expected Graph:

Tabular column:

LED 1 LED 2
Applied Colour: Colour:
Voltage Voltage
in volts Voltage across Current
across
Current
LED (V) I (mA) I (mA)
LED (V)
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.2
3.4
3.6

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Experiment No. Date:

WAVELENGTH OF TRANSPARANT LED

Aim: To determine the wavelengths of the given light emitting diodes (LEDs).

Apparatus: 0-5 V Power supply, LED s, 330 Ω resistor, 0-5 V Voltmeter, DC milliammeter.

Principle: Energy quantization

Formula: The wavelength of LED is calculated using the relation,

Where, h is Planck’s constant = 6.63 x 10 -34 Js

c is speed of light = 3 x 108 m s-1

e is electron charge = 1.602 x 10 -19 C

V is the knee voltage in volts of the LED, (to be measured from graph).

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure, with a 5 volts supply, 330 Ω resistor, milliammeter
and an LED connected in series and a voltmeter connected in parallel to LED.

2. Increase the voltage of the source in steps of 0.2 V using fine adjustment knob. Note down the
voltage across the LED and the current through the LED.

3. Repeat the above steps for another LED.

4. Plot the V-I characteristics on a graph sheet.

5. Mark the voltage at which non-zero current is registered. Draw a tangent to the curve at that
point. Project it to voltage axis. Read the voltage at the intersection which is the knee voltage.

6. Calculate the wavelength of given LEDs using the above formula.

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Substitution & Calculation:

Knee voltage for LED 1 = ___________ V (From graph)

Knee voltage for LED 2 = ___________ V (From graph)

Error Analysis:

The formula for error analysis is given by:

Experiment al value − Expected value

% Error = x 100
Expected value

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Result:

1. The wavelength of given LED 1, λ1 = _______________ m

2. The wavelength of given LED 2, λ2 = _______________ m

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Circuit Diagram:

Observations:

Free electron concentration of copper, n = 8.45 x10 28/m3

Charge of the electron, e = 1.6 x 10-19 C

Radius of the given copper wire, r = 0.14 x10-3 m

Mean Free Path of electrons λ = 39 x 10-9 m

The length of the copper wire, l = 10 m

Mass of the electron m = 9.1 x 10-31 kg

Temperature T = 300 K

The resistance per unit length of the bridge wire, ρ = 0.032 Ω cm-1

The dial resistance, Rd = ___ 

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Experiment No: Date:

FERMI ENERGY OF COPPER

Aim: To determine the Fermi energy of copper.

Apparatus: Copper coil, oil/water bath, thermometer, Callender - Griffith’s bridge, galvanometer,
power supply

Formula: The Fermi energy of copper is given by

where,
n is the free electron concentration of copper in /m3
e is charge of the electron in C
r is the radius of the given copper wire in m
λ is the mean free path of electron inside the copper at RT in m
l is the length of the copper wire in m
T is the room temperature in K
R/T is the mean resistance per unit temperature calculated from the experiment
in Ω/K

Procedure:

1. A copper wire of given length is wound on a fiber sheet in the form of a coil.

2. This coil is immersed in water bath and is connected to one arm of a Callender-Griffith’s bridge
(the S arm). A compensating wire is connected to the opposite arm (the R arm).

3. Now adjust the standard resistance dial to 1 ohm. Set the voltage output of the power supply to
1 V. Slide the key along the bridge and obtain null deflection. Note down balancing length ‘x’
in cm.

4. Obtain the balancing lengths at various temperatures. Tabulate the results.

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Tabular column:

Sl. Temp ‘x’

Temp 0C R = Rd + x ρ in Ω [R/T] in Ω/K
No. K in cm

1 RT =

2 80 353

3 75 348

4 70 343

5 65 338

6 60 333

Mean [R/T] =

Substitution & Calculation:

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Error Analysis:

The formula for error analysis is given by:

Experiment al value − Expected value

% Error = x 100
Expected value

Result:

The Fermi energy EF of copper = J= eV.

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Circuit Diagram:

Expected graph:

Observations:

Thickness of the dielectric material, d= 70x10-6 m

Area of cross section of the dielectric material A= 57.4 x 10-4 m2

Time taken for charging /discharging to 1/e of the voltage value T½ = ________ s

Resistance connected in the circuit R= 1x 104 Ω

Permittivity of free space εo = 8.85 x 10-12 F/m

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Experiment No. Date:

DIELECTRIC CONSTANT OF A MATERIAL BY CHARGING

AND DISCHARGING OF A CAPACITOR

Aim: To determine the dielectric constant of the material by the method of charging and
discharging of the capacitor.
Apparatus: Capacitor with known dimensions, 5 V DC power supply, voltmeter, resistor, stop
clock.
Formula: The dielectric constant k of the material inside the capacitor is

where,
d is the thickness of the dielectric material in m
A is the area of cross section of the dielectric material in m2
T1/2 is the time taken for charging /discharging to rise/fall to 1/e times of the
initial value of voltage in seconds
R is the resistance connected in the circuit in Ω
εo is permittivity of free space is 8.85x10 -12 F/m

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown and discharge the capacitance fully so that the voltmeter reads
zero volts.
2. Switch on the power supply and stop clock simultaneously.
3. Note down the voltage across the capacitor at 10 s intervals up to 150 s.
4. Reset the stop clock. Now switch off the power supply and start the stop clock
simultaneously.
5. Again, note down the voltage across the capacitor at 10 s intervals.
6. Plot a graph of voltage across the capacitor and time both while charging and discharging.
Find T1/2.

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Tabular column:

Time Voltage across capacitor in V

in seconds
Charging Mode Discharging Mode

0 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

150

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Substitution & Calculation:

Error Analysis:

The formula for error analysis is given by:

Experiment al value − Expected value

% Error = x 100
Expected value

Result: The dielectric constant of the material present between the plates of the capacitor is,

k = ___________

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Circuit Diagram: Frequency response curve:

Observation:

Capacitance of the given capacitor, C = ______ μF

Series Circuit Substitution & Calculation:

Frequency Current Frequency Current
(Hz) (mA) (Hz) (mA)
200 950

300 1000

400 1050

450 1100 1
L=
4 f r2 C
2

500 1150

550 1200

600 1250 Error Analysis:

650 1300 The formula for error analysis is given by:

700 1350
Experiment al value − Expected value
% Error = x 100
750 1400 Expected value

800 1500

850 1600

900

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Experiment No. Date:

SERIES RESONANCE IN LCR CIRCUIT

Aim: 1. To study the frequency response of the series resonance circuits.
2. To determine the unknown value of the given inductor, bandwidth and quality factor for
the series resonance circuits.
Apparatus: Audio frequency generator, resistor, inductor, capacitor and milliammeter.

Formula:

i. The value of inductance H ➢ fr is resonant frequency in Hz

➢ C is the capacitance in F

ii. The band width = (f1 ~ f2) in Hz ➢ f1and f2 are lower and upper cut-
iii. The quality factor of the circuit off frequencies respectively in
Hz

Procedure:

1. Connect a signal generator, a resistor, an a.c. milliammeter, an inductor and a capacitor in

series.
2. Switch on the signal generator and adjust its amplitude knob to get the milliammeter readings
within the scale for all frequencies between 200 to 1200 Hz.
3. Increase the frequency in steps of 50 Hz up to 1200 Hz starting from 200 Hz and note down the
milliammeter readings.
4. Perform the calculations for the observations of series LCR circuit.

Results:

The resonant frequency of series LCR circuit = ________________________ Hz

The bandwidth of the series LCR circuit = ________________________ Hz

The quality factor of the series LCR circuit = ________________________

The value of the inductance of the coil L = ________________________ H

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Circuit Diagram: Frequency response curve:

Observation:

➢ Capacitance of the given capacitor, C = ______ μF

Parallel Circuit Substitution & Calculation:

Frequency Current Frequency Current
(Hz) (mA) (Hz) (mA)
200 950

300 1000

400 1050

450 1100 1
L=
4 f r2 C
2

500 1150

550 1200

600 1250 Error Analysis:

650 1300 The formula for error analysis is given by:

700 1350
Experiment al value − Expected value
% Error = x 100
750 1400 Expected value

800 1500

850 1600

900

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Experiment No. Date:

PARALLEL RESONANCE IN LCR CIRCUITS

Aim: 1. To study the frequency response of the parallel resonance circuits.
2. To determine the unknown value of the given inductor, bandwidth and quality factor for
the parallel resonance circuits.
Apparatus: Audio frequency generator, resistor, inductor, capacitor and milliammeter.

Formula:

i. The value of inductance H ➢ fr is resonant frequency in Hz

➢ C is the capacitance in F

ii. The band width = (f1 ~ f2) in Hz ➢ f1and f2 are lower and upper cut-
iii. The quality factor of the circuit off frequencies respectively in
Hz

Procedure:

1. Connect a signal generator, a resistor, an a.c. milliammeter, an inductor and a capacitor in

parallel.
2. Switch on the signal generator and adjust its amplitude knob to get the milliammeter readings
within the scale for all frequencies between 200 to 1200 Hz.
3. Increase the frequency in steps of 50 Hz up to 1200 Hz starting from 200 Hz and note down the
milliammeter readings.
4. Perform the calculations for the observations of parallel LCR circuit.

Results:

The resonant frequency of parallel LCR circuit = ________________________ Hz

The bandwidth of the parallel LCR circuit = ________________________ Hz

The quality factor of the parallel LCR circuit = ________________________

The value of the inductance of the coil L = ________________________ H

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Circuit Diagram:

Graph:

Tabular column:

Current (mA)
Voltage (V) Distance between LED Distance between LED & Distance between LED &
& Photodiode = 1 cm Photodiode = 2 cm Photodiode = 3 cm
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

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Experiment No. Date:

PHOTODIODE
Aim: To study the I-V characteristics of the given photo diode and determine the reverse
resistance.

Apparatus: 0-5 V regulated power supply, 0-5 mA digital DC ammeter, 0-20 V digital DC volt
meter, white light LED and Ga-As photo diode.

Formula:

Experimental procedure:

1. The LED (white light) and photodiode (PD) are placed face to face.

2. Photo Diode is connected in reverse biased mode.

3. LED power is set to 10 mW by turning the knob to its minimum position.

4. After ensuring that the LED is glowing and Photo Diode is covered with a cloth, the current is
noted.

5. The distance between LED and PD is set to 1cm.

6. Voltage across the photo diode VPD is varied and the corresponding current IPD is noted.

7. Experiment is repeated for different distances between LED and PD and the readings are
tabulated.

8. A graph showing the variation of VPD on x-axis and IPD on y-axis is drawn as shown in
model graph.

Result:

It is observed from the graph that there are different curves for different light intensities. The equal
spacing between characteristic curves indicates linearity of photo current with light intensity.

The reverse resistance is found to be = …....................….. Ω

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Schematic diagram:

Expected graph:

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Experiment No: Date:

ENERGY BAND GAP OF A SEMICONDUCTOR BY FOUR

PROBE METHOD
Aim: To study the temperature dependence of resistivity and to determine the energy gap of a
semiconductor.
Apparatus: Semiconductor in the form of a crystal, thermometer, four probes apparatus

Formula: The resistivity of the material of the crystal is given by

where, R is the resistance of the crystal in ohm,

A is area of the crystal in m2
l is the length of the crystal in m.

Energy gap of the semiconductor is given by

 2.303  2  k  Slope 
Eg =   eV
 1.602  10 −19
where, k is Boltzmann constant =1.38x10-23 J/K
Slope is calculated from the graph of log10 R vs (1/T)

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as in diagram.
2. Immerse the thermistor in the port in the crystal holder of the four probes apparatus.
3. Adjust the current at 2.00 mA. This value of current should be kept constant.
4. Switch on the oven and heat the sample up to 200 oC.
5. Switch off the oven and allow the crystal to cool.
6. Note down the value of voltage for every 10 oC fall in temperature starting from 200 oC.
7. Plot a graph of ρ versus T.
8. Plot another graph of log10 R versus (1/T) and calculate its slope.

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Observation:

Current, I = 2.00 mA

Area of the crystal, A = 3.75x10-6 m2

Length of the crystal, l = 2x10 -3 m

Tabular column:

Sl. Temp Temp T, Voltage Resistance Resistivity [(1/T) x 10-3]

log10 R
No. °C K mV Ω Ω-m K-1

1 160 433 2.309

2 150 423 2.364

3 140 413 2.421

4 130 403 2.481

5 120 393 2.544

6 110 383 2.610

7 100 373 2.680

363 2.755
8 90
353 2.833
9 80
343 2.915
10 70

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Substitution & Calculation:

 2.303  2  k  Slope 
Eg =   eV
 1.602  10 −19

Error Analysis:

The formula for error analysis is given by:

Experiment al value − Expected value

% Error = x 100
Expected value

Result:

The temperature dependence of the resistivity of the given semiconductor is studied.

The energy gap of the given semiconducting material is Eg = ………….. eV

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Experimental setup:

Temp & Timer Temperature Sensors

module Heating
Element

T6 T5 T4 T3 T2 T1
X1 =5cm
X2 =10cm

X2 =15cm

X3 =20cm

X4 =25cm

X5 =30cm

Expected graph:

Observations:

Tabular column 1:

Distance x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6
(m) 5 x 10-2 m 10 x 10-2 m 15 x 10-2 m 20 x 10-2 m 25 x 10-2 m 30 x 10-2 m
Steady
temperature
T in °C

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Experiment No: Date:

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF A METAL BY FORBE’S

METHOD
Aim: To measure the thermal conductivity of a good conductor by Forbe’s method.

Apparatus: A long uniform hollow metal rod with holes drilled at appropriate places with
semiconductor thermometers (six), temperature and time reading unit.

Formula: The coefficient of thermal conductivity of the metal rod is given by

where,
ρ is the density of the metal rod in kg/m3
s is its specific heat J/kg.K
[ΔT/Δt] is rate of change of temperature
[dT/dx] is temperature gradient [(T2-T5)/(x5-x2)]

Procedure:

2. Insert the heating element into open end of the hollow metal rod. Heat the rod for about half an
hour so as to attain steady state.
3. Connect the output of the thermometers to the temperature and timer module.
4. Note down the temperature at different distances x as in tabular column 1. Plot a graph T vs X.
5. Find the ratio [(T2-T5)/(x5-x2)] from the graph.
6. Now turn off the heating. Reset the timer. Note down the temperature of all six thermometers at
an interval of two minutes, up to ten minutes as in tabular column 2.
L
T
7. Calculate ∆T = [T@ 0s ~ T@ 600s] and consider ∆t = 600 s. Compute the sum  t x
0
as

indicated in tabular column 2.

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Observations:

Density of the material (brass or iron) of the rod, ρ = 8520 or 7850 kg/m3

Specific heat of the material (brass or iron) of the rod s = 401.93 or 452 J/kg K

Tabular column 2:

Time t (sec)
x ∆x
Temp. ⁰C
0 120 240 360 480 600 cm m

5 0.05
T1 (at x1)
10 0.05
T2 (at x2)
15 0.05
T3 (at x3)
20 0.05
T4 (at x4)
25 0.05
T5 (at x5)
30 0.05
T6 (at x6)
L
T
 t x
0

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Substitution & Calculation:

L
T
 t x
0
from the tabular column =

, the temperature gradient from the graph =

Error Analysis:

The formula for error analysis is given by:

Experiment al value − Expected value

% Error = x 100
Expected value

Result: The thermal conductivity of the given good conductor is = ………………..W/mk

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Experimental Setup:

Expected Graph:

Observations:

Thickness of a poor conductor using screw gauge:

Zero error (ZE) = Zero Correction (ZC) =

Least count (LC) = _________________mm

Trial No. PSR HSR TR=PSR+{(HSR-ZE)×LC} mm

Thickness of a poor conductor = ……………mm = …………………. m

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 Applied Physics Laboratory

Experiment No: Date:

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF A POOR CONDUCTOR BY

LEE AND CHARLTON’S METHOD
Aim: To determine the thermal conductivity of given poor conductor by Lee and Charlton’s
method.

Apparatus: Lee and Charlton’s apparatus, poor conductor in the form of a disc, stop clock, Vernier
callipers, screw gauge, two thermometers, steam generator and balance.

Formula: The thermal conductivity of a poor conductor is calculated using the relation,

where,
m is mass of the metallic disc B in kg
s is specific heat of the material of B in J/kg.K
d is thickness of the poor conductor S in m
r is radius of the poor conductor S in m
T1 is steady temperature of disc M in ⁰C
T2 is steady temperature of disc B in ⁰C
h is height of the metallic disc B in m
dT/dt is rate of cooling as calculated from the graph

Procedure:

1. Measure the diameter and hence the radius, r of the poor conducting specimen S, using a scale.
2. Measure the thickness, d of the sample using a screw gauge.
3. Arrange the steel disc, poor conductor and steam chamber as shown in the schematic diagram.
Insert the thermometers into the grooves of steam chamber and steel disc, which measure the
temperatures T1 and T2, respectively.
4. Turn on the heater and monitor the temperatures T1 and T2 at a regular interval till they reach
the steady state. Note the steady state temperatures T1 and T2.
5. To determine the rate of cooling of brass disc, lift the heating chamber and remove the
sample disc S, then place the heating chamber directly on the brass disc, B.
6. Allow the brass disc B to heat at least about 100C above the steady state temperature T2
measured in the first part of the experiment. Remove the heating chamber.

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Observation:

Mass of the metallic disc B, m = 0.93 kg

Specific heat of the material of B, s = 520 J/kg K
Thickness of the poor conductor, d = _______ m
Radius of the poor conductor S, r = _______ m
Steady temperature of disc M, T1 = ______ ⁰C
Steady temperature of disc B, T2 = ______ ⁰C
Height of the metallic disc B, h = 0.01 m

Tabular column:

Rate of cooling of brass disc:

Temperature of
Sl. No. Time (min) Time in s
steel disc T ⁰C
1 0 0

2 1 60

3 2 120

4 3 180

5 4 240

6 5 300

7 6 360

8 7 420

9 8 480

10 9 540

11 10 600

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 Applied Physics Laboratory

7. Switch on the stop clock and measure the temperature of brass disc at an interval of 60 s as it
cools down.

8. Plot a graph of temperature T of brass disc as a function of time. Draw tangential line to the
curve, corresponding to the temperature T2 and determine its slope. The slope is equivalent to

9. Calculate the thermal conductivity, K using the given formula.

Substitution & Calculation:

Rate of cooling from the calculated graph [dT/dt] =

Error Analysis:

The formula for error analysis is given by:

Experiment al value − Expected value

% Error = x 100
Expected value
=

Result:

Thermal conductivity of the given poor conductor specimen is found to be _________ W/mK.

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 Applied Physics Laboratory

Experimental Setup:

Frequency response of the spring – mass system.

Tabular column 1:

Vibrating force
Sl. No Mass in g Displacement (m)
F = (m x g) kg m/s2

1 w

2 w+50

3 w+100

4 w+150

5 w+200

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 Applied Physics Laboratory

Experiment No. Date:

SPRING CONSTANT OF A GIVEN SPRING

Aim: (i) To find the spring constant of the given spring by oscillating it freely.

(ii) To draw the frequency response curve for forced oscillations.

Apparatus: A spring, a rod carrying weights and a stopper disc, channel, magnetic scale, drive
wheel, frequency oscillator, acrylic cylinder with water and a black lid.

Formula: The spring constant of the given spring

where, is the Slope of the straight line graph of restoring force F vs displacement x.

Procedure:

1. Hang the spring rod assembly from the fixed support and adjust the magnetic scale such that
the lower edge of the disc aligns with the zero mark.
2. Attach a 50 g weight to the rod and measure the distance through which the disc moves using
the magnetic scale.
3. Every time attach 50 g and note down the displacements for 100 g, 150 g and 200 g.
4. Plot a Force vs displacement graph and calculate the slope, of the straight line.

5. Total mass of the rod (mrod) and that of the spring (ms) is calculated as (mrod + ms/3) and found
to be 25 g.
6. Attach the free end of the spring to one end of the thread and pass it over the pulley while the
other end is connected to the drive wheel whose frequency can be varied.
7. Unscrew the disc attached to the rod, pass it through the black lid of the acrylic cylinder.
Attach a 100 g weight and screw back the disc to the rod.
8. Fill the cylinder with water just below the brim and close the black lid.
9. Set the driving wheel’s frequency to 0.2 Hz and measure the total displacement of the disc by
aligning the magnetic scale suitably. Half of this value gives the amplitude.
10. Increase the frequency of the drive wheel in steps of 0.2 Hz and note down the displacements
up to 3 Hz

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 Applied Physics Laboratory

Tabular column 2:

Amplitude of vibration for 100 g for various forced frequencies:

Frequency Angular frequency

Sl. No Displacement (m) Amplitude (m)
(Hz) ω = (2πf) in s-1

1 0.2
2 0.4
3 0.6
4 0.8
5 1.0
6 1.2
7 1.4
8 1.6
9 1.8
10 2.0
11 2.2
12 2.4
13 2.6
14 2.8

15 3.0

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 Applied Physics Laboratory

Substitution & Calculation:

Error Analysis:

The formula for error analysis is given by:

Experiment al value − Expected value

% Error = x 100
Expected value

Result:
i. The spring constant of the given spring, k = ______________
ii. The frequency response curve for the given spring – mass system acted upon by external
drive wheel is drawn and the resonance frequency is found to be at ___________ Hz.

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 Applied Physics Laboratory

Diagram:

FILM STRIP

Observations:

Wavelength of X-ray,  = 1.54 x 10-10 m

Tabular column:

TM reading Arc
Arc No. Left Right diameter
sin
MSR CVD TR (L) MSR CVD TR (R) S=R~L

5
4
3
2
1

Tr. No. h, k, l h2+k2+l2

5 12
4 11
3 8
2 4
1 3

Mean a = ……………. m

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 Applied Physics Laboratory

Experiment No: Date:

ANALYSIS OF X-RAY DIFFRACTOGRAM

Aim: To calculate the Miller indices, inter-planar distance and lattice constant using the given
X-ray diffractogram for copper.

Apparatus: X-ray diffractogram and travelling microscope

Principle: A powder sample contains micro crystals having random orientations. When
monochromatic X-rays are incident on such a material, some of the orientations satisfy Bragg’s
condition for reflection . Since all the orientations are equally probable, the reflected
rays form a set of cones. When the irradiated powder specimen is surrounded by a cylindrical film,
the cones of reflected rays intersect the film in a series of concentric circular halves whose diameter
in mm is equal to 2 in degrees.

Formula:

where,  is the wave length of X-rays used in m, where, a is the lattice constant in m,
d is the inter-planar distance in m, d is the inter-planar distance in m
θ is the glancing angle {h k l} are the Miller indices of the
given plane

Procedure:

1. The given powder photograph fixed to a glass plate is taken.

2. The reading corresponding to each ring (starting from the extreme left or right) are noted using
traveling microscope
3. The values are tabulated. Miller indices, inter-planar distances and lattice parameter are found
using formulae given above.

Result:

1. Miller indices for different atomic planes are determined.

2. Inter-planar distances of different set of parallel planes are calculated.

3. Lattice constant a = ______________ m.

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