June 7, 2025 Course Notes

Course Notes for Communication, Circuit, Signal, Net-

work, Computer, and Digital Logic Design
The following notes cover the topics outlined in the provided blueprint for each
course, addressing all specified objectives and concepts.

1. Communication
1. Characteristics of Communication Channels and Their Effects on Sig-
nal Transmission
• AWGN Channel (Additive White Gaussian Noise): Characterized by
additive noise with a constant power spectral density and Gaussian
distribution. It affects signal transmission by introducing random noise,
degrading the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), and increasing bit error rates
in digital systems.
• Fading Channels: Signal amplitude varies due to factors like multi-
path propagation or shadowing. Fading (e.g., Rayleigh, Rician) causes
signal attenuation, leading to unreliable communication and requir-
ing techniques like diversity or equalization to mitigate.
• Multipath Channels: Signals arrive at the receiver via multiple paths,
causing interference and signal distortion (inter-symbol interference).
This impacts transmission by introducing time delays and amplitude
variations, necessitating adaptive filtering or OFDM.
2. Key Concepts in Communication Engineering
• Bandwidth (BW): The range of frequencies a channel can transmit
effectively. Higher BW allows higher data rates but may increase noise
susceptibility.
• Noise: Random unwanted signals that degrade communication qual-
ity. Thermal noise, shot noise, and interference are common types,
reducing SNR.
• Channel Capacity: Maximum rate at which data can be transmitted
over a channel with arbitrarily low error probability, given by Shan-
non’s formula: C = B log2 (1 + SNR) (bits/s), where B is bandwidth and
SNR is signal-to-noise ratio.
• SNR (Signal-to-Noise Ratio): Ratio of signal power to noise power,
expressed in dB as SNRdB = 10 log10 ( Psignal ). Higher SNR improves signal
P
noise
quality and reduces errors.
• Impact on System Performance: Low BW limits data rates, high noise
reduces SNR, and low channel capacity restricts reliable transmission.
Optimizing these parameters enhances system efficiency.
3. Analog and Digital Modulation and Demodulation Techniques

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June 7, 2025 Course Notes

• Analog Linear Modulation:

– Amplitude Modulation (AM): Modulates signal amplitude; sim-
ple but sensitive to noise. Demodulation uses envelope detection.
– Frequency Modulation (FM): Modulates carrier frequency; more
noise-resistant but requires wider BW. Demodulation uses phase-
locked loops or discriminators.
– Phase Modulation (PM): Modulates carrier phase; similar to FM
but less common. Demodulation requires coherent detection.
• Analog Non-Linear Modulation: Not commonly used; examples in-
clude pulse modulation techniques like PWM (Pulse Width Modula-
tion), which vary pulse characteristics.
• Digital Linear Modulation:
– Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): Modulates amplitude for digital
data; simple but noise-sensitive. Demodulation uses threshold de-
tection.
– Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): Modulates frequency; robust for
noisy environments. Demodulation uses filters or correlators.
– Phase Shift Keying (PSK): Modulates phase (e.g., BPSK, QPSK).
QPSK transmits two bits per symbol, improving efficiency. Demod-
ulation requires coherent receivers.
• Digital Non-Linear Modulation:
– Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM): Combines amplitude
and phase modulation (e.g., 16-QAM, 64-QAM) for high data rates
but requires high SNR. Demodulation uses coherent detection and
constellation mapping.
4. Multiple Access Techniques
• FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access): Divides bandwidth into
frequency slots for each user. Simple but inefficient for bursty traffic.
• TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access): Allocates time slots to users
within the same frequency band. Efficient for digital systems but re-
quires precise synchronization.
• CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access): Uses unique codes to allow
multiple users to share the same frequency and time. Robust against
interference but complex to implement.
• OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access): Divides
bandwidth into orthogonal subcarriers, each assigned to users. Used
in 4G/5G for high efficiency and robustness against multipath fading.
• Comparison: FDMA is simple but less flexible, TDMA suits digital sys-
tems, CDMA handles interference well, and OFDMA offers high spec-
tral efficiency and flexibility.

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June 7, 2025 Course Notes

2. Circuit
1. Basics of Semiconductor Technology in Electronics Equipment
• Semiconductors (e.g., silicon, germanium) have conductivity between
conductors and insulators, controlled by doping (adding impurities).
• Applications include diodes for rectification, transistors (BJT, FET) for
amplification and switching, and integrated circuits for complex elec-
tronics.
• Semiconductor properties: Energy bandgap, carrier mobility, and ther-
mal stability enable compact, efficient devices.
2. Operational Principles of Semiconductor Devices
• Diodes: PN junction allows current in one direction (forward bias:
positive to p-region, negative to n-region). Used in rectifiers, voltage
regulators.
• Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT): NPN or PNP structure with emit-
ter, base, and collector. Operates in active (amplification), saturation
(switch on), and cutoff (switch off) regions. Current-controlled device.
• Field-Effect Transistor (FET): Includes JFET and MOSFET. Voltage-
controlled device with gate, source, and drain. High input impedance,
used in amplifiers and switches.
3. Analysis, Design, and Application of Electronic Circuits (Amplifiers)
• Analysis: Use small-signal models (e.g., hybrid model for BJT, transcon-
ductance model for FET) to calculate gain, input/output impedance.
• Design: Select biasing (e.g., fixed, self-bias for BJT; voltage divider for
FET) to set operating point. Design for desired gain, bandwidth, and
stability.
• Applications: Amplifiers (e.g., common-emitter BJT, common-source
FET) boost signal strength in audio, RF, and instrumentation systems.
4. Sample Applications and Design Guidelines
• Applications: Power amplifiers (Class A, B, AB for audio), operational
amplifiers (inverting, non-inverting configurations), and oscillators.
• Design Guidelines: Ensure proper biasing, select appropriate load re-
sistors, use coupling capacitors for AC signals, and consider frequency
response for bandwidth requirements.

3. Signal
1. Fundamental Properties and Characteristics of Signals
• Amplitude: Signal strength or magnitude (e.g., voltage, current).

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• Frequency: Rate of oscillation, measured in Hz. Determines signal

periodicity.
• Phase: Shift in time relative to a reference, measured in radians or
degrees.
• Time Domain Representation: Signal as a function of time, e.g., x(t) =
A sin(2πf t + ϕ).
2. Types of Signals
• Continuous-Time Signals: Defined for all time t, e.g., x(t) = cos(2πt).
• Discrete-Time Signals: Defined at discrete time instants, e.g., x[n] =
cos(2πn/N ).
• Analog Signals: Continuous in both time and amplitude (e.g., audio
waveforms).
• Digital Signals: Discrete in time and amplitude (e.g., binary data).
3. Behavior of Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) Systems
• LTI Properties: Linearity (superposition holds) and time-invariance
(system response doesn’t change with time shift).
• Response to Inputs: Output is the convolution of input x(t) and im-
pulse response h(t): y(t) = x(t) ∗ h(t).
• Examples: RC circuits, filters. Response analyzed using step response,
impulse response, or frequency response.
4. Signal Transformation and Analysis Techniques
• Convolution: ∫Combines input and impulse response to find system
∞
output: y(t) = −∞ x(τ )h(t − τ )dτ .
• Fourier Analysis: Represents signals as sums of sinusoids. Fourier
Series for
∫ ∞periodic signals; Fourier Transform for non-periodic signals:
−jωt
X(ω) = −∞ x(t)e dt.
• Laplace Transform: Analyzes systems
∫ ∞ in s-domain, useful for stabil-
ity and transient response: X(s) = −∞ x(t)e dt.
−st

∑
• Z-Transform: Used for discrete-time systems: X(z) = ∞ n=−∞ x[n]z
−n
.
Analyzes stability and frequency response of digital systems.

4. Network
1. Basic Concepts and Principles of Network Analysis
• Network Elements: Resistors, capacitors, inductors, voltage/current
sources.
• Kirchhoff’s Laws: KCL (sum of currents at a node is zero), KVL (sum
of voltages around a loop is zero).

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• Node and Mesh Analysis: Solve for node voltages or loop currents
using linear equations.
2. Analysis of Passive Electrical Networks
• Passive Networks: Contain no active sources (e.g., only R, L, C). Ana-
lyzed using Ohm’s law, impedance, and network theorems.
• Techniques: Superposition (sum responses of individual sources), Thevenin/Norton
(simplify networks to equivalent circuits), and maximum power trans-
fer theorem.
3. Synthesis of Electrical Networks
• Impedance Matching: Design networks to match source and load impedances
for maximum power transfer (Zload = Zsource
∗
).
• Frequency Response Shaping: Design filters (low-pass, high-pass, band-
pass, band-stop) to achieve desired frequency response.
• Filter Design: Use components (R, L, C) to create filters with specific
cutoff frequencies and bandwidths, e.g., Butterworth or Chebyshev fil-
ters.
4. Element of Network Synthesis
• Network Functions: Impedance (Z(s)), admittance (Y (s)), transfer func-
tions (H(s)).
• Synthesis Techniques: Foster and Cauer forms to realize networks
from given impedance/admittance functions.
• Applications: Design of passive filters, matching networks, and atten-
uators to meet performance specifications.

5. Computer
1. Fundamental Programming Concepts
• Variables and Data Types: Store data (e.g., integers, floats, strings)
for processing.
• Control Structures: Conditionals (if-else), loops (for, while) for pro-
gram flow.
• Functions: Modular code blocks to perform specific tasks, improving
reusability.
2. Software, Algorithm, and Flowchart
• Software: Programs that instruct computers, e.g., operating systems,
applications.
• Algorithm: Step-by-step procedure to solve a problem, e.g., sorting,
searching. Must be finite, unambiguous, and efficient.

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June 7, 2025 Course Notes

• Flowchart: Visual representation of an algorithm using shapes (e.g.,

oval for start/end, diamond for decisions, rectangle for processes).

6. Digital Logic Design (DLD)

1. Principles of Digital Systems
• Digital systems process binary data (0s and 1s) using logic gates and
circuits.
• Advantages: Noise immunity, error detection, and programmability
compared to analog systems.
• Components: Logic gates, flip-flops, registers, and counters.
2. Properties and Realization of Logic Gates
• Basic Gates: AND (output 1 if all inputs 1), OR (output 1 if any input
1), NOT (inverts input).
• Derived Gates: NAND, NOR, XOR, XNOR. NAND and NOR are universal
gates (can implement any logic function).
• Realization: Implemented using transistors (e.g., CMOS technology)
in ICs like 7400 series.
3. Design of Combinational and Sequential Systems
• Combinational Systems: Output depends only on current inputs. Ex-
amples: Adders, multiplexers, decoders. Designed using Boolean alge-
bra and Karnaugh maps.
• Sequential Systems: Output depends on current and past inputs (mem-
ory). Examples: Flip-flops, counters, state machines. Designed using
state diagrams and timing analysis.

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