Lesson-1

Geo-informatics- definition, concepts, tool and techniques

1. What is a Geographic Information System (GIS)?

GIS is a set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will, transforming, and displaying
spatial data from the real world for a particular set of purposes.

GIS is a computerized system that facilitates the phases of data entry, data analysis and data
presentation especially in cases when we are dealing with georeferenced data.

1.1 The components of a GIS include:

a) the computer system (hardware and operating system),
b) the software,
c) the spatial data,
d) data management and analysis procedures and
e) the people to operate the GIS.

1.2 The capabilities that a ‘well-designed GIS’ should be able to provide:

a) Quick and easy access to large volumes of data.

b) The ability to: select detail by area or theme;
link or merge one data set with another;
analyze spatial characteristics of data;
search for particular characteristics or features in an area;
update data quickly and cheaply; and
model data and assess alternatives.
c) Output capabilities (maps, graphs, address lists and summary statistics) tailored to
meet particular needs.

1.3 Some important areas of application of GIS

• Different Streams of Planning: Urban planning, housing, transportation planning
architectural conservation, urban design, landscape planning etc.
 • Street Network Based Application: It is an addressed matched application, vehicle
routing and scheduling: location, development and site selection and disaster
planning.
• Natural Resource Based Application: Management and environmental impact
analysis of wild and scenic recreational resources, flood plain, wetlands, acquifers,
forests, and wildlife.
• View Shed Analysis: Hazardous or toxic factories siting and ground water modelling.
Wildlife habitat study and migrational route planning.
• Land Parcel Based: Zoning, sub-division plans review, land acquisition, environment
impact analysis, nature quality management and maintenance etc.
• Facilities Management: Can locate underground pipes and cables for maintenance,
planning, tracking energy use.

1.4 Components of GIS

i. Hardware: It consists of the computer system on which the GIS software will run.
The choice of hardware system ranges from Personal Computers to multi user Super
Computers. These a computer should have essentially an efficient processor to run
the software and sufficient memory to store enough information (data).
ii. Software: GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze,
and display geographic information. The software available can be said to be
application specific. All GIS software generally fit all these requirements, but their
on screen appearance (user interface) may be different.
iii. Data: Geographic data and related tabular data are the backbone of GIS. It can be
collected in-house or purchased from a commercial data provider. The digital map
forms the basic data input for GIS. Tabular data related to the map objects can also
be attached to the digital data. A GIS will integrate spatial data with other data
resources and can even use a DBMS.
iv. Method: A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan, which are
the models and operating practices unique to each task. There are various techniques
used for map creation and further usage for any project. The map creation can either
be automated raster to vector creator or it can be manually vectorized using the
 scanned images. The source of these digital maps can be either map prepared by
any survey agency or satellite imagery.
v. People: GIS users range from technical specialists who design and maintain the
system to those who use it to help them perform their everyday work. GIS operators
solve real time spatial problems. They plan, implement and operate to draw
conclusions for decision making.
vi. Network: With rapid development of IT, today the most fundamental of these is
probably the network, without which no rapid communication or sharing of digital
information could occur. GIS today relies heavily on the Internet, acquiring and
sharing large geographic data sets.

1.5 What is attributes?

Attributes are the characteristics of the map features, and holding of the descriptive information
about the geographic features. These are the non-spatial data associated with time and area
entities. They are considered characteristics of entity.
i. Primary attributes : Primary attributes refer to inherent characteristics of objects or
entities, often measurable and directly related to physical or socioeconomic aspects.
Example: Physical Properties: Elevation, Temperature, Soil texture and fertility
ii. Secondary attributes: Secondary attributes are derived, classified, or represent
relationships between objects rather than their inherent properties. Example: Disaster
risk zones (e.g., flood-prone, drought-prone areas)

1.6 What is Topology?

In GIS, topology is the term used to describe the geometric characteristic of objects which do
not change under transformations and are independent of any co-ordinate system.
1.7 GIS Queries
GIS queries are used to retrieve specific data from spatial databases based on user-defined
conditions. These queries help in analyzing, visualizing, and interpreting geographic patterns
and relationships.

Attribute Queries (Non-Spatial Queries)

• Retrieve information based on attribute values stored in a database (without

considering spatial relationships).

• Examples: Find all agricultural fields where the soil type is "clay loam"

Identify cities with a population greater than 1 million.

Spatial Queries (Location-Based Queries)

• Involve spatial relationships like adjacency, containment, and proximity. Often use
geometric operations such as intersect, contains, touches, and buffer.

• Examples: Select all villages located within 5 km of a river.

Find all districts intersected by a national highway.

1.8 Common GIS Query Functions

• Selection Queries – Retrieve features based on conditions (e.g., "Select all forests in
Bihar").

• Proximity Queries – Identify features within a certain distance (e.g., "Find hospitals
within 10 km of an earthquake epicenter").

• Overlay Queries – Compare layers to extract insights (e.g., "Find agricultural land
under flood risk using land use and flood hazard maps").

• Buffer Queries – Create buffer zones around features (e.g., "Identify settlements
within 2 km of a major road").
 Lesson-2

Spatial data and their management in GIS

2. GIS Data types

There are two types of data are used in GIS platform; that is, spatial data and non-spatial data.

Spatial data are those that have coordinates; latitudinal and longitudinal that shows position of
feature. It represents the locations of geographical entities as well as their spatial dimension
that are represented with the help of point, line and polygon/area.

Non spatial data are those representing a set of information that is systematically organised and
computing against each spatial data. These types are also known as attribute data. For instances,
if the spatial data contain a polygon representing a state, then in attribute data it has information
about its administrative division; like area, population etc. The non-spatial data can be two
types; Statistical which have numerical values and Descriptive that are stored in the form of
word or text.

2.1 What are the types of Spatial Data?

The spatial data are further divided into two types; Raster data and Vector data. The raster data
are the data that have individual pixels where each pixel has its spatial location in referenced
to real earth. When the data is ortho-rectified or Geo-referenced the data give each and every
pixel its locational information. Thus the attribute is represented as a single value of each pixel
or cell that is called as DN (Digital Number value). On the other hand in vector data, the spatial
information are recorded as x, y coordinates. The point features are recorded as single x and y
pair of coordinates. The line features as well as polygon features are recoded as a series of x
and y coordinates. Thus the vector attributes recorded against feature ID numbers are assigned
by system itself.
2.2 The Spatial data structure:
The two types of spatial data; Raster data and vector data have their own importance and
charateristics regarding the application in GIS. The structure of both the data set are different
from each other, however both maintain or preserve the same coordinates value x and y of a
particular featured in referened to the real earth surface.

2.3 Raster Data structure:

As mentioned raster data comes in the form of individual pixels that is represented by matrix
or grid of pixel. This pixel preserves locational information that are usually bulky and required
large storage capacity like satellite imagery, digital elevation model (DEM), aerial
photography, Scanned maps etc. Condition of pixels in a raster data are like it should have the
same size while determining the resolution. Though pixel can be of any size it should be small
enough to perform maximum detail analysis. It can represent a square kilometre, a square metre
or even a square centimetre that is arranged in rows and columns constructed in a certain matrix
format. The rows of the matrix are parallel to X- axis and the columns are parallel to the Y-
axis.

2.3.1 Regarding satellite images, the basic characteristics of Raster data structure are;
 The area is covered by grid with (usually) equal-sized cells, extents in rows and columns
 Every single pixel is assumed to have an only one DN value. On the other hand it becomes
inaccurate when the boundary of two different soil types intersects other pixel. Thus in
such case the pixel is assigned value of largest fraction of the cell.
 The x and y value of a pixel represent the pixel size which is the spatial resolution of the
pixel. Therefore, in calculating the area with help of pixel, it is calculated as Area = Count
X (x * y).
 Every gird has its origin in the upper left, but the coordinates are computed at the center
of the grid.

Raster images are normally acquired by raster imaging devices where the spatial resolution is
determined by the resolution of the acquisition device and the quality of the original data
source. The raster image should have pixels for all spatial locations which is strictly limited by
the size of an area it can represent. When increasing the spatial resolution by 2 times, the total
size of a two-dimensional raster image will increase by 4 times because the number of pixels
is doubled in both X and Y dimensions. The same is true when a larger area is to be covered
when using same spatial resolution.

2.3.2 Raster data model

 Attribute model: Attribute model is referred to associating/manipulating the properties
of objects or cells.
 CAD data models: In CAD, real-world entities are represented symbolically as points,
lines and polygons. It uses local drawing coordinates rather than real-world coordinates.
 Image data model: It includes images (photos, aerial photos and satellite images) to
represent real world entities that need rectification and registration to be integrated with
other georeference data. (e.g., GeoTiff vs. Tiff image format)
 Network data model: Networks are modeled as points (nodes) and lines. Network
topology defines how lines connect with each other at nodes.
 Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) data model:TINs are used to create and
represent surfaces in GIS. The TIN structure represents a surface as contiguous non-
overlapping triangular elements. TIN is created from a set of sample points with x, y,
and z coordinate values.
2.3.3 Advantages and disadvantages of Raster data structure

Advantages of Raster Data structure Disadvantages of Raster Data structure

i. Raster data quickly processes queries i. This format is poor at points, lines and
most analytical operations such as area It uses pixel-based data processing
overlay, buffer, proximity and Boolean which affects the accuracy especially
queries. for point and linear features.
ii. It is good for representing continuous ii. Lines can become broader
surfaces. iii. It is good at localized topology such as
iii. Raster data formats are appropriate for adjacency and weak at others.
remote sensing data. iv. This format faces mixed pixel problem
iv. d) It is easy to understand, read, write which creates the problem in
and draw on to screen. identification of different features
v. Each cell can be owned by one feature
vi. It requires more storage space

2.4 Vector data structure:

Vector Data are in the form of point, line and polygon that are recorded in spatial information
as x and y coordination. Vector data produces a smaller file size in comparison to raster data
structure and also it is easier to handle than raster data because the structure is simple and it is
more flexible to be adjusted for different scale.

2.4.1 There are three ways of representation;

Point feature:
i. It has 0 dimension (cannot represent neither length nor width)
ii. Represented by single x, y coordinate pair
iii. It has area size zero
iv. Mostly used for denotes a single particular feature

Line feature:
i. It has 1 dimension (can represent the length)
ii. Represented by connecting two or more pair of x, y coordinates
iii. It has its length value
iv. Commonly used to demarcates roads, rivers, stream and so on
Polygon feature:
i. It is 2 dimensional ( can represent the length as well as the width)
ii. Represented by connecting four or more pairs of x, y coordinates
iii. The starting point should be the ending point
iv. Preserve an area
v. Commonly used to demarcate features having closed boundary

2.4.2 Vector data Model can be of three basic types

 Simple features (spaghetti) model the basic object geometry
 Arc/Node Structure model allows hierarchical storing
 Topologic features model defines relationsihps among objects

2.4.3 Advantages and disadvantages of Vector Model

Advantages of Vector data model Disadvantages of the Vector data model

i. It is precise and allows no error in line i. It takes too much time in computing time
area, perimeter etc. for overlaying vector information
ii. It requires less storage requirement as ii. It cannot represent continuous data.
compared to raster format.
iii. This method is more appropriate for
social economic, demographic and
resource variation analysis.
 Lesson-3

Remote sensing concepts and application in agriculture

Remote Sensing is the science of acquiring, processing & interpreting images and related data
that are obtained from ground-based, air or space-borne instruments that record the interaction
between matter (target) and electromagnetic radiation. The basic principle of remote sensing
and how it works is explained in the following figures

Advantages of Remote sensing

 Cost effectiveness: Though establishment cost is high, the maintenance cost very low
as compared to other means
 Timeliness: Realtime information collection and processing is possible in remote
sensing. This is faster than any other system
 Unbiased information generation: As the informations are collected and processed
mechanically the human bias is avoided
 Monitoring inaccessible areas: Difficult/Inaccessible areas like deep forest, ocean,
mountain peaks are being monitored by remote sensing techniques
 Sensing typical features: Human vision (or other sensing organs) is sensitive in
visible radiation. But lot of informations can be generated from the infrared,
microwave, radio wave signals which is not possible by visual observations

Image Data Structure

Image data are stored in a regular grid format (rows and columns).
The single elements are called pixels (picture elements). For each pixel, the measurements
are stored as Digital Number values or DN-values.

Each wavelength band measured is stored in a separate ‘layer’

Image Data Characteristics

Spectral resolution: refers to the part of the Electro Magnetic spectrum measured – How
many bands are observed

Radiometric resolution: Refers to the part of the Electro Magnetic spectrum measured and
the differences in energy that can be observed.

Spatial resolution: Refers to the smallest unit-area measured, it indicates the minimum size
of objects that can be detected.

Temporal resolution (Revisit time): Refers to the time between two successive image
acquisitions over the same location on Earth.

Sensors: Passive & Active

There are two types of sensors
a) Passive sensor uses natural radiation (reflected or emitted)
b) Active sensor uses artificial source of radiation
The sensors work in different domains of electromagnetic radiation
PASSIVE SENSORS

Gamma-ray spectrometer

• Study of mineral exploration upper soil or rock layers (radioactive decay)

• Measured up to a few hundred metres above the Earth’s surface.

Aerial camera

• Used for ‘photogrammetric procedures’ for obtaining precise 3D coordinates, medium

and large scale (topographic) mapping and cadastral mapping.

• Now a day, analogue photos are scanned and transformed to digital systems.

Multispectral scanner

• Mainly works in optical domain- Visible and IR (reflected radiation)

• Simultaneously for several wavelength bands, hence named ‘multispectral scanner’

Thermal scanner

• Wavelengths in this range are directly related to an objects temperature.

• Data on cloud, land and sea surface temperature

• Useful for meteorological study, drought study and to monitor temperature

ACTIVE SENSORS

Laser scanner

• Use laser beam (IR light) to measure distance from the aircraft to ground points

• Applied to study calculate the terrain elevation, used for high-resolution Digital
Terrain Models (DTM) in topographic mapping, 3 D models of city buildings, trees
etc
Radar altimeter

• Determine height with a precision of 2–4 cm. Measures the topographic profile
parallel to the satellite orbit. (single lines of measurements)

• Useful for measuring relatively smooth surfaces such as oceans and for ‘small scale’
mapping of continental terrain models.

Imaging radar

• Determine surface characteristics (orientation, roughness, di-electric constant/

moisture content).

• ‘All-weather day-and-night’ acquisition capability.

• Combining two radar images acquired at different moments can be used to precisely
assess changes in height or vertical deformations (SAR Interferometry)

Satellite Orbit
• Sun-synchronous orbit: In sun-synchronous orbit the satellite always passes overhead
at the same local solar time. Most sun-synchronous orbits cross the equator at mid-
morning (around 10:30 h). Sun-synchronous orbits allow a satellite to record images at
two fixed times during one 24-hour period: one during the day and one at night.
Examples - Landsat, SPOT and IRS.

• Geostationary orbit. This refers to orbits in which the satellite is placed above the
equator (inclination angle is 0) at a distance of some 36,000 km. At this distance, the
period of the satellite is equal to the period of the Earth. The result is that the satellite
is at a fixed position relative to the Earth. Geostationary orbits are used for
meteorological and telecommunication satellites. Example – INSAT, Kalpana,
Meteosat

• Shuttle orbit: Inclination angle 30-60degree. The satellite is typically placed in orbit
at 200-300 km altitude. Used for specific research purpose Example – Skylab
 Lesson-4

Image processing and interpretation

Image Selection criteria

For the selection of the appropriate data type it is necessary to fully understand the information
requirements for a specific application. The Spatio-temporal characteristics of radiation as
selection criteria for remote sensing studies are described below-

1. Time of Image Acquisition:

o Images should be captured around noon to minimize shadows caused by low
Sun angles, especially in urban areas.
2. Cloud Cover:
o Clear skies are essential for effective image capture. Cloud cover can obscure
important features.
3. Seasonal Cycle:
o In vegetation studies, the timing must match the phenological stages (growth
stages) of crops or trees.
o Deciduous trees and seasonal variations in vegetation must be considered.
4. Temporal Monitoring:
o For monitoring desertification, drought, or long-term land changes, consistent
image data over time is crucial.
5. Study Scale:
o For long-term studies, higher spatial or radiometric resolutions may be less
critical than data continuity.
6. Band Selection:
o Different bands are suited to specific phenomena:
 Gamma and X-rays: Mapping radioactive materials.
 Visible and Near-Infrared (NIR): Vegetation health, chemical
composition, and surface properties.
 Short-Wave Infrared (SWIR): Volcanic eruptions and forest fires.
 Thermal Infrared (TIR): Surface heat capacity, temperature studies,
atmospheric components.
  Microwave Remote Sensing: Surface temperature, precipitation, and
atmospheric studies.

Additional Considerations:

1. Spatial Resolution:
o Higher resolution is important for detailed studies; lower resolution suffices
for broader regional assessments.
2. Radiometric Resolution:
o The ability to distinguish slight differences in reflectance is critical for
detecting subtle changes.
3. Data Continuity:
o For change detection, consistent data acquisition schedules (e.g., weekly,
monthly) help monitor trends effectively.
4. Surface Conditions:
o Moisture content, snow cover, or surface roughness may influence image
interpretation and must be factored in during selection.

IHS: intensity, hue and saturation.

 Intensity describes whether a colour is light or dark.
 Hue refers to the names that we give to colours: red, green, yellow, orange, purple, etc.
 Saturation describes a colour in terms of pale versus vivid.

Colour Composition & Visualization

True
(Natural)
colour
composite

False colour
Red-Green-Blue
composite
(FCC)
Contrast Enhancement

Stretching:
A technique that adjusts pixel intensity values to improve image contrast by spreading pixel
brightness over a wider range. Examples include linear stretching, histogram equalization,
and logarithmic stretching.

Filtering:
A method that modifies pixel values based on their neighborhood to enhance or suppress
specific features. It includes techniques like low-pass (smoothing), high-pass (edge
enhancement), and noise reduction filters such as median filtering.

Image Interpretation
Image interpretation is the process of examining remote sensing images to identify, analyze,
and extract meaningful information about surface features, patterns, or conditions on Earth.
This involves recognizing objects and phenomena based on their shapes, sizes, tones, textures,
shadows, patterns, and associations. Two types, visual image interpretation, digital image
interpretation.

1. Visual Image Interpretation

Information extraction based on visual analysis or interpretation of the data. Typical examples
of this approach are visual interpretation methods for land use or soil mapping. urban mapping,
soil mapping, geomorphological mapping, forest mapping, natural vegetation mapping,
cadastral mapping, land use mapping and many others.

Interpretation elements
A. Tone/Hue
• Tone/hue is directly related to the amount of light (energy) reflected from the surface.
• Different types of rock, soil or vegetation most likely have different tones.
• Increasing moisture content gives darker grey tones
B. Shape
• Characterizes many terrain objects visible in the image in geomorphological mapping.
• Characterize object (built-up areas, roads and railroads, agricultural fields, fishery ponds
etc).
C. Size
• Farm size, water body size are important for agril. Study
• Width determines the road type, e.g., primary road, secondary road, et cetera.
D. Pattern
• Spatial arrangement objects (such as concentric, radial, checkerboard etc)
• Used for land form, land use, erosion study
E. Texture
• Frequency of tonal change (e.g., as coarse/fine, smooth/rough, even/uneven, mottled,
speckled, granular, linear, woolly)
• Often be related to terrain roughness
F. Site
• Topographic or geographic location (where the feature is located)
• ‘Backswamps’ in a flood plain , Mangroves with coastal zone
G. Association
• Combination of objects makes it possible to infer about its meaning or function.
• Industry with Transport system or Salinity features in coastal zone

2. Digital Image Interpretation

Semi-automatic processing by the computer. Examples include automatic generation of DTMs,
image classification and calculation of surface parameters.

Principles of Image Classification –

 During image classification the classes are to be distinguished in an image
classification need to have different spectral characteristics.
 A pixel is assigned to a class based on its feature vector, by comparing it to
predefined clusters in the feature space.
 Doing so for all image pixels results in a classified image.
 Classification involves assigning each pixel to a predefined cluster, using a defined
method of for comparison.
 Definition of the clusters is an interactive process and is carried out during the
training process.
 Comparison of the individual pixels with the clusters takes place using classifier
algorithms.
 Lesson-5

Global Positioning System (GPS): Components and Applications

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system that provides
accurate positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT) services to users worldwide. Developed by
the United States Department of Defense (DoD), GPS has become an essential tool for a wide
range of applications, including navigation, mapping, surveying, and scientific research. GPS
operates through a network of satellites, ground control stations, and user receivers, ensuring
global coverage and high precision in determining location and time.

Components of GPS

GPS consists of three main segments: Space Segment, Control Segment and User Segment

A. Space Segment

The space segment consists of a constellation of at least 24 satellites orbiting at an altitude of

approximately 20,200 km. These satellites are arranged in six orbital planes, ensuring that at
least four satellites are visible from any location on Earth at any given time. Each satellite
transmits signals containing information about its position and the current time, which is used
by GPS receivers to determine location.

Key features of GPS satellites:

 Each satellite completes an orbit in approximately 12 hours.

 Satellites are equipped with atomic clocks for precise timekeeping.
 Dual-frequency transmission on L1 (1575.42 MHz) and L2 (1227.60 MHz) bands.
 Designed for a lifespan of 7-10 years with periodic replacements.

B. Control Segment

The control segment is responsible for monitoring and maintaining the GPS system. It consists
of ground control stations that track and update the satellites to ensure accurate positioning
data. The primary control components include:

 Master Control Station (MCS): Located in the United States, it manages satellite
operations and updates their orbital data.
  Monitor Stations: Spread across various locations worldwide, these stations track
satellite signals and send data to the MCS.
 Ground Antennas: Used to transmit updates and corrections to satellites.

C. User Segment

The user segment comprises GPS receivers that interpret satellite signals to determine the
user’s position, velocity, and time. GPS receivers vary in complexity and applications, ranging
from handheld navigation devices to high-precision surveying instruments. They are widely
used in smartphones, vehicles, aviation, military operations, and scientific research.

Working Principle of GPS

Global Positioning System (GPS) is actually a constellation of solar-powered Earth-Orbiting

satellites that orbit the earth at about 19300 km, making two rotations per day. These orbits are
arranged such that at any point on the earth and time, at least four satellites are "visible" in the
sky. So, a GPS receiver locates four or more of these satellites, calculates the distance of each
satellite from the receiver and then deduces its own location based on the principle of
‘trilateration’.

A GPS receiver's job is to locate four or more of these satellites, figure out the distance to each,
and use this information to deduce its own location. This operation is based on a simple
mathematical principle called trilateration. Hence, the entire mechanism of working of GPS
can be summed up under the following steps:
 I. GPS transmits a radio signal to each satellite at a known time.
II. These radio signals travel at the speed of light.
III. The system measures the time delay between the
signal transmission and signal reception
IV. This time difference helps in finding information
about the satellite’s location.
V. Similar process is repeated for each of the visible
satellites in the sky to determine the position of,
and distance to, at least three satellites.
VI. The receiver computes the position using
mathematical principle of trilateration.
VII. A GPS requires at least 3 satellites to calculate 2-D position (latitude and longitude);
while at least 4 satellites to determine receiver’s 3-D position (latitude, longitude and
altitude). The more the number of satellites visible, higher would be the accuracy of
location determined by GPS receiver.

Factors affecting GPS accuracy:

  Atmospheric Interference: Signal delays caused by ionospheric and tropospheric
conditions.
 Multipath Effects: Signal reflections from buildings or other surfaces.
 Satellite Geometry: The relative positioning of satellites impacts accuracy (Dilution
of Precision - DOP).
 Receiver Quality: High-precision receivers provide better accuracy.

GPS Satellite System around the World

Besides, United Sates, several countries have launched their own navigation system, which
shall be discussed in this section:

 Russian Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS)

 European Union Galileo positioning system
 Chinese Compass navigation system
 Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System

Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS)

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has developed an autonomous regional
satellite navigation system called as Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS).
It is a constellation of 7 satellites, and three satellites are in geostationary orbit over the Indian
Ocean. Besides military applications, the satellite would help in navigation, disaster
management and vehicle tracking. It is designed to provide accurate position information
service to users in the country as well as the region extending up to 1,500 km from its boundary,
which is its primary service area.

i. IRNSS-1A: The IRNSS-1A is the first of the 7 satellites developed by India, has a
mission life of 10 years and was launched successfully at 23:41 hrs. on 1st July 2013
SDSC Centre, Sriharikota, India using PSLV - C22 vehicle.

ii. IRNSS-1B: This satellite was successfully launched on Apr 04, 2014 and is placed at
55 deg East longitude, collocated with IRNSS-1A and GSAT-8 satellites. The
navigational system would provide two types of services -- Standard Positioning
Service, which is provided to all the users and Restricted Service, which is an encrypted
service provided only to the authorised users.
 iii. IRNSS-1C: It was launched successfully on 16 October 2014 at 1:32 am IST from
Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota and placed in geostationary orbit. It has a
lifespan of 10 years.

iv. IRNSS-1D: It waslaunched on March 28, 2015 with a lifespan of 10 years.

v. IRNSS-1E: It was launched on January 20, 2016 with a lifespan of 10 years.

vi. IRNSS-1F: It was launched on March 10, 2016with a lifespan of 10 years.

vii. IRNSS-1G: It was launched on April 28, 2016 with a lifespan of 10 years.

Applications of GPS

GPS has numerous applications across different sectors, enhancing efficiency, safety, and
accuracy in various fields.

a. Navigation

 Used in vehicles, ships, and aircraft for real-time navigation and route optimization.
 Provides turn-by-turn directions in GPS-enabled smartphones and car navigation
systems.
 Enhances maritime and aviation safety by guiding vessels and aircraft with precise
positioning data.

b. Surveying and Mapping

 Widely used in geodetic surveys to establish high-precision control points.

 Assists in topographic and cadastral mapping for urban planning and land
management.
 Supports Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for spatial data collection and
analysis.

c. Military and Defense

 GPS enables accurate targeting, navigation, and coordination in military operations.

 Used for tracking troop movements, missile guidance, and reconnaissance.
 Enhances battlefield situational awareness and strategic planning.
d. Agriculture

 Supports precision farming by guiding automated machinery for planting,

fertilization, and harvesting.
 Enables soil mapping and crop monitoring through GPS-integrated sensors and
drones.

e. Disaster Management

 Used in search and rescue operations to locate victims and coordinate relief efforts.
 Helps in mapping disaster-prone areas and monitoring environmental changes.
 Assists in tracking the movement of hurricanes, earthquakes, and floods.

f. Scientific Research

 GPS data is used for studying plate tectonics and monitoring seismic activities.
 Helps in climate research by tracking atmospheric conditions and sea-level changes.
 Enables space research and satellite tracking for astronomical studies.
 Lesson-6

Precision Agriculture: Concepts and Techniques

Precision agriculture (PA) is an advanced farming practice that utilizes modern technology to
optimize agricultural productivity while ensuring minimal resource utilization. It involves the
application of data-driven techniques, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), remote sensing,
Variable Rate Technology (VRT), and the Internet of Things (IoT) to enhance decision-making
and farming operations.

Key Concepts and Techniques in Precision Agriculture

1. Remote Sensing and GIS: These technologies provide spatial information about soil
conditions, crop health, and climatic variations, enabling farmers to take precise
actions.
2. Variable Rate Technology (VRT): Facilitates the application of inputs like fertilizers,
pesticides, and irrigation water at variable rates based on real-time field data.
3. Soil and Plant Sensors: Help in monitoring soil moisture, nutrient levels, and plant
growth, ensuring site-specific management.
4. Global Positioning System (GPS) and Automated Machinery: Allows precise field
operations, reducing overlaps and wastage of resources.
5. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Big Data Analytics: Helps in predicting crop diseases,
yield forecasting, and optimizing resource allocation.

Issues and Concerns in Indian Agriculture

Despite its potential, the adoption of precision agriculture in India faces several challenges:

1. High Initial Investment Costs: Advanced technologies require significant capital,

making them unaffordable for small and marginal farmers.
2. Lack of Technical Knowledge: Limited awareness and expertise hinder the effective
implementation of PA techniques.
3. Fragmented Land Holdings: The small size and irregular shape of farms make it
difficult to implement PA at scale.
4. Infrastructure and Connectivity Issues: Inadequate internet penetration and
unreliable electricity supply pose significant obstacles.
5. Data Management and Security: The lack of proper data collection, storage, and
analysis mechanisms limits the effectiveness of PA.
6. Government Policies and Support: While various initiatives promote PA, more
structured policies and financial incentives are needed.
 Lesson-7

Soil Test Crop Response (STCR)

Soil Test Crop Response (STCR) is a scientific methodology aimed at improving crop
productivity by applying fertilizers based on soil test results and crop response analysis. It helps
in the judicious use of fertilizers, reducing input costs, and enhancing soil health.

Principles of STCR Approach

1. Soil Testing: Analyzing soil nutrient content to determine deficiencies and excesses.
2. Crop Response Studies: Understanding how different crops respond to specific
nutrient applications.
3. Site-Specific Nutrient Management (SSNM): Applying fertilizers in the right
quantity and at the right time to meet crop demands.
4. Yield Targeting: Setting realistic yield goals and formulating fertilizer
recommendations accordingly.
5. Sustainability Considerations: Balancing short-term productivity with long-term
soil health.

Benefits of STCR Approach

1. Optimized Fertilizer Use: Reduces excessive application, leading to cost savings.

2. Enhanced Crop Productivity: Ensures that crops receive adequate nutrition for
optimal growth.
3. Improved Soil Fertility: Prevents soil degradation due to overuse or underuse of
fertilizers.
4. Environmentally Sustainable: Minimizes nutrient runoff and groundwater
contamination.
5. Data-Driven Decision Making: Uses scientific principles to guide fertilizer
recommendations.

Challenges in Implementing STCR in India

1. Limited Awareness Among Farmers: Many farmers lack knowledge of STCR-

based nutrient management.
 2. Availability of Soil Testing Facilities: Insufficient soil testing labs in rural areas
hamper widespread adoption.
3. Lack of Skilled Personnel: Need for trained agronomists to guide farmers on STCR
techniques.
4. Adoption of Digital Tools: Digital soil mapping and smart sensors need wider
integration.
5. Policy Support and Incentives: More government initiatives are required to promote
STCR-based practices.

STCR Approach for Precision Agriculture

Precision agriculture is a modern farming management concept that utilizes technology to

observe, measure, and respond to inter- and intra-field variability in crops. The integration of
the Soil Test Crop Response (STCR) approach into precision agriculture enhances the
accuracy and efficiency of fertilizer application, helping farmers optimize inputs while
maintaining environmental sustainability.

1. Complex Interactions in Agricultural Systems

 Agriculture involves a complex interaction of multiple components including:

o Seed
o Soil
o Water
o Fertilizers
o Agrochemicals
 Efficient and judicious management of these inputs is crucial to ensure:
o Sustainable agricultural productivity
o Economic viability
o Environmental protection

2. Soil Sampling for STCR

 Accurate fertilizer recommendations require precise soil nutrient data.

 Standard Soil Sampling Procedure:
 o Soil samples should be taken from field sections that are no larger than 20
acres.
o These samples help identify nutrient availability and guide input decisions.

3. Grid Soil Sampling in Precision Agriculture

 Grid Soil Sampling builds upon standard soil sampling but involves:
o Higher sampling intensity
o Dividing fields into smaller grids (e.g., 0.5 to 2.5 acres per grid)
o Each grid is sampled individually for more localized soil data
 This method ensures detailed nutrient mapping and spatial variability analysis.

4. Application Maps: Nutrient Mapping for Fields

 The primary objective of grid sampling is to generate an Application Map, which:

o Depicts the nutrient requirements of each grid
o Helps tailor fertilizer application to the specific needs of different field
sections
o Increases nutrient use efficiency and reduces waste

5. Variable Rate Technology (VRT) and Fertilizer Application

 The application map is:

o Uploaded into a computer system on board a Variable Rate Fertilizer
Spreader
 The system integrates:
o GPS technology
o On-the-go decision-making tools
o A product delivery controller that adjusts the type and amount of fertilizer

6. Role of Computer and GPS Integration

 The computer and GPS receiver work together to:

o Use the application map to guide precise fertilizer placement
o Automatically vary the rate and kind of fertilizer applied
o Match fertilizer delivery to the specific nutrient needs of each grid area
 Lesson-8

Application of Drone Technology in Agriculture

Drones, or Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), are revolutionizing modern agriculture by

providing aerial data for precision farming, monitoring crop health, and optimizing resource
use. They are becoming essential tools for farmers seeking efficiency and sustainability.

Key Applications of Drones in Agriculture

1. Crop Monitoring and Scouting: Drones equipped with multispectral cameras help
detect stress in crops early.
2. Soil and Field Analysis: UAVs assess soil conditions, enabling better land preparation
and irrigation planning.
3. Pesticide and Fertilizer Spraying: Drones facilitate precision spraying, reducing
chemical usage and environmental impact.
4. Irrigation Management: Thermal imaging helps in identifying water stress and
optimizing irrigation schedules.
5. Yield Estimation and Forecasting: Data collected by drones aid in predicting crop
yield and planning harvest strategies.
6. Disaster Management: Helps in assessing crop damage due to natural calamities and
assists in insurance claims.

Benefits of Using Drones in Agriculture

1. Time and Labor Efficiency: Reduces the need for manual labor, saving time and costs.
2. Enhanced Precision: Provides accurate and real-time data, improving decision-
making.
3. Sustainability: Reduces excessive use of water, fertilizers, and pesticides.
4. Increased Productivity: Helps in maximizing yield through better crop management.

Challenges in Drone Adoption in India

1. High Cost of Drones: Initial investment and maintenance costs can be prohibitive.
2. Regulatory Restrictions: Strict drone regulations may limit widespread usage.
3. Lack of Skilled Operators: Training is required for effective operation and data
interpretation.
4. Connectivity Issues: Limited internet access in rural areas affects real-time data
transmission.
5. Farmer Awareness and Acceptance: Traditional farming communities may be
hesitant to adopt drone technology.
 Introduction to Nanotechnology

 Nano-science
Nano-science is the study of phenomena and manipulation of materials at the atomic,
molecular, and macro-molecular scale. At these scales, material properties differ
significantly from those observed at a larger scale.
 Nano-technologies
Nano-technologies involve the design, characterization, production, and application of
structures, devices, and systems by controlling their shape and size at the nanometer
scale.
 Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology refers to the processes that construct, control, and restructure materials
and systems at the scale of atoms and molecules.
 Nano-particle
A nano-particle is a small object that functions as a whole unit in terms of its transport
and physical or chemical properties.

Properties of Nano-particles

 High mobility in free state.

 Possess enormous surface areas.
 May exhibit quantum effects.

Approaches in Nanotechnology

1. Bottom-up Approach

 In this method, materials and devices are built from molecular components.
 The components assemble themselves chemically using molecular recognition.
 Offers precise control at the atomic level and is inspired by natural biological
processes.

2. Top-down Approach

 In this approach, nano objects are constructed from larger entities.

 ypically involves mechanical or chemical processes to reduce the size of the material.
 Nano-pesticides

Nano-pesticides refer to any pesticide formulation that includes elements within the
nanometer (nm) size range (typically 1–100 nm). These formulations may exhibit novel
properties due to their small size.

Function and Composition

 Nano-pesticides are plant protection chemicals, where:

o The active ingredient or
o The carrier molecule
is developed using nanotechnology.

Objectives of Nano-pesticide Development

 Enhance efficacy of chemical pesticides.

 Reduce environmental hazards by improving delivery and minimizing waste.

Size and Impact

 Nano-particles used in nano-pesticides typically range from 1 to 100 nanometers.

 A nanometer is one-billionth of a meter.
 The extremely small size results in a large surface area, allowing:
o Better contact with pests.
o More efficient action with less chemical usage.

Nanotechnology in Pesticide Delivery

Modern agriculture is increasingly turning to nanotechnology for more efficient and targeted
pesticide delivery. Nano-formulations enhance the effectiveness of pesticides, reduce
environmental impact, and allow for controlled and sustained release.

1. Nano-emulsions

 Form: Tiny liquid droplets (20–200 nm) dispersed in water.

 Stabilization: Achieved using surfactants.
 Function: Improve dispersion, stability, and bioavailability of pesticides.
  Advantages: Quick action, enhanced penetration, lower dosage.

2. Nano-suspensions (Nano-dispersions)

 Form: Solid pesticide particles suspended in a liquid medium.

 Stabilization: Uses dispersing agents to prevent aggregation.
 Advantages: Suitable for water-insoluble pesticides, provides high stability and quick
absorption.

3. Polymer-Based Nanoparticles

 Mechanism: Encapsulate the pesticide in or on polymer matrices.

 Controlled Release: Pesticide is gradually released at the target site.
 Examples of Polymers: Chitosan, PLGA, alginate.
 Advantages: Reduced toxicity, prolonged activity, protection from degradation.

4. Nano-encapsulation

 Definition: The active ingredient (hydrophilic or hydrophobic) is enclosed within a

polymer coating or membrane.
 Function:
o Shields pesticide from environmental factors.
o Allows slow and targeted release.
 Structure: Core-shell type nanostructure.
 Advantages:
o Increased shelf life.
o Minimized leaching and volatilization.

5. Nanospheres

 Structure: Solid, homogeneous particles where the pesticide is evenly dispersed

throughout the polymer matrix.
 Function: Provide sustained release through matrix erosion or diffusion.
  Advantages:
o Uniform distribution of the active ingredient.
o High encapsulation efficiency.
o Biodegradable and non-toxic.

6. Nanogels (Hydrogel Nanoparticles)

 Definition: Soft, water-swollen nanoparticles made by crosslinking hydrophilic

polymers.
 Key Features:
o High water content.
o Stimuli-responsive behavior (e.g., pH, temperature).
 Function:
o Swell or shrink to control pesticide release.
 Advantages:
o Biocompatibility and flexibility.
o Effective in foliar sprays and soil application.

7. Nano-fibres

 Formation: Produced by techniques like electrospinning or thermally induced

phase separation.
 Structure: Long, thin fibres at nanoscale diameter.
 Function: Can incorporate pesticides into or onto the fibre.
 Applications:
o Slow-release mats or films.
o Barrier layers for pest control.
 Advantages:
o Large surface area.
o Versatile delivery options.
Advantages of Nano-Pesticides

Nanotechnology-based pesticide formulations provide numerous benefits over conventional

pesticide systems. These advantages contribute to better efficiency, reduced environmental
harm, and increased crop safety.

1. Improved Solubility of Active Ingredients

 Many pesticides are poorly water-soluble.

 Nano-formulations enhance solubility, increasing their effectiveness and uptake by
plants.

2. Better Stability of Formulation

 Nanocarriers protect the active ingredients from degradation (e.g., UV light,

temperature, pH).
 Results in longer shelf life and greater reliability in field conditions.

3. Slow and Controlled Release

 Pesticides are released gradually at the target site.

 Reduces the need for frequent application and prevents sudden toxicity.

4. Improved Mobility

 Smaller particles can move more efficiently within plant tissues and soil.
 Enhances systemic action and better pest targeting.

5. Higher Surface Area

 Nanoscale size increases surface area for interaction.

 Leads to better pesticide activity even with lower doses.

6. Uniform Leaf Coverage

 Nano-sized droplets spread evenly on plant surfaces.

 Ensures consistent protection across the crop.
7. Improved Pesticide Utilization

 Minimizes wastage due to volatilization, runoff, or degradation.

 Enhances bioavailability of the pesticide at the action site.

8. Enhanced Adhesion to Plant Surface

 Nano-formulations improve droplet adhesion and retention on leaves.

 Reduces loss due to rain or irrigation, ensuring more pesticide stays where it's needed.

9. Eco-Friendly Approach

 Reduces environmental pollution and pesticide residues in food.

 Safer for non-target organisms, including beneficial insects and soil microbes.
 Nano-Fertilizers

What are Nano-Fertilizers?

 Nano-fertilizers are fertilizers made with tiny particles (nanoparticles) that act as
carriers of nutrients.
 These carriers have a very large surface area, which allows them to hold more
nutrient ions than traditional fertilizers.
 They release nutrients slowly and steadily, based on the plant's needs.

Why Do We Need Nano-Fertilizers?

 In traditional fertilizers, only a small fraction of nutrients is actually used by plants:

o Nitrogen (N): 30–35%
o Phosphorus (P): 18–20%
o Potassium (K): 35–40%
 The rest is lost through leaching, runoff, or evaporation—causing environmental
pollution and wasting resources.

How Are Nano-Fertilizers Better?

 Higher Nutrient Efficiency

➤ More nutrients are used by plants, less is wasted.
 Gradual Release
➤ Nutrients are released slowly, matching the crop's growth cycle.
 Reduces Overuse and Pollution
➤ Prevents the side effects of excessive fertilizer use.
 Eco-Friendly
➤ Lower environmental impact and safer for long-term soil health.
 Nano-Sensors

What are Nano-Sensors?

 Nano-sensors are tiny devices that detect and respond to biological, chemical, or
physical signals at the nanoscale.
 They provide real-time monitoring by converting this information into measurable
signals.
 Used in agriculture, medicine, environmental monitoring, and food safety.

Definition

“Nano-sensors are biological, chemical, or surgical sensory devices designed to detect the
presence and behavior of nanoparticles or specific biological/chemical substances at
nanoscale levels.”

Key Features

 High sensitivity and precision

 Fast response time
 Minimal sample volume required
 Capable of detecting changes at the molecular or atomic level

Applications of Nano-Sensors

 Agriculture: Monitor soil health, nutrient levels, and plant disease early detection.
 Environmental Monitoring: Detect air and water pollutants at low concentrations.
 Medical Diagnostics: Identify pathogens, cancer cells, and biomarkers.
 Food Safety: Detect microbial contamination and chemical residues.

Advantages of Nano-Sensors

 Ultra-sensitive and highly specific

 Can be integrated into portable or wearable devices
 Enable real-time, on-site monitoring
 Require low power and minimal reagents
Types of Nano-Sensors

Type Function / Application

Semiconductor Detect changes in electrical conductivity when a target
Nanowire Sensors molecule binds
Conductive Nanowire
Used in electronic detection systems, useful in diagnostics
Sensors
Semiconducting Carbon Extremely sensitive to changes in environment; detect gases or
Nanotubes biomolecules
Carbon Nanotube
Detect bacteria, viruses, and even toxins in food/water
Sensors
Tiny vibrating levers that change frequency when a molecule
Nanocantilevers binds—used for biomarker detection or pollutant
monitoring
 Use of Nano-technology in Agriculture

1. Increase Productivity Using Nanopesticides and Nanofertilizers

 Nanopesticides: These are pesticides engineered at the nanoscale to improve their

effectiveness. They enhance pest control by targeting pests more precisely, reducing
the amount of chemicals needed, and minimizing environmental contamination.
 Nanofertilizers: Unlike conventional fertilizers, nanofertilizers provide essential
nutrients in a controlled manner, improving nutrient uptake by plants, enhancing soil
fertility, and reducing nutrient wastage.

2. Improve Soil Quality Using Nanozeolites and Hydrogels

 Nanozeolites: These are nanoporous materials that help retain nutrients in the soil,
preventing leaching and increasing nutrient availability for plants over a longer
period.
 Hydrogels: Nanostructured hydrogels are water-retaining materials that help improve
soil moisture levels. They absorb and release water as needed, making them highly
useful for drought-prone areas.

3. Stimulate Crop Growth Using Nanomaterials

 Nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes, metal oxide nanoparticles, and nano-silica

can enhance plant growth by improving seed germination, root development, and
photosynthesis efficiency.
 These nanomaterials can also help plants absorb nutrients more efficiently, leading to
healthier crops and higher yields.

4. Provide Smart Monitoring Using Nanosensors and Wireless Communication Devices

 Nanosensors: These tiny sensors can detect soil conditions, nutrient levels, pest
infestations, and environmental changes in real time.
 Wireless Communication Devices: When combined with nanosensors, wireless
devices can relay crucial agricultural data to farmers, allowing them to make informed
decisions on irrigation, fertilization, and pest control.
5. Nanotechnology for Mechanical Tillage and Soil Improvement

 Traditional mechanical tillage techniques improve soil structure by breaking

compacted soil, increasing aeration, and enhancing water infiltration.
 The addition of nanomaterials further enhances these effects by modifying the
physical properties of the soil, leading to better aggregation and porosity.

6. Impact of Nanomaterials on Soil pH and Structure

 The application of nanoparticles can modify soil pH, making it more suitable for
specific crops.
 Soil structure improvement leads to better root penetration, improved microbial
activity, and optimized nutrient absorption by plants.

7. Reduction of Heavy Metal Toxicity and Soil Erosion

 Heavy metals like lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and arsenic (As) are harmful to crops
and human health. Nanotechnology helps in:
o Reducing their mobility (so they don’t spread uncontrollably in the soil).
o Lowering their toxicity by converting them into less harmful forms.
 Soil erosion control: Nanomaterials bind soil particles together, making them less
prone to wind or water erosion.

8. Nanotechnology for Water Purification

 Nanotechnology enhances water purification by utilizing nanoscopic materials

such as:
o Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) – These are highly effective at filtering
contaminants due to their large surface area and unique properties.
o Alumina filters – These filters contain nanoporous structures that help in
nanofiltration (removing small particles and microbes).

 Zeolite filtration membranes – These membranes contain nanosized pores that allow
only clean water to pass while trapping contaminants.
 Nanocatalysts – These are used to break down harmful pollutants and organic waste
in water.
  Magnetic nanoparticles – These particles attract heavy metals and toxins, which can
then be removed easily through a magnetic separation process.

 Carbon nanotube membranes and nanofibrous alumina filters have the ability to
remove:
o Turbidity – Cloudiness in water caused by suspended particles.
o Oil and grease – Helps in treating wastewater from industries.
o Bacteria and viruses – Ensures pathogen-free drinking water.
o Organic contaminants – Removes harmful organic pollutants like pesticides
and pharmaceuticals.

9. Seed Production Challenges

 Seed production is a complex and labor-intensive process, particularly in wind-

pollinated crops (such as wheat, maize, and rice).
 Controlling pollen flow is crucial to maintaining the quality and genetic purity of
seeds.

 Detecting the pollen load that may cause contamination is essential for genetic
purity.
 Unwanted cross-pollination can lead to genetic variations, affecting seed quality and
yield.
 By monitoring pollen contamination, farmers can take preventive measures to
isolate fields or adjust planting schedules.
 Crop Discrimination and Spectral Features

Computers are currently being used to automate and expand Decision Support Systems (DSS)
in agricultural research. Recently, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing
(RS) technologies have become valuable tools in this field, particularly for crop yield
prediction, crop suitability studies, and site-specific resource allocation.

Remote sensing is an efficient technology that provides valuable information about the Earth’s
surface. It can capture images of large areas, enabling researchers to analyze agricultural fields
from a macro perspective. Imaging and non-imaging data from remote sensing help identify
and characterize different plant species based on their phenological traits.

Different crops display distinct phenological characteristics and timings based on stages such
as germination, tillering, flowering, boll formation (in cotton), and ripening. Even within the
same crop and growing season, different varieties exhibit variability in the duration and
intensity of these stages, which introduces complexity in crop type discrimination using
imaging systems. Hyperspectral data enables better characterization, classification, modeling,
and mapping of agricultural crops due to its high spectral resolution.

Feature Extraction

Feature extraction is the process of defining and isolating important image characteristics or
features that provide meaningful information for interpreting or classifying the image data.

Objectives of Feature Extraction:

 To increase the effectiveness and efficiency of classification.

 To eliminate redundant data.
 To identify useful spatial and spectral features.
 To enhance the ability to distinguish between different patterns.

For crop type discrimination, spatial features are particularly useful. Crops are often planted in
rows (single or multiple), which create unique spatial patterns that can be captured using high-
resolution satellite imagery. Spatial image classification combines spatial elements with
spectral properties to reach more accurate classification decisions. Common spatial elements
used in classification include texture, contexture, and geometry (shape).

Role of Texture in Classification

Texture plays an essential role in image classification as it enables the identification of regular
patterns, often found in man-made agricultural arrangements. This texture characteristic is
valuable for distinguishing between different land uses and crop types.

Texture analysis often involves segmenting images based on grey value relationships. Two
common methods include:

 Conventional Texture Analysis: Involves statistical and spatial pattern recognition.

 Grey Level Co-occurrence Matrix (GLCM): Measures the frequency of pixel pairs
with specific grey levels occurring at a defined spatial relationship.

Grey Level Co-occurrence Matrix (GLCM)

GLCM is a two-dimensional histogram that represents the frequency at which different

combinations of grey levels co-occur in a given spatial configuration. It allows for texture
segmentation and is widely used for classifying urban and agricultural objects.

Local Binary Pattern (LBP)

The Local Binary Pattern (LBP) is a simple yet effective texture operator that assigns a binary
value to each pixel by comparing its intensity to its surrounding neighborhood. The result is a
binary number that represents texture patterns.

LBP is known for:

 Its high discriminative power.

 Simplicity and computational efficiency.

Spatial feature extraction using LBP works effectively with high-resolution satellite imagery.
Additionally, these spatial features are helpful in visual interpretation during supervised
classification.
Spectral Features for Crop Classification

Spectral features are derived from the reflectance behavior of crops. They are crucial for
differentiating crop types based on their interaction with various wavelengths of light.

Band Selection

Band selection is a critical step in hyperspectral remote sensing. Hyperspectral sensors collect
data across hundreds of narrow spectral bands, but many of these bands may contain redundant
information.

To enhance classification accuracy and efficiency, it is important to:

 Use either supervised or unsupervised approaches to select bands.

 Study crop reflectance patterns to choose bands that offer distinct and useful
information.

Narrow Band Vegetation Indices

Vegetation indices are mathematical combinations of spectral bands designed to enhance

vegetation signals and reduce background noise. In hyperspectral remote sensing, narrow band
vegetation indices (HVIs) are especially useful.

 HVIs are capable of describing biochemical and biophysical interactions between light
and vegetation.
 They can detect specific absorption features related to plant properties.

Vegetation Properties Measured Using HVIs:

1. Structural Properties
2. Biochemical Properties
3. Plant Physiology and Stress Levels

Examples of narrow band indices include the Simple Ratio (SR) and other custom indices
tailored to hyperspectral systems. These indices help map plant health, structure, and
biochemical content more accurately.
Importance of Hyperspectral Remote Sensing

Hyperspectral remote sensing offers significant advantages in agricultural research:

 The spectrum provides the ability to study specific crop characteristics in detail.
 Non-imaging sensors with high spectral resolution (1-10 nm sampling rate) offer
precise feature identification.
 HVIs are essential for mapping and monitoring plant biophysical and biochemical
properties.
 Accurate band selection is vital for capturing relevant crop traits.

In conclusion, hyperspectral imaging and remote sensing technologies have transformed

agricultural research by providing high-resolution spatial and spectral data. This enables
precise crop classification, monitoring, and management, contributing to more efficient and
sustainable agricultural practices.
 Yield Monitoring and Soil Mapping

Introduction to Yield Monitoring

Yield monitoring refers to the process of collecting data on crop production at various stages
of growth to estimate the final yield. This is essential for decision-makers and planners to
forecast crop production accurately and make informed decisions regarding import and export
requirements well before harvest.

Traditional methods of yield estimation are often expensive, time-consuming, and prone to
large errors due to incomplete and inaccurate ground-based observations. In contrast, remote
sensing data provides a reliable, efficient, and spatially comprehensive method for monitoring
crop yields. It captures imagery and information at various scales and frequencies, allowing
continuous and widespread observation.

Different remote sensing approaches used in yield monitoring include:

Aerial Photography

 Aerial photography is used to optimize the use of agricultural resources and maintain
crop inventory.
 Black and white aerial photographs have traditionally been used to identify crops by
comparing the appearance of crops on the ground with their photographic
representation.
 Photographs are taken at various intervals during the growing season to monitor crop
changes.

Multispectral Scanners

 Multispectral scanners use computers and pattern recognition techniques to

differentiate one crop species from another.
 These scanners detect radiation in different spectral bands and help identify crop types
and monitor vegetation health.
Radar

 Radar sensors are effective for yield monitoring, particularly by detecting seasonal
changes in crops.
 Radar imagery considers various parameters such as moisture content, crop height,
and structure, which are useful for yield estimation.

Satellite Data

 Traditional models for predicting crop yield have become less reliable; remote
sensing offers a more accurate alternative.
 Satellite remote sensing provides consistent, large-scale spatial coverage and timely
data.
 India's remote sensing program began with the launch of the Indian Remote Sensing
(IRS) satellite in 1988.
 Yield estimates derived from remote sensing are indirect but increasingly precise due
to advancements in data resolution.
 Coarse resolution satellite data is currently being used as a sampling tool to improve
yield prediction models.

Soil Mapping

Soil mapping is the process of creating maps that describe the properties and distribution of
soil in a specific area. These maps are crucial for agricultural planning and land resource
management.

Soil maps are required at different scales depending on the planning level:

 1:1 million scale maps are used for macro-level national planning.
 1:250,000 scale maps are useful at the regional or state level and provide generalized
interpretations for determining agricultural suitability.
 1:50,000 scale maps, which show associations of soil series, are suitable for district-
level planning.
  1:8,000 or 1:4,000 scale maps are high-resolution and require intensive field
observations. They are often based on aerial photographs or high-resolution satellite
data.

These maps are also used to identify and manage degraded lands, such as salt-affected soils,
eroded areas, waterlogged lands, and shifting cultivation zones.

Applications of Soil Mapping through Remote Sensing

Remote sensing has significantly improved soil mapping by speeding up traditional surveys
and enhancing accuracy.

Remote Sensing for Soil and Land Degradation Mapping

 Conventional soil surveys are time-consuming and subjective.

 Remote sensing provides a synoptic view and reduces the need for extensive
fieldwork.
 Aerial photographs and satellite imagery help in identifying soil types and boundaries.

Soil Mapping Methods

 Topographic variations are used as the basis for depicting soil variability.
 Multispectral satellite data supports soil mapping up to the family association level
(1:50,000 scale).

Visual Image Interpretation

 Soil features are identified using elements such as shape, size, tone, shadow, texture,
pattern, site, and association.
 This method is cost-effective and relatively easy to implement.
 Studies have shown that remote sensing technology is particularly efficient for soil
mapping at scales of 1:50,000 and 1:10,000.
Computer Aided Approach

 With the large volume of remote sensing data, computer-aided methods are essential
for quick analysis.
 These techniques utilize spectral variations for accurate classification.
 Pattern recognition helps identify homogeneous soil areas for detailed investigation.
 One challenge in traditional soil cartography is the precise delineation of soil
boundaries, which remote sensing can improve.
 By combining remote sensing with ancillary data, better soil mapping units can be
delineated.

Conclusion

Remote sensing offers a powerful set of tools for both yield monitoring and soil mapping. It
addresses the limitations of traditional methods, enhances accuracy, and supports effective
agricultural planning at various levels. The integration of aerial photography, radar,
multispectral and hyperspectral satellite data, along with modern computational techniques, is
paving the way for smarter, data-driven agriculture.
 Simulation and Crop Modelling

A model is a schematic representation of the conception of a system or an act of mimicry or a

set of equations, which represents the behaviour of a system. Crop weather models may also
be defined as a simplified representation of the complex relationships between weather or
climate on one hand and crop performance such as growth, yield or yield components, on the
other hand by using mathematical and/or statistical techniques.

Types of models based on nature and characteristics

Models are of different types depending upon the purpose for which it is designed or used and
the supporting system developed for the same.

1. Statistical - Empirical models: These models express the relationship between yield
or yield component and weather parameters. However, the model dose not explain the
mechanism, approach and the aspects of weather parameters by which they influence
yield. The models are simple in nature, crop and location specific and do not take soil
variability, genetic potential and management into account.

2. Mechanistic models: These models explain not only the relationship between weather
parameters and yield but also explains the mechanism of influencing dependant
variables i.e. photosynthesis, leaf area development by independent variable i.e.
weather parameter such as; radiation, temperature etc.

3. Deterministic models: These models estimate/predict the exact value of the yield or
dependant variable. Usually, these are developed by mathematical techniques and have
well defined coefficients.

4. Stochastic models: These models use the value of weather parameter at some or the
other probability level. Therefore, output i.e. yield or yield components are also
estimated within a range depending upon the range or probability level of dependent
variable.

5. Static models: These models do not account time factor. Dependant and independant
both the variables are having values which remains constant over a given period of time.
 6. Dynamic models: These models are defined at a given time. They are usually, dealing
with rate variables such as evapo-transpiration, rate of photosynthesis, respiration, etc.
They are complex in nature and define yield or state of dependant variable at a given
rate or time of independent variables.

Types of models based on application

1. Statistical model: These models focus on identifying statistical relationships between

crop yields and various environmental or management factors. They are typically based
on historical data and can be used for making predictions based on observed patterns.
While easy to use, these models may not account for underlying biological processes,
limiting their accuracy.

2. Descriptive model: A descriptive model defines the behaviour of a system in a simple

manner. The model reflects little or none of the mechanisms that are the causes of
phenomena. But, consists of one or more mathematical equations. An example of such
an equation is the one derived from successively measured weights of a crop. The
equation is helpful to determine quickly the weight of the crop where no observation
was madel.

3. Explanatory model: This consists of quantitative description of the mechanisms and

processes that cause the behaviour of the system. To create this model, a system is
analyzed and its processes and mechanisms are quantified separately. The model is built
by integrating these descriptions for the entire system. It contains descriptions of
distinct processes such as leaf area expansion, tiller production, etc. Crop growth is a
consequence of these processes.

4. Simulation models: Computer models, in general, are a mathematical representation

of a real world system. One of the main goals of crop simulation models is to estimate
agricultural production as a function of weather and soil conditions as well as crop
management. These models use one or more sets of differential equations, and calculate
both rate and state variables over time, normally from planting until harvest maturity
or final harvest. Crop simulation models aim to simulate the growth and development
 of crops by integrating various process-based models with environmental data. These
are particularly useful in assessing how crops respond to changing environmental
conditions, including climate change.

5. Decision Support Systems (DSS): Decision support systems (DSS) are integrated
software packages comprising tools for processing both numerical and qualitative
information. It offers the ability to deliver the best information available, quickly,
reliably, and efficiently. The choices of planting time, varietal selection, grazing
strategies, and fertilizer, irrigation, and spray applications are complex decisions to be
made at the farm level. These are important and decisive because they cannot be
postponed, are irreversible, represent a substantial allocation of resources, and have a
wide range of outcomes, with consequences that impact the farm business for years to
come. A successful decision support system focuses on such decisions. A key element
in the success of a DSS is the development of trust in its reliability and the willingness
and ability of the targeted users to utilize the system.

Terminology frequently used in crop modelling study

1. Simulation: Process necessary for operationalizing the model or solving the model to
mimic a system behaviour is known as simulation. Developing computer logic and flow
diagram, writing the computer code and implementing the code on a computer to
produce desired outputs from analyzing the system are necessary tasks in the simulation
process.

2. Inputs: Inputs to the system are those factors in the environment that influence the
behaviour of the system but which are not influenced by the system, such as
meteorological variables. Inputs are also referred to as driving variables or forcing
functions. The choice of components and inputs for various models may differ
depending on the objectives and availability of data.

3. Output: Outputs from the system represent the characteristic behaviour of the system
that is of interest to the modeller.

4. State variables: State variables are quantities that describe the conditions of the
components of the system. They may change with time as the system components
 interacts with the environment. In dynamic models, state variables change with time.
Soil water content and crop biomass are two state variables that change with time in
most crop models. State variables of crop models are of critical importance because
these are the dynamic characteristics of a crop that are of interest to the modellers.

5. Sensitivity analysis: The purpose of sensitivity analysis is to study the behaviour of

the model. A sensitivity analysis is the process by which parameters or inputs are
evaluated with regard to their importance relative to simulation results.

Terminology associated with Model accuracy

Accuracy may be defined in terms of three progressive stages; verification, validation and
calibration.

1. Verification: Verification is the process by which the programming logic is compared

with programmer’s intentions. In other words, if one does the programming logic of the
model accurately does the model do what one intends it to do?
2. Calibration: Calibration refers to the adjustments made to the model parameters so as
to give the most accurate comparison between simulated results and results obtained
from field measurements. In other words, calibration involves the adjustment of certain
model parameters by systematically comparing simulation results to field observations.
3. Validation: Validation is the process by which a simulation model is compared to field
data not used previously in the development or calibration process. Simulated state
variables are compared with measured values of variables measured under experimental
conditions.
Steps of Modelling Process

The modeling process is cyclic and closely parallels the scientific method and the software
life cycle for the development of a major software project. The process is cyclic because at
any step we might return to an earlier stage to make revisions and continue the process from
that point. The steps of the modeling process are as follows: 

 Analyze the problem We must first study the situation sufficiently to identify the
problem precisely and understand its fundamental questions clearly. At this stage, we
determine the problem’s objective and decide on the problem’s classification, such as
deterministic or stochastic. Only with a clear, precise problem identification can we
translate the problem into mathematical symbols and develop and solve the model.

 Formulate a model In this stage, we design the model, forming an abstraction of the
system we are modeling. Some of the tasks of this step are as follows:
 Gather data We collect relevant data to gain information about the system’s
behavior.
 Make simplifying assumptions and document them In formulating a model
we should attempt to be as simple as reasonably possible. Thus, frequently we
decide to simplify some of the factors and to ignore other factors that do not
seem as important. Most problems are entirely too complex to consider every
detail, and doing so would only make the model impossible to solve or to run in
a reasonable amount of time on a computer. Moreover, factors often exist that
do not appreciably affect outcomes. Besides simplifying factors, we may decide
to return to Step 1 to restrict further the problem under investigation.
 Determine variables and units We must determine and name the variables. An
independent variable is the variable on which others depend. In many
applications, time is an independent variable. The model will try to explain the
dependent variables. For example, in simulating the trajectory of a ball, time is
an independent variable; and the height and the horizontal distance from the
initial position are dependent variables whose values depend on the time. To
simplify the model, we may decide to neglect some variables (such as air
resistance), treat certain variables as constants, or aggregate several variables
 into one. While deciding on the variables, we must also establish their units,
such as days as the unit for time.
 Establish relationships among variables and submodels If possible, we
should draw a diagram of the model, breaking it into submodels and indicating
relationships among variables. To simplify the model, we may assume that
some of the relationships are simpler than they really are. For example, we
might assume that two variables are related in a linear manner instead of in a
more complex way.
 Determine equations and functions While establishing relationships between
variables, we determine equations and functions for these variables. For
example, we might decide that two variables are proportional to each other, or
we might establish that a known scientific formula or equation applies to the
model. Many computational science models involve differential equations, or
equations involving a derivative, which we introduce in Module 2.3 on “Rate
of Change.”
 Solve the model This stage implements the model. It is important not to jump to this
step before thoroughly understanding the problem and designing the model. Otherwise,
we might waste much time, which can be most frustrating. Some of the techniques and
tools that the solution might employ are algebra, calculus, graphs, computer programs,
and computer packages. Our solution might produce an exact answer or might simulate
the situation. If the model is too complex to solve, we must return to Step 2 to make
additional simplifying assumptions or to Step 1 to reformulate the problem
 Verify and interpret the model’s solution Once we have a solution, we should
carefully examine the results to make sure that they make sense (verification) and that
the solution solves the original problem (validation) and is usable. The process of
verification determines if the solution works correctly, while the process of validation
establishes if the system satisfies the problem’s requirements. Thus, verification
concerns “solving the problem right,” and validation concerns “solving the right
problem.” Testing the solution to see if predictions agree with real data is important for
verification. We must be careful to apply our model only in the appropriate ranges for
the independent data. For example, our model might be accurate for time periods of a
few days but grossly inaccurate when applied to time periods of several years. We
should analyze the model’s solution to determine its implications. If the model solution
 shows weaknesses, we should return to Step 1 or 2 to determine if it is feasible to refine
the model. If so, we cycle back through the process. Hence, the cyclic modelling
process is a trade-off between simplification and refinement. For refinement, we may
need to extend the scope of the problem in Step 1. In Step 2, while refining, we often
need to reconsider our simplifying assumptions, include more variables, assume more
complex relationships among the variables and submodels, and use more sophisticated
techniques.
 Report on the model Reporting on a model is important for its utility. Perhaps the
scientific report will be written for colleagues at a laboratory or will be presented at a
scientific conference. A report contains the following components, which parallel the
steps of the modeling process:
 Analysis of the problem Usually, assuming that the audience is
intelligent but not aware of the situation, we need to describe the circumstances
in which the problem arises. Then, we must clearly explain the problem and the
objectives of the study.
 Model design The amount of detail with which we explain the model
depends on the situation. In a comprehensive technical report, we can
incorporate much more detail than in a conference talk. For example, in the
former case, we often include the source code for our programs. In either case,
we should state the simplifying assumptions and the rationale for employing
them. Usually, we will present some of the data in tables or graphs. Such figures
should contain titles, sources, and labels for columns and axes. Clearly labeled
diagrams of the relationships among variables and submodels are usually very
helpful in understanding the model.
 Model solution In this section, we describe the techniques for solving
the problem and the solution. We should give as much detail as necessary for
the audience to understand the material without becoming mired in technical
minutia. For a written report, appendices may contain more detail, such as
source code of programs and additional information about the solutions of
equations.
 Results and conclusions Our report should include results,
interpretations, implications, recommendations, and conclusions of the model’s
solution. We may also include suggestions for future work.
  Maintain the model: As the model’s solution is used, it may be
necessary or desirable to make corrections, improvements, or enhancements. In
this case, the modeler again cycles through the modeling process to develop a
revised solution.

Modelling in Agricultural Systems

Complexity of agricultural systems

Agricultural systems are characterized by having many organizational levels. From the
individual components within a single plant , through constituent plants, to farms or a
whole agricultural region or nation, lies a whole range of agricultural systems. Since
the core of agriculture is concerned with plants, the level that is of main interest to the
agricultural modeller is the plant. Reactions and interactions at the level of tissues and
organs are combined to form a picture of the plant that is then extrapolated to the crop
and their output. 

Models in agriculture Agricultural models are mathematical equations that represent

the reactions that occur within the plant and the interactions between the plant and its
environment. Owing to the complexity of the system and the incomplete status of
present knowledge, it becomes impossible to completely represent the system in
mathematical terms and hence, agricultural models images of the reality . Unlike in the
fields of physics and engineering, universal models do not exist within the agricultural
sector. Models are built for specific purposes and the level of complexity is accordingly
adopted. Inevitably, different models are built for different subsystems and several
models may be built to simulate a particular crop or a particular aspect of the production
system.

Principles of Successful simulation

 Simplicity
 Learn from the past
 Create a conceptual model
 Build a prototype
  Push the user’s desire
 Model to data available
 Separate data from software
 Trust your creative juices
 Fit universal constraints
 Distil your own principles

Model Uses

 Crop system management: to evaluate optimum management production for

cultural practice.
 Helps in evaluating weather risk.
 Investment decisions become qualitative
 These are resource conserving tools

Model Limitations

 Models and simulations can’t ever completely re-create real life situations
 Not every possible situation have been included in the model
 The equipment and software are expensive to purchase
 The result depends on how good the model is and how much data was used to
create it in the first place