Unit 2

Machines and Measuring Instruments

DC Generator:-
Magnetism is a property by virtue of which a piece of solid body attracts iron pieces and pieces of some other
metals. Such a piece of solid body is called a natural magnet. The two ends of a magnet are called its poles.
When such a magnet is suspended freely by a piece of a silk fiber, it turns and adjusts itself in the direction of
North and South of the earth. The end adjusting itself in the direction of North is called N pole while other is
called S pole.When such two magnets are brought near each other, their behaviour is governed by some laws
called laws of magnetism. The region around a magnet within which the influence of the magnet can be
experienced is called its magnetic field. The presence of magnetic field is represented by imaginary lines
around a magnet. These are called magnetic lines of force.
The total number of lines force existing in a particular magnetic field is called magnetic flux, denoted by a
symbol ''. It is measured in a unit weber.
1 weber = 108 lines of force
Right Hand Thumb Rule
It states that ''Hold the current carrying conductor in the right hand such that the thumb is pointing in the
direction of current and parallel to the conductor, then curled fingers point in the direction of the magnetic
field or flux around it''.
The Fig 1. explains the rule.

The right hand thumb rule : Hold the solenoid in the right hand such that curled fingers point in the direction
of the current through the curled conductor, then the outstretched thumb along the axis of the solenoid points
to the North pole of the solenoid or points in the direction of flux lines inside the core.
This is represented in the Fig.2.

Fig. 2
Principle of Operation of a D.C. Generator
All the generators works on a principle of dynamically induced e.m.f. This principle nothing but the
Faraday's law of electromagnetism induction. It states that, 'whenever the number of magnetic lines of force
i) e. flux linking with a conductor or a coil changes, an electromotive force is set up in that conductor or coil.'
The change in flux associated with the conductor can exist only when there exists a relative motion between a
conductor and the flux. The relative motion can be achieved by rotating conductor with respect to flux or by
rotating flux with respect to a conductor. So a voltage gets generated in a conductor, as long as there exists a
relative motion between conductor and the flux.
Such an induced e.m.f. which is due to the physical movement of coil or conductor with respect to flux or
movement of flux with respect to coil or conductor is called dynamically induced e.m.f.
Key Point : So a generating action requires following basic components to exist, i) The conductor or a coil
ii) The relative motion between conductor and flux.
 In a particular generator, the conductors are rotated to cut the magnetic flux, keeping flux stationary. To
have a large voltage as the output, the number of conductors are connected together in a specific manner, to
form a winding. This winding is called armature winding of a d.c. machine. The part on which this winding is
kept is called armature of a d.c. machine. To have the rotation of conductors, the conductors placed on the
armature are rotated with the help of some external device. Such an external device is called a prime mover.
The commonly used prime movers are diesel engines, steam engines, steam turbines, water turbines etc. The
necessary magnetic flux is produced by current carrying winding which is called field winding. The direction
of the induced e.m.f. can be obtained by using Fleming's right hand role.
If three fingers of a right hand, namely thumb, index finger and middle finger are outstretched so that every
one of them is at right angles with the remaining two, and if this position index finger is made to point in the
direction of lines of flux, thumb in the direction of the relative motion of the conductor with respect to flux
then the outstretched middle finger gives the direction of the e.m.f. induced in the conductor. Visually the rule
can be represented as shown in the Fig.3.

Fig. 3
This rule mainly gives direction of current which induced e.m.f. in conductor will set up when closed path
is provided to it.

The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is given by,l

E=Bxlxv
where l = Active length of conductor in m.
v = Relative velocity component of conductor in m/s in the direction perpendicular to direction of the flux.
An electric generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy. An electric generator is based on the principle that whenever
flux is cut by a conductor, an e.m.f. is induced which will cause a current to flow
if the conductor circuit is closed. The direction of induced e.m.f. (and hence
current) is given by Fleming’s right hand rule. Therefore, the essential
components of a generator are:
(a) a magnetic field
(b) conductor or a group of conductors
(c) motion of conductor w.r.t. magnetic field.

Simple Loop Generator

Consider a single turn loop ABCD rotating clockwise in a uniform magnetic field with a constant speed as
shown in Fig.(1.1). As the loop rotates, the flux linking the coil sides AB and CD changes continuously. Hence
the e.m.f. induced in these coil sides also changes but the e.m.f. induced in one coil side adds to that induced in
the other.
(i) When the loop is in position no. 1 [See Fig. 1.1], the generated e.m.f. is zero because the coil sides (AB and
CD) are cutting no flux but are moving parallel to it
(ii) When the loop is in position no. 2, the coil sides are moving at an angle to the flux and, therefore, a low
e.m.f. is generated as indicated by point 2 in Fig. (1.2).
(iii) When the loop is in position no. 3, the coil sides (AB and CD) are at right angle to the flux and are,
therefore, cutting the flux at a maximum rate. Hence at this instant, the generated e.m.f. is maximum as
indicated by point 3 in Fig. (1.2).
(iv) At position 4, the generated e.m.f. is less because the coil sides are cutting the flux at an angle.
(v) At position 5, no magnetic lines are cut and hence induced e.m.f. is zero as indicated by point 5 in Fig.
(1.2).
(vi) At position 6, the coil sides move under a pole of opposite polarity and hence the direction of generated
e.m.f. is reversed. The maximum e.m.f.in this direction (i.e., reverse direction, See Fig. 1.2) will be when the
loop is at position 7 and zero when at position 1. This cycle repeats with each revolution of the coil.

Note that e.m.f. generated in the loop is alternating one. It is because any coil side, say AB has e.m.f. in one
direction when under the influence of N-pole and in the other direction when under the influence of S-pole. If a
load is connected across the ends of the loop, then alternating current will flow through the load.The
alternating voltage generated in the loop can be converted into direct voltage by a device called commutator.
We then have the d.c. generator. In fact, a commutator is a mechanical rectifier.
Action Of Commutator:-
If, somehow, connection of the coil side to the external load is reversed at the same instant the current in the
coil side reverses, the current through the load will be direct current. This is what a commutator does. Fig.
(1.3) shows a commutator having two segments C1 and C2. It consists of a cylindrical metal ring cut into two
halves or segments C1 and C2 respectively separated by a thin sheet of mica. The commutator is mounted on
but insulated from the rotor shaft. The ends of coil sides AB and CD are connected to the segments C1 and C2
respectively as shown in Fig. (1.4). Two stationary carbon brushes rest on the commutator and lead current to
the external load. With this arrangement, the commutator at all times connects the coil side under S-pole to the
+ve brush and that under N-pole to the -ve brush.
(i) In Fig. (1.4), the coil sides AB and CD are under N-pole and S-pole respectively. Note that segment C1
connects the coil side AB to point P of the load resistance R and the segment C2 connects the coil side CD to
point Q of the load. Also note the direction of current through load. It is from Q to P.
(ii) After half a revolution of the loop (i.e., 180° rotation), the coil side AB is under S-pole and the coil side
CD under N-pole as shown in Fig. (1.5). The currents in the coil sides now flow in the reverse direction but the
segments C1 and C2 have also moved through 180° i.e., segment C1 is now in contact with +ve brush and
segment C2 in contact with -ve brush. Note that commutator has reversed the coil connections to the load i.e.,
coil side AB is now connected to point Q of the load and coil side CD to the point P of the load. Also note the
direction of current through the load. It is again from Q to P.

Thus the alternating voltage generated in the loop will appear as direct voltage across the brushes. The reader
may note that e.m.f. generated in the armature winding of a d.c. generator is alternating one. It is by the use of
commutator that we convert the generated alternating e.m.f. into direct voltage. The purpose of brushes is
simply to lead current from the rotating loop or winding to the external stationary load.
Construction of a Practical D.C. Machine:-

As stated earlier, whether a machine is d.c. generator or a motor the construction basically remains the same as
shown in the Fig. 10.

Fig.10 A cross section of typical d.c. machine

It consists of the following parts :

Yoke
a) Functions :
1. It serves the purpose of outermost cover of the d.c. machine. So that the insulating materials get
protected from harmful atmospheric elements like moisture, dust and various gases like SO2, acidic
fumes etc.
2. It provides mechanical support to the poles.
3. It forms a part of the magnetic circuit. It provides a path of low reluctance for magnetic flux. The low
reluctance path is important to avoid wastage of power to provide same flux. Large current and hence
the power is necessary if the path has high reluctance, to produce the same flux.
b) Choice of Material : To provide low reluctance path, it must be made up of some magnetic material. It is
prepared by using cast iron because it is cheapest. For large machines rolled steel, cast steel, silicon steel is
used which provides high permeability i.e. low reluctance and gives good mechanical strength.
Poles
Each pole is divided into two parts namely, I) Pole core and II) Pole shoe.
This is shown in the Fig
 Fig. Pole Structure

a) Functions of pole core and pole shoe :

a) Functions of pole core and pole shoe :
1. Pole core basically carries a field winding which is necessary to produce the flux.
2. It directs the flux produced through air gap to armature core, to the next pole.
3. Pole shoe enlarges the area of armature core to come across the flux, which is necessary to produce
larger induced e.m.f. To achieve this, pole shoe has been given a particular shape.
b) Choice of Material : It is made up of magnetic material like cast iron or cast steel. As it requires a definite
shape and size, laminated construction is used. The laminations of required size and shape are stamped
together to get a pole which is then bolted to the yoke.

Field Winding (F1-F2)

The field winding is wound on the pole core with a definite direction.
a) Functions : To carry current due to which pole core, on which the field winding is placed behaves as an
electromagnet, producing necessary flux.
As it helps in producing the magnetic field i.e. exciting the pole as an electromagnet it is called Field
winding or Exciting winding.
b) Choice of material : It has to carry current hence obviously made up of some conducting material. So
aluminium or copper is the choice. But field coils are required to take any type of shape and bend about pole
core and copper has good pliability i.e. it can bend easily. So copper is the proper choice.
Note : Field winding is divided into various coils called field coils. These are connected in series with each
other and in such a direction around pole cores, such that alternate 'N' and 'S' poles are formed.
By using right hand thumb rule for current carrying circular conductor, it can be easily determined that
how a particular core is going to behave as 'N' or 'S' for a particular winding direction around it. The direction
of winding and flux can be observed in the Fig .

Armature
It is further divided into two parts namely,
I) Armature core and II) Armature winding
I) Armature core : Armature core is cylindrical in shape mounted on the shaft. It consists of slots on its
periphery and the air ducts to permit the air flow through armature which serves cooling purpose.
a) Functions :
1. Armature core provides house for armature winding i.e. armature conductors.
2. To provide a path of low reluctance to the magnetic flux produced by the field winding.
b) Choice of Material : As it has to provide a low reluctance path to the flux, it is made up of magnetic
material like cast iron or cast steel.
It is made up of laminated construction to keep eddy current loss as low as possible. A single circular
lamination used for the construction of the armature core is shown in the Fig.11.
 Fig. 11 Single Circular lamination of Armature core

II) Armature winding : Armature winding is nothing but the interconnection of the armature conductors,
placed in the slots provided on the armature core periphery. When the armature is rotated, in case of generator,
magnetic flux gets cut by armature conductors and e.m.f. gets induced in them.
a) Functions :
1. Generation of e.m.f takes place in the armature winding in case of generators.
2. To carry the current supplied in case of d.c. motors.
3. To do the useful work in the external circuit.
b) Choice of material : As armature winding carries entire current which depends on external load, it has to
be made up of conducting material, which is copper.
Armature winding is generally former wound. The conductors are placed in the armature slots which are
lined with tough insulating material.

Commutator
We have seen earlier that the basic nature of e.m.f. induced in the armature conductors is alternating. This
needs rectification in case of d.c. generator, which is possible by a device called commutator.
a) Functions :
1. To facilitate the collection of current from the armature conductors.
2. To convert internally developed alternating e.m.f. to unidirectional (d.c.) e.m.f.
3. To produce unidirectional torque in case of motors.
b) Choice of material : As it collects current from armature, it is also made up of copper segments.
It is cylindrical in shape and is made up of wedge shaped segments of the hard drawn, high conductivity
copper. These segments are insulated from each other by thin layer of mica. Each commutator segment is
connected to the armature conductor by means of copper lug or strip. This connection is shown in the Fig. 12.

Fig. 12 Commutator

Brushes and Brush Gear

Brushes are stationary and resting on the surface of the commutator.
a) Function : To collect current from commutator and make it available to the stationary external circuit.
b) Choice of material : Brushes are normally made up of soft material like carbon.
Brushes are rectangular in shape. They are housed in brush holders, which are usually of box type. The
brushes are made to press on the commutator surface by means of a spring, whose tension can be adjusted with
the help of lever. A flexible copper conductor called pig tail is used to connect the brush to the external circuit.
To avoid wear and tear of commutator, the brushes are made up of soft material like carbon.
Bearings
Ball-bearings are usually used as they are more reliable. For heavy duty machines, roller bearings are
prederred.
We have seen that there are number of armature conductors, which are connected in specific manner as per the
requirements, which is called armature winding. According to the way of connecting the conductors, armature
winding has basically two types namely,
a) Lap winding b) Wave winding

Lap winding
 In this case, if connection is started from conductor in slot 1 then connections overlap each other as
winding proceeds, till starting point is reached again.
Developed view of part of the armature winding in lap fashion shown in the Fig. 13.

Fig. 13 Lap Winding

As seen from the Fig. 13, there is overlapping of coils while proceeding.
Note : Due to such connection, the total number of conductors get divided into 'P' number of parallel paths,
where P = number of pole sin the machine.
Large number of parallel paths indicate high current capacity machine hence lap winding is preferred for
high current rating generators.
Wave Winding
In this type of connection, winding always travels ahead avoiding overlapping. It travel like a progressive
wave hence called wave winding. To get an idea of wave winding a part of armature winding in wave fashion
is shown in the Fig. 14.

Fig. 14 Wave winding

Both coils starting from slot 1 and slot 2 are progressing in wave fashion.
Note : Due to this type of connection, the total number of conductors get divided into two number of parallel
paths always, irrespective of number of poles of the machine. As number of parallel paths are less, it is
preferrable for low current, high voltage capacity generators.
The number of parallel paths in which armature conductors are divided due to lap or wave fashion of
connection is denoted as A. So A = P for lap connection and A = 2 for wave connection.
Comparison of Lap and Wave Type Winding

E.M.F. Equation of D.C. Generator:-

Let P = Number of poles of the generator
Φ = Flux produced by each pole in webers (Wb)
N = Speed of armature in r.p.m.
Z = Total Number of Armature Conductors
A = Number of parallel paths in which the 'Z' number of conductors are divided
So A = P for lap type of winding
A = 2 for wave type of winding
Now e.m.f. gets induced in the conductor according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. Hence
average value of e.m.f. induced in each armature conductor is,
e = Rate of cutting the flux = dΦ/dt
Now consider one revolution of conductor. In one revolution, conductor will cut total flux produced by all
the poles i.e. Φ x P. While time required to complete one revolution is 60/N seconds as speed is N r.p.m.

This is the e.m.f. induced in one conductor. Now the conductors in one parallel path are always in series.
There are total Z conductor with A parallel paths, hence Z/A number of conductors are always in series and
e.m.f. remains same across all the parallel paths.
... Total e.m.f. can be expressed as,

This is nothing but the e.m.f. equation of a d.c. generator.

******
 DC Motor
1. Introduction
A motor is a device which converts an electrical energy into the mechanical energy . The energy
conversion process is exactly opposite to that involved in a d.c. generator. In a generator the input mechanical
energy is supplied by a prim mover while in a d.c. motor, input electrical energy is supplied by a d.c. supply.
The construction of a d.c. machine is same whether it is a motor or a generator.
2. Principle of Operation of a D.C. Motor
The principle of operation of a d.c. motor can be stated in a single statement as 'when a current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field' it experiences a mechanical force'. In a practical d.c. motor, field
winding produces a required magnetic field while armature conductors play a role of a current carrying
conductors and hence armature conductors experience a force. As a conductors are placed in the slots which
are in the periphery, the individual force experienced by the conductors acts as a twisting or turning force on
the armature which is called a torque. The torque is the product of force and the radius at which this force acts.
So overall armature experiences a torque and starts rotating. Let us study this motoring action in detail.
Consider a single conductor placed in a magnetic field as shown in the Fig .1(a). The magnetic field is
produced by a permanent magnet but in a practical d.c. motor it is produced by the field winding when it
carries a current.

Fig. 1
Now this conductor is excited by a separate supply so that it carries a current in a particular direction. Consider
that it carries a current away from an observe as shown in the Fig. 1(b). Any current carrying conductor
produces its own magnetic field around it. hence this conductor also produces its own flux, around. The
direction of this flux can be determined by right hand thumb rule. For direction of current considered, the
direction of flux around a conductor is clockwise. For simplicity of understanding, the main flux produced by
the permanent magnet is not shown in the Fig. 1(b).
Now there are two fluxes present,
1. The flux produced by the permanent magnet called flux.
2. The flux produced by the current carrying conductor.
There are shown in the Fig.2(a). Form this, it is clear that on one side of the conductor, both the fluxes are
in same direction. In this case, on the left of the conductor there is gathering of the flux lines as two fluxes help
each other. As against this, on the right of the conductor, the two fluxes are in opposite direction and hence try
to cancel each other. Due to this, the density of the flux lines in this area gets weakened.

So on the left, there exists high flux density area while on the right of the conductor there exists low flux
density area as shown in the Fig. 2(b).

Fig. 2
 This flux distribution around the conductors acts like a stretched rubber band under tension. This exerts a
mechanical force on the conductor which acts from high flux density area towards low flux density area. i.e.
from left to right for the case considered as shown in the Fig. 2(b).

Fig. 3

Key point : In the practical d.c. motor, the permanent magnet is replaced by a field winding which produces
the required flux called main flux and all the armature conductors, mounted on the periphery of the armature
drum, get subjected to the mechanical force. Due to this, overall armature experiences a twisting force called
torque and armature of the motor starts rotating.
Direction of Rotation of Motor
The magnitude of the force experienced by the conductor in a motor is given by,
F = B l I Newton (N)
B = Flux density due to the flux produced by the field winding.
l = Active length of the conductor.
I = Magnitude of the current passing through the conductor.
The direction of such force i.e. the direction of rotation of a motor can be determined by Fleming's left
hand. So Fleming's right hand rule is to determine direction of induced e.m.f. i.e. for generating action while
Fleming's left hand rule is to determine direction of force experienced i.e. for motoring action.
It is seen in the generation action, that when a conductor cuts the lines of flux, e.m.f. gets induced in the
conductor. The question is obvious that in a d.c. motor, after a motoring action, armature starts rotating and
armature conductors cut the main flux. So is there a generating action existing in a motor ? The answer to this
question is 'Yes'.
After a motoring action, there exists a generating action. There is an induced e.m.f. in the rotating
armature conductors according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. This induced e.m.f. in the
armature always acts in the opposite direction of the supply voltage. This is according to the Lenz's law which
states that the direction of the induced e.m.f. is always so as to oppose the cause producing it. In a d.c. motor,
electrical input i.e. the supply voltage is the cause and hence this induced e.m.f. opposes the supply voltage.
This e.m.f. tries to set up a current through the armature which is in the opposite direction to that, which
supply voltage is forcing through the conductor.
So as this e.m.f. always opposes the supply voltage, it is called back e.m.f. and denoted as E b. Though it is
obtained as Eb, basically it gets generated by the generation action which we have seen earlier in case of
generation. So its magnitude can be determined by the e.m.f. equation which is derived earlier. So,

where all symbols carry the same meaning as seen earlier in case of generators.

Fig. 4
 This e.m.f. is shown schematically in the Fig. 4(a). So if V is supply voltage in volts and Ra is the value of
the armature resistance, the equivalent electric circuit can be shown as in the Fig. 4(b).
Voltage Equation of a D.C. Motor
In case of a generator, generated e.m.f. has to supply armature resistance drop and remaining part is
available across the load as a terminal voltage. But in case of d.c. motor, supply voltage V has to overcome
back e.m.f. which is opposing V and also various drops as armature resistance drop, brush drop etc. Infact the
electrical work done in overcoming the back e.m.f. gets converted into the mechanical energy developed in the
armature. Hence the voltage equation of a d.c. motor can be written as,

Neglecting the brush drop, the generalised voltage equation is,

V = Eb + Ia Ra
The back e.m.f. is always less than supply voltage (Eb < V). But is very small hence under normal running
conditions, the difference between back e.m.f. and supply voltage is very small. The net voltage across the
armature is the difference between the supply voltage and back e.m.f. which decides the armature current.
Hence from the voltage equation we can write,

Key Point : Voltage equations gets changed a little bit depending upon the type of the motor, which is
discussed later.
Torque Equation of a D.c. Motor
It is seen that the turning or twisting force about an axis is called torque. Consider a wheel of radius R meters
acted upon by a circumferential force F newtons as shown in the Fig. 5.

Fig. 5
The wheel is rotating at a speed of N r.p.m. Then angular speed of the wheel is,
ω = (2πN)/60 rad/sec
So workdone in one revolution is,
W = F x distance travelled in one revolution
= F x 2 R joules
And P = Power developed = Workdone/Time
= (F x 2πR) / (Time for 1 rev) = (F x 2πR) / (60/N) = (F x R) x (2πN/60)
... P = T x ω watts
Where T = Torque in N - m
ω = Angular speed in rad/sec.
Let Ta be the gross torque developed by the armature of the motor. It is also called armature torque. The

gross mechanical power developed in the armature is E b Ia, as seen from the power equation. So if speed of the
motor is N r.p.m. then,
Power in armature = Armature torque x ω
... Eb Ia = x (2N/60)
but Eb in a motor is given by,
Eb = (ΦPNZ) / (60A)
... (ΦPNZ / 60A) x Ia = Ta x (2πN/60)

This is the torque equation of a d.c. motor.

Applications of D.C. Motors
Instead of just stating the applications, the behaviour of the various characteristicslike speed, starting torque
etc., which makes the motor more suitable for the applications, is also stated in the Table .1
 Single Phase Transformer
Introduction
The main advantage of alternating currents over direct current is that, the alternating currents can be easily
transferable from low voltage to high voltage or high voltage to low. Alternating voltages can be raised or
lowered as per requirements in the different stages of electrical network as generation, transmission,
distribution and utilization. This is possible with a static device called transformer. The transformer works on
the principle of mutual induction. It transfer an electric energy from one circuit to other when there is no
electrical connection between the tow circuits. Thus we can define transformer as below :
Key point : The transformer is a static piece of apparatus by means of which an electrical power is
transformed from one alternating current circuit to another with the desired change in voltage and current,
without any change in the frequency.
The use of transformers in transmission system is shown in the Fig 1.1.

Principle of working
The principle of mutual induction states that when tow coils are inductively coupled and if current in one
coil is changed uniformly then an e.m.f. gets induced in the other coil. This e.m.f can drive a current, when a
closed path is provided to it. The transformer works on the same principle. In its elementary form, it consists
of tow inductive coils which are electrically separated but linked through a common magnetic circuit. The two
coils have high mutual inductance. The basic transformer is shown in the Fig 1.
One of the two coils is connected to source of alternating voltage. This coil in which electrical energy is
fed with the help of source called primary winding (P). The other winding is connected to load. The electrical
energy transformed to this winding is drawn out to the load.

Fig. 2 Basic transformer

Fig 3 Symbolic representation

This winding is called secondary winding (S). The primary winding has N1 number of turns while the
secondary winding has N2 number of turns. Symbolically the transformer is indicated as shown in the Fig 1.3.
When primary winding is excited by an alternating voltage, it circulates an alternating current. This
current produces an alternating flux (Φ)which completes its path through common magnetic core as shown
dotted in the Fig 2. Thus an alternating, flux links with the secondary winding. As the flux is alternating,
according to Faraday's law of an electromagnetic induction, mutually induced e.m.f. gets developed in the
secondary winding. If now load is connected to the secondary winding, this e.m.f. drives a current through it.
Thus through there is no electrical contact between the two windings, an electrical energy gets transferred from
primary to the secondary.
Key point : The frequency of the mutual induced e.m.f. is same as that of the alternating source which is
supplying energy to the primary winding.

1. Can D.C. Supply be used for Transformer?

The d.c. supply can not be used for the transformers.
The transformer works on the principle of mutual induction, for which current in one coil must change
uniformly. If d.c. supply is given, the current will not change due to constant supply and transformer will not
work.
Practically winding resistance is very small. For d.c., the inductive reactance X L is zero as d.c. has no
frequency. So total impedance of winding is very low for d.c. Thus winding will draw very high current if d.c.
supply is given to it. This may cause the burning of windings due to extra heat generated and may cause
permanent damage to the transformer.
There can be saturation of the core due to which transformer draws very large current from the supply
when connected to d.c.
Thus d.c. supply should not be connected to the transformers.
There are two basic parts of a transformer i) Magnetic Core ii) Winding or Coils.
The core of the transformer is either square or rectangular in size. It is further divided into tow parts. The
vertical position on which coils are wound is called limb while the top and bottom horizontal portion is called
yoke of the core. These parts are shown in the Fig.4(a).
Core is made up of lamination. Because of laminated type of construction, eddy current losses get
minimised. Generally high grade silicon steel laminations (0.3 to 0.5 mm thick) are used. These laminations
are insulated from each other by using insulation like varnish. All laminations are varnished. Laminations are
overlapped so that to avoid the air gap at joints. For this generally 'L' shaped or 'I' shaped laminations are used
which are shown in the Fig 4(b).

Fig.4 Construction of transformer

The cross-section of the limb depends on the type of coil to be used either circular or rectangular. The
different cross-section of limbs, practically used are shown in the Fig. 5.

Fig. 5 Different cross-sections

Types of Windings
The coils used are wound on the limbs and are insulated from each other. In the basic transformer shown
in the Fig 2 (see post : Working Principle of 1-Phase Transformer ) the two windings wound are shown on two
different limbs i.e. primary on one limb while secondary on other limb. But due to this leakage flux increases
which effects the transformer performance badly. Similarly it is necessary that the windings should be very
closes to each other to have high mutual inductance. To achieve this, the tow windings are split into number of
coils and are wound adjacent to each other on the same limb. A very common arrangement is cylindrical coils
as shown in the Fig. 6.
 Fig. 6 Cylindrical concentric coils

Such cylindrical coils are used in the core type transformer. Theses coils are mechanically strong. These
are wound in the helical layers. The different layers are insulated from each other by paper, cloth or mica. The
low voltage winding is placed near the core from ease of insulating it from the core. The high voltage is placed
after it.
The other type of coils which is very commonly used for the shell type of transformer is sandwiching
coils. Each high voltage portion lies between the two low voltage portion sandwiching the high voltage
portion. Such subdivision of windings into small portion reduces the leakage flux. Higher the degree of
subdivision, smaller is the reactance. The sandwich coil is shown in the Fig. 7. The top and bottom coils are
low voltage coils. All the portion are insulated from each other by paper.

Fig. 7 Sandwich coil

The various constructions used for the single phase transformers are,
1. Core type 2. shell type and 3. Berry type
1. Core Type Transformer
It has a single magnetic circuit. The core rectangular having two limbs. The winding encircles the core.
The coils used are of cylindrical type. As mentioned earlier, the coils are wound in helical layers with different
layers insulated from each other by paper or mica. Both the coils are placed on both the limbs. The low voltage
coil is placed inside near the core while high voltage coil surrounds the low voltage coil. Core is made up of
large number of thin laminations.
As The windings are uniformly distributed over the two limbs, the natural cooling is more effective. The
coils can be easily removed by removing the laminations of the top yoke, for maintenance.
The Fig. 8(a) shows the schematic representation of the core type transformer while the Fig 8(b) shows the
view of actual construction of the core type transformer.

Fig. 8 Core type transformer

2. Shell Type Transformer
It has a double magnetic circuit. The core has three limbs. Both the windings are placed on the central
limb. The core encircles most part of the windings. The coils used are generally multilayer disc type or
sandwich coils. As mentioned earlier, each high voltage coil is in between tow low voltage coils and low
voltage coils are nearest to top and bottom of the yokes.
The core is laminated. While arranging the laminations of the core, the care is taken that all the joints at
alternate layers are staggered. This is done to avoid narrow air gap at the joint, right through the cross-section
of the core. Such joints are called over lapped or imbricated joint. Generally for very high voltage
transformers, the shell type construction is preferred. As the windings are surrounded by the core, the natural
cooling does not exist. For removing any winding for maintenance, large number of laimnations are required
to be removed.
The Fig. 9(a) shows the schematic representation while the Fig. 9(b) shows the outaway view of the
construction of the shell type transformer.

Fig 9 Shell type transformer

3. Berry Type Transformer

This has distributed magnetic circuit. The number of independent magnetic circuits are more than 2. Its
core construction is like spokes of a wheel. Otherwise it is symmetrical to that of shell type.
Diagramatically it can be shown as in the Fug. 10.

Fig. 10 Berry type transformer

E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer:-

When the primary winding is excited by an alternating voltage V 1, it circulates alternating current, producing
an alternating flux Φ. The primary winding has N1 number of turns. The alternating flux Φ linking with the
primary winding itself induces an e.m.f in it denoted as E 1. The flux links with secondary winding through the
common magnetic core. It produces induced e.m.f. E2 in the secondary winding. This is mutually induced
e.m.f. Let us derive the equations for E1 and E2.
The primary winding is excited by purely sinusoidal alternating voltage. Hence the flux produced is also
sinusoidal in nature having maximum value of Φ m as show in the Fig. 11.

Fig. 11 Sinusoidal flux

The various quantities which affect the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. are :
Φ = Flux
Φm = Maximum value of flux
N1 = Number of primary winding turns
N2 = Number of secondary winding turns
f = Frequency of the supply voltage
E1 = R.M.S. value of the primary induced e.m.f.
E2 = R.M.S. value of the secondary induced e.m.f.
From Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction the voltage e.m.f. induced in each turn is proportional to
the average rate of change of flux.
... average e.m.f. per turn = average rate of change of flux
 ... average e.m.f. per turn = dΦ/dt
Now dΦ/dt = Change in flux/Time required for change in flux
Consider the 1/4 th cycle of the flux as shown in the Fig.1. Complete cycle gets completed in 1/f seconds.
In 1/4 th time period, the change in flux is from 0 to Φm.
dΦ/dt = (Φm - 0)/(1/4f) as dt for 1/4 th time period is 1/4f seconds
= 4 f Φm Wb/sec
... Average e.m.f. per turn = 4 f Φm volts
As is sinusoidal, the induced e.m.f. in each turn of both the windings is also sinusoidal in nature. For
sinusoidal quantity,
From factor = R.M.S. value/Average value = 1.11
.
. . R.M.S. value of induced e.m.f. per turn
= 1.11 x 4 f Φm = 4.44 f Φm
There are number of primary turns hence the R.M.S value of induced e.m.f. of primary denoted as is E1,
E1 = N1 x 4.44 f Φm volts
While as there are number of secondary turns the R.M.S values of induced e.m.f. of secondary denoted is
E2 is,
E2 = N2 x 4.44 f Φm volts
The expression of E1 and E2 are called e.m.f. equation of a transformer.
Thus e.m.f. equations are,
E1 = 4.44 f Φm N1 volts ....................... (1)
E2 = 4.44 f Φm N2 volts ........................ (2)
Voltage Ratio
We known from the e.m.f. equations of a transformer that
E1 = 4.44 f Φm N1 and E2 = 4.44 f Φm N2
Taking ratio of the two equations we get,

This ratio of secondary induced e.m.f. to primary induced e.m.f. is known as voltage transformation ratio
denoted as K,
Thus,

1. If N2 > N1 i.e. K > 1, E2 > E1 we get then the transformer is called step-up transformer.
2. If N2 < N1 i.e. K < 1, we get E2 < E1 then the transformer is called step-down transformer.
3. If = i.e. K= 1, we get E2 = E1 then the transformer is called isolation transformer or 1:1 transformer.
the transformer.

Principle and operation of Induction Motor

1. Introduction
An electric motor is a device which converts an electrical energy into a mechanical energy. The motors
operating on a.c. supply are called a.c. motor. As a.c. supply is commonly available, the a.c. motors are very
popularly used in practice. The a.c. motors are classified as three phase induction motors, single phase
induction motor, universal motors, synchronous motors etc. The three phase induction motors are widely used
for various industrial application. The important features of three phase induction motors are self starting,
higher power factor, good speed regulation and robust construction. This chapter explains the construction,
working principle and characteristics of three phase induction motors as well as universal motors. The working
of three phase induction motors is based on the principle of rotating magnetic field. Let us discuss, the
production of rotating magnetic field.
1. Rotating Magnetic field (R.M.F.)
The rotating magnetic field can be defined as the field or flux having constant amplitude but whose axis is
continuously rotating in a plane with a certain speed. So if the arrangement is made to rotate a permanent
magnet, then the resulting field is a rotating magnetic field. But ion this method, it is necessary to rotate a
magnet physically to produce rotating magnetic field.
 But in three phase induction motors such a rotating magnetic field is produced by supplying currents to a
set of stationary windings, with the help of three phase a.c. supply. The current carrying windings produce the
magnetic field or flux. And due to interaction of three phase fluxes produced due to three phase supply,
resultant flux has a constant magnitude and its axis rotating in space, without physically rotating the windings.
This type of field is nothing but rotating magnetic field. Let us study how it happens.
Construction
Basically the induction motor consists of two main parts, namely

1. The part i.e. three phase windings,which is stationary called stator.

2. The part which rotates and is connected to the mechanical load through shaft called rotor.
The conversion of electrical power to mechanical power takes place in a rotor. Hence rotor develops a
driving torque and rotates.

Stator
The stator has a laminated type of construction made up of stampings which are 0.4 to 0.5 mm thick. The
stampings are slotted in its periphery to carry the stator winding. The stampings are insulated from each other.
Such a construction essentially keeps the iron losses to a minimum value. The number of stampings are
stamped together to build the stator core. The built up core is then fitted in a casted or fabricated steel frame.
The choice of material for the stampings is generally silicon steel, which minimises the hysteresis loss. The
slots in the periphery of the stator core carries a three phase winding, connected either in star or delta. This
three phase winding is called stator winding. It is wound for definite number of poles. This winding when
excited by a three phase supply produces a magnetic rotating field as discussed earlier. The choice of number
of poles depends on the speed of the rotating magnetic field required. The radial ducts are provided for the
cooling purpose. In some cases, all the six terminals of three phase stator winding are brought out which gives
flexibility to the user to connect them either in star or delta. The Fig. 1 shows a stator lamination.

Fig. 1 Stator lamination

Rotor
The rotor is placed inside the stator. The rotor core is also laminated in construction and uses cast iron. It
is cylindrical, with slots on its periphery. The rotor conductors or winding is placed in the rotor slots. The two
typed of rotor constructions which are used for induction motors are,
1. Squirrel cage rotor and
2. Slip ring wound rotor
The rotor core is cylindrical and slotted on its periphery. The rotor consists of uninsulated copper or
aluminium bars called rotor conductors. The bars are placed in the slots. These bars are permanently shorted at
each end with the help of conducting copper ring called end ring. The bars are usually brazed to the end rings
to provide good mechanical strength. The entire structure looks like a cage, forming a closed electrical circuit.
So the rotor is called squirrel cage rotor. The construction is shown in the Fig. 2.
 Fig. 2 Squirrel cage rotor

As the bars are permanently shorted to each other through end ring, the entire rotor resistance is very very
small. Hence this rotor is also called short circuited rotor. As rotor itself is short circuited, no external
resistance can have any effect on the rotor resistance. Hence no external resistance can be introduced in the
rotor circuit. So slip ring and brush assembly is not required for this rotor. Hence the construction of this rotor
is very simple. Fan blades are generally provided at the ends of the rotor core. This circulates the air through
the machine while operation, providing the necessary cooling. The air gap between stator and rotor is kept
uniform and as small as possible. In this type of rotor, the slots are not arranged parallel to the shaft axis but
are skewed as shown in the Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Skewing in rotor construction

The advantages of skewing are,

1. A magnetic hum i.e. noise gets reduced due to skewing hence skewing makes the motor operation
quiter.
2. It makes the rotor operation smooth.
3. The stator and rotor teeth may get magnetically locked. Such a tendency of magnetic locking gets
reduced due to skewing.
4. It increases the effective transformation ratio between stator and rotor.
Slip Ring or Wound Rotor:-In this type of construction, rotor winding is exactly similar to the stator. The rotor
carries a three phase star or delta connected, distributed winding, wound for same number of poles as that of
stator. The rotor construction is laminated and slotted. The slots contain the rotor winding. The three ends of
three phase winding, available after connecting the winding in star or delta, are permanently connected to the
slip rings. The slip rings are mounted on the same shaft. We have seen that slip slip rings are used to connect
external stationary circuit to the internal rotating circuit. So in this type of rotor, the external resistances can be
added with the help of brushes and slip ring arrangement, in series with each phase of the rotor winding. This
arrangement is shown in the Fig.4.

Fig. 4 Slip rings or wound rotor

Key point : This way the value of rotor resistance per phase ca be controlled. This helps us to control some of
the important characteristics of the motor like starting torque, speed etc.
In the running condition, the slip rings are shorted. This is possible by connecting a metal collar which
gets pushed and connects all the slip rings together, shorting them. At the same time brushes are also lifted
from the slip rings. This avoids wear and tear of the brushes due to friction. The possibility of addition of an
external resistance in series with the rotor, with the help of slip sings is the main feature of this type of rotor.

Comparison of Squirrel Cage and Wound Rotor

Working Principle
Induction motor works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
When a three phase supply is given to the three phase stator winding, a rotating magnetic field of constant
magnitude is produced as discussed earlier. The speed of this rotation magnetic field is synchronous speed
Ns r.p.m.

Where f = supply frequency.

p = Number of poles for which stator winding is wound.
This rotating field produces an effect of rotating poles around a rotor. Let direction of rotation of this
rotating magnetic field is clockwise as shown in the Fig. 5(a).

Fig. 5

Now at this instant rotor is stationary and stator flux R.M.F. is rotating. So its obvious that there exists a
relative motion between the R.M.F. and rotor conductors. Now the R.M.F. gets cut by rotor conductors as
R.M.F. sweeps over rotor conductors. Whenever conductors cuts the flux, e.m.f. gets induced in it. So e.m.f.
gets induced in the rotor conductors called rotor induced e.m.f. This is electro-magnetic induction. As rotor
forms closed circuit, induced e.m.f. circulates current through rotor called rotor current as shown in the
Fig.5(b). Let direction of this current is going into the paper denoted by a cross as shown in the Fig. 5(b).
Any current carrying conductor produces its own flux. So rotor produces its flux called rotor flux. For
assumed direction of rotor current, the direction of rotor flux is clockwise as shown in the Fig. 1(c). This
direction can be easily determined using right hand thumb rule. Now there are two fluxes, one R.M.F. and
other rotor flux. Both the fluxes interact with each as shown in the Fig. 5(d). On left of rotor conductor, two
fluxes cancel each other to produce low flux area. As flux lines act as stretched rubber band, high flux density
area exerts a push on rotor conductor towards low flux density area. So rotor conductor experience a force
from left to right in this case, as shown in the Fig. 5(d), due to interaction of the two fluxes.
As all the rotor conductors experience a force, the overall rotor experiences a torque and starts rotating.
So interaction of the two fluxes is very essential for a motoring action. As seen from the Fig. 1(d), the direction
of force experienced is same as that of rotating magnetic field. Hence rotor starts rotating in the same direction
as that of rotating magnetic field.

Fig 5 (d)
Alternatively this can be explained as : according to Lenz's law the direction of induced current in the
rotor is so as to oppose the cause producing it. The cause of rotor current is the induced e.m.f. which is induced
because of relative motion present between the rotating magnetic field and the rotor conductors. Hence to
oppose the relative motion i.e. to reduce the relative speed, the rotor experiences a torque in the same direction
as that of R.M.F. and tries to catch up the speed of the rotating magnetic field.
So, Ns = Speed of rotating magnetic field in r.p.m.
N = Speed of rotor i.e. motor in r.p.m.
Ns - N = Relative speed between the two, rotating magnetic field and the rotor conductors.
Thus rotor always rotates in same direction as that of R.M.F.
Can N = Ns ?
When rotor starts rotating, it tries to catch the speed of rotating magnetic field.
If it catches the speed of the rotating magnetic field, the relative motion between rotor and the rotating
magnetic field will vanish ( Ns - N = 0). In fact the relative motion is the main cause for the induced e.m.f. in
the rotor. So induced e.m.f. will vanish and hence there can not be rotor current and the rotor flux which is
essential to produce the torque on the rotor. Eventually motor will stop. But immediately there will exist a
relative motion between rotor and rotating magnetic field and it will start. But due to inertia of rotor, this does
not happen in practice and motor continues to rotate with a speed slightly less than the synchronous speed of
the rotating magnetic field in the steady state. The induction motor never rotates at synchronous speed. The
speed at which it rotates is hence called subsynchronous speed and motor sometimes called synchronous
motor.
... N < Ns
So it can be said that rotor slips behind the rotating magnetic field produced by stator. The difference
between the two is called slip speed of the motor.
Ns - N = Slip speed of the motor in r.p.m.
This speed decides the magnitude of the induction e.m.f. and the rotor current, which in turn decides the
torque produced. The torque produced is as per the requirements of overcoming the friction and iron losses of
the motor along with the torque demanded by the load on the rotor.
 Applications of Electrical Machines:
Certainly! Electric machines play a crucial role in various applications across different
industries. Let’s explore some of these applications:
1. Power Generation: Electric machines, such as generators and alternators, are essential for
producing electricity. They convert mechanical energy (from sources like turbines driven
by wind, water, or steam) into electrical energy. This electricity is then distributed to
homes, businesses, and industries.
2. Industrial Machinery: Electric motors are widely used in industrial settings. They power
machinery, conveyors, pumps, fans, and other equipment. These motors provide efficient
and reliable mechanical energy for manufacturing processes.
3. Transportation: Electric machines are integral to various modes of transportation:
o Electric Cars: Electric motors drive electric vehicles (EVs), providing propulsion
and enabling zero-emission transportation.
o Trains: Electric locomotives use electric motors for efficient rail transport.
o Ships: Electric propulsion systems are increasingly used in ships and submarines.
4. Household Appliances: Many everyday appliances rely on electric machines:
o Refrigerators: Compressors in refrigerators use electric motors to maintain the
desired temperature.
o Washing Machines: Motors power the drum and agitator in washing machines.
o Fans and Blowers: Electric motors drive fans, blowers, and air circulation systems.
5. Robotics: Electric machines are at the heart of robotic systems. Motors enable precise
movement, manipulation, and automation in industrial robots, drones, and other robotic
applications.
6. Medical Equipment: Various medical devices utilize electric machines:
o MRI Machines: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machines use powerful electric
magnets.
o Surgical Tools: Electric motors drive surgical instruments, including drills and
saws.
o Prosthetics: Electric motors enhance prosthetic limbs’ functionality.

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