Necessity and Utilization of direct current:

D.C. is generally considered to be three (3) times as safe as a.c. with all other conditions
similar. But d.c. with ripple, i.e in the case of unsmoothed rectified a.c has similar effects
to normal a.c. The shock sensation in the case of d.c is very different from that at 50 Hz
a.c. Shock does not appear to arise whilst carrying a steady current, the sensation being
solely that heating. But severe muscular contractions are only experienced during rapid
change of direct current (i.e when switching on or switching off). A current of 0.01
ampere passed through the body will in most cases prove fatal. From ohm’s law we
know that it (current) will depend upon the voltage applied to the body and also depend
upon resistance. An average resistance of human body is about 50,000 ohms. A voltage
of about 500 volts will therefore in most cases prove fatal. If body is wet resistance will
be much reduced and the voltage required to produce 0.01 ampere will be
correspondingly reduced.

The d.c. is used for the continuity of service. The d.c. enabled the use of a storage
battery reserve which can be readily maintained and immediately put into service,
should the power supply into the area be interrupted. Due to presence of direct current
the inductive and capacitive effects are absent.

D.C. is used on board-ship for continuity of service and 3 times as safe as a.c. For d.c the
terminal voltage remains constant. No fluctuation of voltage, Therefore no fluctuation
of current, no inductive and capacitive effect due to d.c. For this reason d.c is used for so
many purpouse, like electronic devices .

What is d.c. generator:

An electrical generator is a rotating machine which converts mechanical energy (or

power) into electrical energy (or power).
The energy conversion is based on the principle of the production of dynamically (or
motionally) induced e.m.f.

For d.c generator, energy conversion is accomplished by means of rotating an armature,

which carries conductor on its surface in a magnetic field.

Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically or motionally, induced e.m.f

(voltage) is produced in the conductor according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction process. This e.m.f causes a current flow if the conductor circuit is closed.
Power (or current) is supplied by armature to external circuit or load.

In most d.c generator armature is rotating element and field is the stationary element. A
relative motion must always exist between armature and the field. A mechanical force is
applied to the shaft of the rotating element to cause the relative motion.

Thus, when mechanical energy is put into the machine in the form of a mechanical force
or twist on the shaft, causing the shaft to turn at a certain speed.

To turn the armature, diesel engine, gasoline engines, steam engine, steam turbines can
be used as mechanical power source which are also called prime mover.

Construction of a Simple Loop Generator:

Construction: In fig-1 & 2 shown below a single turn rectangular copper coil ABCD
moving about its own axix in a magnetic field provided by either permanent magnets or
electromagnets. The two ends of the coil are joined to two slip-rings ‘a’ and ‘b’ which
are insulated from each other and from the central shaft. Two collecting brushes ( made
of carbon or copper) press against the slip-rings. Their function is to collect current
induced in the coil and convey it to the external Load resistance R. Rotating coil called
“armature” and the magnets as “field magnets”.

Fig-1 fig-2
Working principal of D.C generator or how an Alternating e.m.f. is produced in the
armature:

Imagine the coil to be rotating in clock wise direction (fig-3). As the coil assumes
successive positions in the field the flux linked with it changes. Hence, an e.m.f is

induced in it which is proportional to the rate of change of flux-linkages (e=N d φ /dt ).

When the plane of the coil is at right angles to lines of flux i.e when it is in position 1,
The flux linkages with the coil is maximum but rate of change of flux linkages is
minimum. This is so because in this position, the coil sides AB and CD do not cut or
shear the flux, rather They slide along then i.e. they move parallel to them. Hence there
is no e.m.f induced in the coil. Let us take in this position no e.m.f or vertical position of
the coil as the starting position. The angle of rotation or time will be measured from this
position.

Fig-3

As the coil continues rotating further, the rate of change of flux linkages (and hence
induced e.m.f. in it) increases, till position 3 is reached where Ө = 900 . Here coil plane is
horizontal i,e parallel to the lines of flux. As seen flux linked with the coil is minimum but
rate of change of flux linkages is maximum. Hence, maximum e.m.f is induced in the coil
when in the position shown in fig-4.

Fig -4

In the next quarter revolution i.e. from 90 0 to 1800 , the flux linked with the coil gradually
increase, but rate of change of flux linkages decreases . Hence, the induced e.m.f
decreases gradually till in position 5 of the coil, it is reduced to zero value. So, we find
that in the first half revolution of the coil no (or minimum) e.m.f is induced in it when in
position 1, maximum when in position 3 and no e.m.f when in position 5. The direction
of this induced e.m.f can be found by applying Fleming’s Right-hand rule which gives its
direction from A to B and C to D. Hence, the direction of current flow is ABMLCD in fig-5
The current through the load resistance R flows from M to L during the first half
revolution of the coil.

Fig-5

In next half revolution i,e from 180 0 to 360 0 , the variations in the magnitude of e.m.f
are similar to those in the first half revolution. Its valve is maximum when coil is in
position 7 and minimum when in position 1. But it will be found that the direction of the
induced current is from D to C and B to A. Hence the path of current flow is along
DCLMBA which is Just the reverse of the Previous direction of flow shown in fig-6.

Fig-6

Therefore, we find that the current which we obtain from such a simple generator
reverses its direction after every half revolution. Such a current undergoing periodic
reversal is known as alternating current. It is obviously, different from a direct current
which continuously flows in one and the same direction. It should be noted that
alternating current not only reverses its direction, it does not even keep its magnitude
constant while flowing in any one direction. The two half cycles may be called positive
and negative half-cycles respectively (fig-7).

Fig-7
How an induced ( or produced) A.C. in the armature can be converted to D. C. by
commutator: For making the flow of current unidirectional in the external circuit, the
slip rings are replaced by split-rings (commutator) is shown in fig-8. The split rings are
made out of a conducting cylinder which is cut into two halves or segments insulated
from each other by a thin sheet of mica or some other insulating materials is shown in
fig-9. As before, the coil ends are joined to these segments on which rest carbon or
copper brushes.

Fig-8 fig-9

It is seen from fig-10(a) that in the first half revolution current flows along ABLMCD i,e
the brush No.1 in contact with segment ‘a’ acts as a positive end of the supply and ‘b’ as
the negative end. In the next half revolution [is shown in fig-10(b)] the direction of the
induced current in the coil has reversed. But at the same time, the positions of segments
‘a’ and ‘b’ have also reversed with the result that brush No.1 comes in touch with that
segment which is positive i.e segment ‘b’ in this case.

Fig-10(a) fig-10(b)
Hence, the current in the load resistance again flows from L to M. The wave-form of the
current through the external circuit is as shown in fig-11. This current is unidirectional
but not continuous like pure direct current.

Fig-11

It should be noted that the position of brushes is so arranged that the changeover of
segments ‘a’ and ‘b’ from one brush to the other takes place when the plane of the
rotating coil is at right angles to the plane of the lines of flux. It is so because in that
position, the induced e.m.f in the coil is zero.

Another important point worth remembering is that even now the current induced in
the coil sides is alternating as before. It is only due to the rectifying action of the split-
rings (also called commutator) that it become unidirectional in the external circuit.
Hence, it should be clearly understood that even in the armature of a d.c. generator, the
induced voltage is alternating.