JNTUA Electronic Devices and Circuits Notes - R20
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Course Code: 20A04101T Electronic Devices and Circuits (EDC)
ELECTRONIC DEVICES
&
CIRCUITS
20A04101T
LECTURE NOTES
B.TECH
(I-YEAR&II-SEM)
Prepared by:
Dr. G. Elaiyaraja, Professor
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
VEMU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Approved By AICTE, New Delhi and Affiliated to JNTUA, Ananthapuramu)
Accredited By NAAC &ISO: 9001-2015 Certified Institution
Near Pakala, P.Kothakota, Chittoor- Tirupathi Highway
Chittoor, Andhra Pradesh-517 112
Web Site: www.vemu.org
Department of ECE, VEMU IT
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Course Code: 20A04101T Electronic Devices and Circuits (EDC)
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY ANANTAPUR
B.Tech (ECE)– II Sem L T P C
3003
(20A04101T) ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS
(Common to EEE and ECE)
Course Objectives:
To understand the basic principles of all semiconductor devices.
To be able to solve problems related to diode circuits, and amplifier circuits.
To analyze diode circuits, various biasing and small signal equivalent circuits of amplifiers.
To be able to compare the performance of BJTs and MOSFETs
To design rectifier circuits and various amplifier circuits using BJTs and MOSFETs.
Unit – 1
Review of Semiconductors: Intrinsic semiconductors, Doped Semiconductors, Current Flow in
Semiconductors, PN Junction with Open Circuit, PN Junction with Applied Voltage, Capacitive
Effects in PN Junction.
Diodes: Introduction, The Ideal Diode – current voltage characteristic, rectifier, diode logic gates,
Terminal Characteristics of Junction Diodes– forward bias, reverse bias, and breakdown regions,
Modeling the Diode Forward Characteristics- exponential model, graphical analysis and Iterative
analysis using the exponential model, constant voltage drop model, the small signal model.
Learning outcomes:
Remember and understand the basic characteristics of semiconductor diode (L1)
Understand iterative and graphical analysis of simple diode circuits (L1)
Unit – 2
Zener Diodes– Zener diode Characteristics, Voltage shunt regulator, Temperature Effects,
Rectifier Circuits– half-wave, full-wave and bridge rectifier circuits, rectifier with a filter
capacitor, C-L-C filter, Clipping and Clamping Circuits– limiter circuit, the clamped capacitor,
voltage doubler, Special Diode Types– UJT, Schottky barrier diode, Varactor diode, photo diode,
light emitting diode(LED), Problem Solving.
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs):Physical Operation - simplified structure and modes of
operation, Operation of the npn, and pnp transistors: cutoff, active, and saturation modes, V-I
Characteristics- of different configurations - graphical representation of transistor characteristics,
dependence of collector current on collector voltage, the Early Effect.
Learning outcomes:
Understand principle of operation of Zener diode and other special semiconductor diodes (L1)
Understand the V-I characteristics of BJT and its different configurations (L1)
Analyze various applications of diode and special purpose diodes (L3)
Design rectifier and voltage regulator circuits (L4)
Unit- 3
BJT circuits at DC, Applying the BJT in Amplifier Design- Voltage Amplifier, Voltage Transfer
Characteristic (VTC), Small-Signal Voltage Gain, determining the VTC by Graphical Analysis,
Qpoint, Small-signal operation and models- the transconductance, input resistance at the base,
input resistance at the emitter, Voltage gain, separating the Signal and the DC Quantities, The
Hybrid-π Model, the T Model, Basic BJT Amplifier Configurations - Common-Emitter (CE)
amplifier without and with emitter resistance, Common-Base (CB) amplifier, Common-Collector
(CC) amplifier or Emitter Follower, Biasing in BJT Amplifier Circuits- Fixed bias, Self bias,
voltage divider bias circuits, biasing using a Constant-Current Source, CE amplifier – Small
Department of ECE, VEMU IT
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Course Code: 20A04101T Electronic Devices and Circuits (EDC)
signal analysis and design, Transistor breakdown and Temperature Effects, Problem solving.
Learning outcomes:
Solve problems on various biasing circuits using BJT (L2)
Analyze BJT based biasing circuits (L3)
Design an amplifier using BJT based on the given specifications (L4)
Unit – 4
MOS Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs):Introduction, Device Structure and Physical
Operation – device structure, operation with zero gate voltage, creating a channel for current
flow, operation for different drain to source voltages, the P-channel MOSFET,CMOS, V-I
characteristics–iD – vDS characteristics, iD – vGS characteristics, finite output resistance in
saturation, characteristics of the p- Channel MOSFET, MOSFET Circuits at DC, Applying the
MOSFET in Amplifier Design – voltage transfer characteristics, biasing the MOSFET to obtain
linear amplification, the small signal voltage gain, graphical analysis, the Q-point. Problem
solving.
Learning outcomes:
Understand principle of operation of various types of MOSFET devices (L1)
Understand the V-I characteristics of MOSFET devices and their configurations (L1)
Unit – 5
MOSFET Small Signal Operation Models– the dc bias, separating the DC analysis and the signal
analysis, Small signal equivalent circuit models, the transconductance, the T equivalent circuit
model, Basic MOSFET Amplifier Configurations– three basic configurations, characterizing
amplifiers, common source(CS) amplifier without and with source resistance, common gate (CG)
amplifier, source follower, the amplifier frequency response, Biasing in MOSFET Amplifier
Circuits– biasing by fixing VGS with and without source resistance, biasing using drain to gate
feedback resistor, biasing using constant current source, Common Source Amplifier using
MOSFETs – Small signal analysis and design, Body Effect, Problem Solving.
Learning outcomes:
Solve problems on small signal equivalent of MOSFET devices (L2)
Analyze various biasing circuits based on different types of MOSFETs (L3)
Design an amplifier using BJT based on the given specifications (L4)
Text Books:
1. Adel S. Sedra and KennethC. Smith, “Microelectronic Circuits – Theory and Applications”, 6th
Edition, Oxford Press, 2013.
2. Donald A Neamen, “Electronic Circuits – analysis and design”, 3rd Edition, McGraw Hill
(India), 2019.
References:
1. J. Milliman and C Halkias, “Integrated electronics”, 2nd Edition, Tata McGraw Hill, 1991.
2. Behzad Razavi, “Microelectronics”, Second edition, Wiley, 2013.
3. R.L. Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky, “Electronic Devices and Circuits,” 9th Edition, Pearson,
2006.
1. Jimmie J Cathey, “Electronic Devices and Circuits,” Schaum’s outlines series, 3 rd edition,
McGraw-Hill (India), 2010.
Department of ECE, VEMU IT
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Course Code: 20A04101T Electronic Devices and Circuits (EDC)
Course Outcomes:
After the completion of the course students will able to
CO1: Understand principle of operation, characteristics and applications of Semiconductor
diodes, Bipolar Junction Transistor and MOSFETs.
CO2: Applying the basic principles solving the problems related to Semiconductor diodes, BJTs,
and MOSFETs.
CO3: Analyze diode circuits for different applications such as rectifiers, clippers and clampers
also analyze biasing circuits of BJTs, and MOSFETs.
CO4: Design of diode circuits and amplifiers using BJTs, and MOSFETs.
CO5: Compare the performance of various semiconductor devices.
Department of ECE, VEMU IT
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UNIT-1
REVIEW OF SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
Atomic Structure
According to the modern theory, All the materials are composed of
very small particles called atoms. The atoms are the building bricks of
all matter.
Various scientists have given different theories regarding the structure of
atom. However, for the purpose of understanding electronics, the study of
Bohr’s atomic model is adequate.
Bohr’s Atomic Model
In 1913, Neils Bohr, Danish Physicist gave clear explanation of atomic structure. According to Bohr:
(i) An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus around which negatively charged
electrons revolve in different circular orbits.
(ii) The electrons can revolve around the nucleus only in certain
permitted orbits i.e. orbits of certain radii are allowed.
The number of electrons in any orbit is given by 2n2 where n is the number of the orbit. For example,
2 1 = 2 electrons
2
First orbit contains
Second orbit contains 2 2 = 8 electrons
2
2 3 = 18 electrons
2
Third orbit contains
(iii) The electrons in each permitted orbit have a certain fixed amount
of energy. The larger the orbit (i.e. larger radius), the greater is the en-
ergy of electrons.
(iv) If an electron is given additional energy (e.g. heat, light etc.), it
is lifted to the higher orbit. The atom is said to be in a state of excitation.
This state does not last long, because the electron soon falls back to the
original lower orbit. As it falls, it gives back the acquired energy in the
form of heat, light or other radiations.
Fig. shows the structure of silicon atom. It has 14 electrons.
Two electrons revolve in the first orbit, 8 in the second orbit and 4 in the
third orbit. The first, second, third orbits etc. are also known as K, L, M orbits respectively.
These electrons can revolve only in permitted orbits (i.e. orbits of *radii r1, r2 and r3) and not in
any arbitrary orbit. Thus, all radii between r1 and r2 or between r2 and r3 are forbidden. Each orbit
1 has fixed amount of energy associated with it.
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Fig. 4.1
Energy Levels
It has already been discussed that each orbit has fixed amount of energy associated with it. The
electrons moving in a particular orbit possess the energy of that orbit. The larger the orbit, the greater
is its energy. It becomes clear that outer orbit electrons possess more energy than the inner orbit
electrons.
A convenient way of representing the energy of different orbits is shown in Fig. 4.2 (ii). This is
known as energy level diagram. The first orbit represents the first energy level, the second orbit
indicates the second energy level and so on. The larger the orbit of an electron, the greater is its
energy and higher is the energy level.
Fig. 4.2
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Energy Bands
In case of a single isolated atom, the electrons in any orbit possess definite energy. However, an atom
in a solid is greatly influenced by the closely-packed neighbouring atoms. The result is that the
electron in any orbit of such an atom can have a range of energies rather than a single energy. This is
known as energy band.
The range of energies possessed by an electron in a solid is known as energy band.
Fig. 4.3
The concept of energy band can be easily understood by referring to Fig. 4.3. Fig. 4.3 (ii) shows
the energy levels of a single isolated atom of silicon. Each orbit of an atom has a single energy.
Therefore, an electron can have only single energy corresponding to the orbit in which it exists.
However, when the atom is in a solid, the electron in any orbit can have a range of energies. For
instance, electrons in the first orbit have slightly different energies because no two electrons in this
orbit see exactly the same charge environment. Since there are millions of first orbit electrons, the
slightly different energy levels form a band, called 1st energy band [See Fig. 4.3 (iii)]. The electrons
in the first orbit can have any energy range in this band. Similarly, second orbit electrons form second
energy band and so on.
Important Energy Bands in Solids
As discussed before, individual K, L, M etc. energy levels
of an isolated atom are converted into corresponding bands
when the atom is in a solid. Though there are a number of
energy bands in solids, the following are of particular im-
portance [See Fig. 4.4] :
(v) Valence band. The range of energies (i.e. band)
possessed by valence electrons is known as valence
band.
The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are
known as valence electrons. In a normal atom, valence
band has the electrons of highest energy. This band may
be completely or partially filled. For instance, in case of Fig. 4.4
inert gases, the valence band is full whereas for other materials, it is only partially filled. The partially
filled band can accommodate more electrons.
(vi) Conduction band. In certain materials (e.g. metals), the valence electrons are loosely at-
3 tached to the nucleus. Even at ordinary temperature, some of the valence electrons may get detached
to become free electrons. In fact, it is these free electrons which are responsible for the conduction of
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current in a conductor. For this reason, they are called conduction electrons.
The range of energies (i.e. band) possessed by conduction band electrons is known as conduc-
tion band.
All electrons in the conduction band are free electrons. If a substance has empty conduction
band, it means current conduction is not possible in that substance. Generally, insulators have empty
conduction band. On the other hand, it is partially filled for conductors.
(vii) Forbidden energy gap. The separation between conduction band and valence band on the
energy level diagram is known as forbidden energy gap.
No electron of a solid can stay in a forbidden energy gap as there is no allowed energy state in
this region. The width of the forbidden energy gap is a measure of the bondage of valence electrons
to the atom. The greater the energy gap, more tightly the valence electrons are bound to the nucleus.
In order to push an electron from valence band to the conduction band (i.e. to make the valence
electron free), external energy equal to the forbidden energy gap must be supplied.
Based on the electrical conductivity all the materials in nature are classified as insulators,
semiconductors, and conductors.
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PARAMATER CONDUCTORS SEMICONDUCTORS INSULATORS
The conduction in The conduction in
There are no free
conductors is due to the semiconductor is due to
Conduction electrons or holes thus,
free electrons in metal the movement of electron
there is no conduction.
bonding. & holes.
There is no or low The band gap of The band gap in
energy gap between the semiconductor is greater insulator is huge (+5
conduction & valance than the conductor but eV), which need an
Band gap band of a conductor. It smaller than an insulator enormous amount of
does not need extra i.e. 1 eV. Their electrons energy like lightning to
energy for the need a little energy for push electrons into the
conduction state. conduction state. conduction band.
Valence Electron in 1 Valence electron in 4 Valence electron in 8 Valence electron in
Outer Shell outer shell. outer shell. outer shell.
Medium (10-7 to 10- Very Low (10-3 mho/m)
Conductivity High (10-7 mho/m)
13 mho/m) Almost negligible.
Resistivity Low Moderate High
Temperature coefficient
Positive Negative Negative
of resistance
Charge carriers in
Completely filled Partially filled Completely vacant
conduction band
Charge carriers in
Almost vacant Partially filled Completely filled
valence band
Copper, Aluminium, Silicon, Germanium, Paper, rubber, glass,
Example
graphite etc. arsenic etc. plastic etc.
Semiconductors are used
The metals like iron & The insulators are used
every day electronic
copper etc. that can for protection against
devices such as
conduct electricity are high voltages &
Application cellphone, computer,
made into wires and prevention of electrical
solar panel etc as
cable for carrying short between cables in
switches, energy
electric current. circuits.
converter, amplifiers, etc.
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SEMICONDUCTORS
• Semiconductors are the materials which have 4 electrons in its outer most orbit .
OR
• Semiconductor are materials whose electrical conductivity lies
between conductor and an insulator.
Some common semiconductors
elemental
Si - Silicon (most common)
Ge - Germanium
compound
GaAs - Gallium arsenide GaP - Gallium phosphide
AlAs - Aluminum arsenide AlP - Aluminum phosphide
InP - Indium Phosphide
There are also three-element (ternary) compounds (GaAsP) and four-elements
(quaternary) compounds such as InGaAsP.
Compounds are widely used in high-speed devices and devices requiring the emission or
absorption of light.
(i) Germanium. Germanium has become the model substance among the semiconductors; the
main reason being that it can be purified relatively well and crystallised easily. Germanium is an
earth element and was discovered in 1886. It is recovered from the ash of certain coals or from the
flue dust of zinc smelters. Generally, recovered germanium is in the form of germanium dioxide
powder which is then reduced to pure germanium.
(i) (ii)
Fig. 5.2
The atomic number of germanium is 32. Therefore, it has 32 protons and 32 electrons. Two
electrons are in the first orbit, eight electrons in the second, eighteen electrons in the third and four
electrons in the outer or valence orbit [See Fig. 5.2 (i)]. It is clear that germanium atom has four
valence electrons i.e., it is a tetravalent element. Fig. 5.2 (ii) shows how the various germanium
atoms are held through co-valent bonds. As the atoms are arranged in an orderly pattern, therefore,
6
germanium has crystalline structure.
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(ii) Silicon. Silicon is an element in most of the common rocks. Actually, sand is silicon diox-
ide. The silicon compounds are chemically reduced to silicon which is 100% pure for use as a
semiconductor.
Fig. 5.3
The atomic number of silicon is 14. Therefore, it has 14 protons and 14 electrons. Two electrons
are in the first orbit, eight electrons in the second orbit and four electrons in the third orbit [See Fig.
5.3 (i)]. It is clear that silicon atom has four valence electrons i.e. it is a tetravalent element. Fig. 5.3
(ii) shows how various silicon atoms are held through co-valent bonds. Like germanium, silicon
atoms are also arranged in an orderly manner. Therefore, silicon has crystalline structure.
Energy Band Description of Semiconductors
It has already been discussed that a semiconductor is a substance whose resistivity lies between
conductors and insulators. The resistivity is of the order of 104 to 0.5 ohm metre. However, a semi-
conductor can be defined much more comprehensively on the basis of energy bands as under :
Fig. 5.4 Fig. 5.5
A semiconductor is a substance which has almost filled valence band and nearly empty conduc-
tion band with a very small energy gap (j 1 eV) separating the two.
Figs. 5.4 and 5.5 show the energy band diagrams of germanium and silicon respectively. It may
be seen that forbidden energy gap is very small; being 1.1 eV for silicon and 0.7 eV for germanium.
Therefore, relatively small energy is needed by their valence electrons to cross over to the conduction
7
band. Even at room temperature, some of the valence electrons may acquire sufficient energy to enter
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into the conduction band and thus become free electrons. However, at this temperature, the number of
free electrons available is very *small. Therefore, at room temperature, a piece of germanium or
silicon is neither a good conductor nor an insulator. For this reason, such substances are called semi-
conductors.
The energy band description is extremely helpful in understanding the current flow through a
semiconductor. Therefore, we shall frequently use this concept in our further discussion.
Effect of Temperature on Semiconductors
The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor changes appreciably with temperature variations. This
is a very important point to keep in mind.
(i) At absolute zero. At absolute zero temperature, all the electrons are tightly held by
the semiconductor atoms. The inner orbit electrons are bound whereas the valence electrons are
engaged in co-valent bonding. At this temperature, the co-valent bonds are very strong and there
are no free electrons. Therefore, the semiconductor crystal behaves as a perfect insulator [See
Fig. 5.6 (i)].
In terms of energy band description, the valence band is filled and there is a large energy gap
between valence band and conduction band. Therefore, no valence electron can reach the conduction
band to become free electron. It is due to the non-availability of free electrons that a semiconductor
behaves as an insulator.
(ii) Above absolute zero. When the temperature is raised, some of the covalent bonds in the
semiconductor break due to the thermal energy supplied. The breaking of bonds sets those electrons
free which are engaged in the formation of these bonds. The result is that a few free electrons exist in the
semiconductor. These free electrons can constitute a tiny electric current if potential difference is
Fig. 5.6
applied across the semiconductor crystal [See Fig. 5.7 (i)]. This shows that the resistance of a semi-
conductor decreases with the rise in temperature i.e. it has negative temperature coefficient of resis-
tance. It may be added that at room temperature, current through a semiconductor is too small to be
of any practical value.
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Fig. 5.7
Fig. 5.7 (ii) shows the energy band diagram. As the temperature is raised, some of the valence
electrons acquire sufficient energy to enter into the conduction band and thus become free electrons.
Under the influence of electric field, these free electrons will constitute electric current. It may be
noted that each time a valence electron enters into the conduction band, a hole is created in the
valence band. As we shall see in the next article, holes also contribute to current. In fact, hole current
is the most significant concept in semiconductors.
Properties of Semiconductor
Hole Current
At room temperature, some of the co-valent bonds in pure semiconductor break, setting up free elec-
trons. Under the influence of electric field, these free electrons constitute electric current. At the
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same time, another current – the hole current – also flows in the semiconductor. When a covalent
bond is broken due to thermal energy, the removal of one electron leaves a vacancy i.e. a missing
electron in the covalent bond. This missing electron is called a *hole which acts as a positive charge.
For one electron set free, one hole is created. Therefore, thermal energy creates hole-electron pairs;
there being as many holes as the free electrons. The current conduction by holes can be explained as
follows :
The hole shows a missing electron. Suppose the valence electron at L (See Fig. 5.8) has become
free electron due to thermal energy. This creates a hole in the co-valent bond at L. The hole is a
strong centre of attraction **for the electron. A valence electron (say at M) from nearby co-valent
bond comes to fill in the hole at L. This results in the creation of hole at M. Another valence electron
(say at N) in turn may leave its bond to fill the hole at M, thus creating a hole at N. Thus the hole
having a positive charge has moved from L to N i.e. towards the negative terminal of supply. This
constitutes hole current.
It may be noted that hole current is due to the movement of ***valence electrons from one co-
valent bond to another bond. The reader may wonder why to call it a hole current when the conduc-
tion is again by electrons (of course valence electrons !). The answer is that the basic reason for
current flow is the presence of holes in the co-valent bonds. Therefore, it is more appropriate to
consider the current as the movement of holes.
Fig. 5.8
Energy band description. The hole current
can be beautifully explained in terms of energy
bands. Suppose due to thermal energy, an electron
leaves the valence band to enter into the conduc-
tion band as shown in Fig. 5.9.
This leaves a vacancy at L. Now the valence
electron at M comes to fill the hole at L. The result
is that hole disappears at L and appears at M. Next,
the valence electron at N moves into the hole at M.
Consequently, hole is created at N. It is clear that
valence electrons move along the path PNML
whereas holes move in the opposite direction i.e. Fig. 5.9
along the path LMNP.
10
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Intrinsic Semiconductor
A semiconductor in an extremely pure form is known as an intrinsic semiconductor.
In an intrinsic semiconductor, even at room temperature, hole-electron pairs are created. When
electric field is applied across an intrinsic semiconductor, the current conduction takes place by two
processes, namely ; by free electrons and holes as shown in Fig. 5.10. The free electrons are pro-
duced due to the breaking up of some covalent bonds by thermal energy. At the same time, holes are
created in the covalent bonds. Under the influence of electric field, conduction through the semicon-
ductor is by both free electrons and holes. Therefore, the total current inside the semiconductor is the
sum of currents due to free electrons and holes.
It may be noted
that current in the ex-
ternal wires is fully
electronic i.e. by
electrons. What
about the holes ? Re-
ferring to Fig. 5.10,
holes being posi-
tively charged move
towards the negative
terminal of supply.
As the holes reach
the negative terminal
B, electrons enter the
semiconductor crys- Fig. 5.10
tal near the terminal
and combine with holes, thus cancelling them. At the same time, the loosely held electrons near the
positive terminal A are attracted away from their atoms into the positive terminal. This creates new
holes near the positive terminal which again drift towards the negative terminal.
5.6 9 Extrinsic Semiconductor
The intrinsic semiconductor has little current conduction capability at room temperature. To be
useful in electronic devices, the pure semiconductor must be altered so as to significantly increase its
conducting properties. This is achieved by adding a small amount of suitable impurity to a semicon-
ductor. It is then called impurity or extrinsic semiconductor. The process of adding impurities to a
semiconductor is known as doping. The amount and type of such impurities have to be closely
8
controlled during the preparation of extrinsic semiconductor. Generally, for 10 atoms of semicon-
ductor, one impurity atom is added.
The purpose of adding impurity is to increase either the number of free electrons or holes in the
semiconductor crystal. As we shall see, if a pentavalent impurity (having 5 valence electrons) is
added to the semiconductor, a large number of free electrons are produced in the semiconductor. On
the other hand, addition of trivalent impurity (having 3 valence electrons) creates a large number of
holes in the semiconductor crystal. Depending upon the type of impurity added, extrinsic semicon-
ductors are classified into:
(i) n-type semiconductor (ii) p-type semiconductor
5.7 0 n-type Semiconductor
When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it is known as
n-type semiconductor.
11
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The addition of pentavalent impurity pro-
vides a large number of free electrons in the
semiconductor crystal. Typical examples of
pentavalent impurities are arsenic (At. No. 33)
and antimony (At. No. 51). Such impurities
which produce n-type semiconductor are
known as donor impurities because they do-
nate or provide free electrons to the semicon-
ductor crystal.
To explain the formation of n-type semi-
conductor, consider a pure germanium crys-
tal. We know that germanium atom has four
valence electrons. When a small amount of Fig. 5.11
pentavalent impurity like arsenic is added to
germanium crystal, a large number of free electrons become available in the crystal. The reason is
simple. Arsenic is pentavalent i.e. its atom has five valence electrons. An arsenic atom fits in the
germanium crystal in such a way that its four valence electrons form covalent bonds with four germa-
nium atoms. The fifth valence electron of arsenic atom finds no place in co-valent bonds and is thus
free as shown in Fig. 5.11. Therefore, for each arsenic atom added, one free electron will be available
in the germanium crystal. Though each arsenic atom provides one free electron, yet an extremely
small amount of arsenic impurity provides enough atoms to supply millions of free electrons.
Fig. 5.12 shows the energy band description of
n-type semi-conductor. The addition of pentavalent
impurity has produced a number of conduction band
electrons i.e., free electrons. The four valence elec-
trons of pentavalent atom form covalent bonds with
four neighbouring germanium atoms. The fifth left
over valence electron of the pentavalent atom can-
not be accommodated in the valence band and trav-
els to the conduction band. The following points
may be noted carefully :
(i) Many new free electrons are produced by
the addition of pentavalent impurity. Fig. 5.12
(ii) Thermal energy of room temperature still generates a few hole-electron pairs. However, the
number of free electrons provided by the pentavalent impurity far exceeds the number of holes. It is
due to this predominance of electrons over holes that it is called n-type semiconductor (n stands for
negative).
n-type conductivity. The current conduction in an n-type semiconductor is predominantly by
free electrons i.e. negative charges and is called n-type or electron type conductivity. To understand
n-type conductivity, refer to Fig. 5.13. When p.d. is applied across the n-type semiconductor, the free
electrons (donated by impurity) in the crystal will be directed towards the positive terminal, constitut-
ing electric current. As the current flow through the crystal is by free electrons which are carriers of
negative charge, therefore, this type of conductivity is called negative or n-type conductivity. It may
be noted that conduction is just as in ordinary metals like copper.
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Fig. 5.13
5.8 1 p-type Semiconductor
When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it is called p-type
semiconductor.
The addition of trivalent impurity provides a large number of holes in the semiconductor. Typical
examples of trivalent impurities are gallium (At. No. 31) and indium (At. No. 49). Such impurities
which produce p-type semiconductor are known as acceptor impurities because the holes created can
accept the electrons.
To explain the formation of p-type
semiconductor, consider a pure
germanium crystal. When a small amount
of trivalent impurity like gallium is added
to germanium crystal, there exists a large
number of holes in the crystal. The reason
is simple. Gallium is trivalent i.e. its atom
has three valence electrons. Each atom of
gallium fits into the germanium crystal but
now only three co-valent bonds can be
formed. It is because three valence
electrons of gallium atom can form only
three single co-valent bonds with three
germanium atoms as shown in Fig. 5.14.
In the fourth co-valent bond, only
germanium atom contributes one valence Fig. 5.14
electron while gallium has no valence
electron to contribute as all its three valence electrons are already engaged in the co-valent bonds
with neighbouring germanium atoms. In other words, fourth bond is incomplete; being short of one
electron. This missing electron is called a hole. Therefore, for each gallium atom added, one hole is
created. A small amount of gallium provides millions of holes.
Fig. 5.15 shows the energy band description of the p-type semiconductor. The addition of triva-
lent impurity has produced a large number of holes. However, there are a few conduction band
electrons due to thermal energy associated with room temperature. But the holes far outnumber the
conduction band electrons. It is due to the predominance of holes over free electrons that it is called
p-type semiconductor ( p stands for positive).
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Fig. 5.15 Fig. 5.16
p-type conductivity. The current conduction in p-type semiconductor is predominantly by holes
i.e. positive charges and is called p-type or hole-type conductivity. To understand p-type conductiv-
ity, refer to Fig. 5.16. When p.d. is applied to the p-type semiconductor, the holes (donated by the
impurity) are shifted from one co-valent bond to another. As the holes are positively charged, there-
fore, they are directed towards the negative terminal, constituting what is known as hole current. It
may be noted that in p-type conductivity, the valence electrons move from one co-valent bond to
another unlike the n-type where current conduction is by free electrons.
5.9 2 Charge on n-t ype and p-type Semiconductors
As discussed before, in n-type semiconductor, current conduction is due to excess of electrons whereas
in a p-type semiconductor, conduction is by holes. The reader may think that n-type material has a net
negative charge and p-type a net positive charge. But this conclusion is wrong. It is true that n-type
semiconductor has excess of electrons but these extra electrons were supplied by the atoms of donor
impurity and each atom of donor impurity is electrically neutral. When the impurity atom is added,
the term “excess electrons” refers to an excess with regard to the number of electrons needed to fill
the co-valent bonds in the semiconductor crystal. The extra electrons are free electrons and increase
the conductivity of the semiconductor. The situation with regard to p-type semiconductor is also similar.
It follows, therefore, that n-type as well as p-type semiconductor is electrically neutral.
5.10 3 Majority and Minority Carriers
It has already been discussed that due to the effect of impurity, n-type material has a large number of
free electrons whereas p-type material has a large number of holes. However, it may be recalled that
even at room temperature, some of the co-valent bonds break, thus releasing an equal number of free
electrons and holes. An n-type material has its share of electron-hole pairs (released due to breaking
of bonds at room temperature) but in addition has a much larger quantity of free electrons due to the
effect of impurity. These impurity-caused free electrons are not associated with holes. Consequently,
an n-type material has a large number of free electrons and a small number of holes as shown in Fig.
5.17 (i). The free electrons in this case are considered majority carriers — since the majority portion
of current in n-type material is by the flow of free electrons — and the holes are the minority carriers.
Similarly, in a p-type material, holes outnumber the free electrons as shown in Fig. 5.17 (ii).
Therefore, holes are the majority carriers and free electrons are the minority carriers.
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Differences Between N-Type and P-type Semiconductors
Parameter P-Type N-Type
Impurity doped Trivalent impurity Pentavalent impurity
Also known as Acceptor atom because of presence of Donor atom due to the existe
additional hole. additional electron.
Doped group Group III elements. For eg - boron, gallium, Group V elements. for eg - a
indium, aluminium etc. antimony, bismuth, phosphor
Majority carriers Holes Electrons
Minority carriers Electrons Holes
Conductivity Due to presence of holes. Due to presence of electrons
Presence of fermi level Fermi level appears closer to the valence Fermi level is present nearer
than the conduction band. conduction band than the val
Concentration of electrons Low Very high as compared to p t
semiconductor
Concentration of holes High Comparatively less than p ty
semiconductor.
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Difference Between Intrinsic and Extrinsic semicoductors
Parameter Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconducto
Form of semiconductor Pure form of semiconductor. Impure form of semico
Conductivity It exhibits poor conductivity. It possesses comparativ
better conductivity tha
intrinsic semiconducto
Band gap The band gap between conduction and The energy gap is high
valence band is small.
than intrinsic semicon
Fermi level It is present in the middle of forbidden The presence of Fermi
energy gap.
level varies according
the type of extrinsic
semiconductor.
Dependency The conduction relies on temperature. The conduction depend
on the concentration o
doped impurity and
temperature.
Carrier concentration Equal amount of electron and holes are The majority presence
present in conduction and valence band.
electrons and holes
depends on the type of
extrinsic semiconducto
Type It is not further classified. It is classified as p type
and n type semiconduc
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Example Si, Ge etc. GaAs, GaP etc.
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Rectifiers and Filters
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Figure 1.24: Circuit and Waveforms of half wave rectifier
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iii) RMS output current (Irms):
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Ƞ=Pdc/Pac
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Figure 1.25: Input & Output waveforms of Full wave rectifier
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Ƞ=Pdc/Pac
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Figure 1.26: Circuit diagram and Input & Output waveforms of Bridge rectifier
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UNIT-II
SPECIAL PURPOSE ELECTONIC DEVICES
ZENER DIODE:
When the reverse voltage reaches breakdown voltage in normal PN junction diode, the current
through the junction and the power dissipated at the junction will be high. Such an operation is destructive
and the diode gets damaged. Whereas diodes can be designed with adequate power dissipation capabilities
to operate in a break down
region. One such a diode is known as Zener diode.
Zener diode is heavily doped than the ordinary diode. Due to this the depletion layer will be
very thin and for small applied reverse voltage(VR) there will be sharp increase in current.
From the V-I characteristics of the Zener diode, shown in figure. It is found that the operation of Zener
diode is same as that of ordinary PN diode.
Under forward-biased condition.Whereas under reverse-biased condition, breakdown of the junction occurs.
The breakdown voltage depends upon the amount of doping. If the diode is heavily doped, depletion layer
will be thin and consequently, breakdown occurs at lower reverse voltage and further, the breakdown
voltage is sharp. Whereas a lightly doped diode has a higher breakdown voltage. Thus breakdown voltage
can be selected with the amount of doping.
Figure 2.1: V-I Characteristics of a Zener diode
Note:
A heavily doped diode has a low Zener breakdown voltage, while a lightly doped diode has a
high Zener breakdown voltage.
ZENER BREAKDOWN MECHANISM:
The sharp increasing current under breakdown conditions is due to the following two mechanisms.
(1) Avalanche breakdown
(2)
36 Zener breakdown
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The breakdown in the Zener diode at the voltage Vz may be due to any of the following
mechanisms.
1. Avalanche breakdown
Depletion region charge carriers striking the atoms
( ) ( )
P N
-ve terminal +ve terminal
minority charge carriers
Figure 2.2: Avalanche breakdown in Zener diode
• We know that when the diode is reverse biased a small reverse saturation current I0 flows across the
junction because of the minority cariers in the depletion region.
• The velocity of the minority charge carriers is directly proportional to the applied voltage. Hence
when the reverse bias voltage is increased, the velocity of minority charge carriers will also increase
and consequently their energy content will also increase.
• When these high energy charge carriers strikes the atom within the depletion region they cause other
charge carriers to break away from their atoms and join the flow of current across the junction as
shown above. The additional charge carriers generated in this way strikes other atoms and generate
new carriers by making them to break away from their atoms.
• This cumulative process is referred to as avalanche multiplication which results in the flow of large
reverse current and this breakdown of the diode is called avalanche breakdown.
2. Zener breakdown
We have electric field strength = Reverse voltage/ Depletion region
Depletion region
( ) ( )
P N
-ve terminal +ve terminal
electrons pulled out of their covalent
bonds because of high intensity electric field
Figure 2.3: Zener breakdown in Zener diode
From the above relation we see that the reverse voltage is directly proportional to the electric field hence, a
small increase in reverse voltage produces a very high intensity electric field with ina narrow Depletion
region.
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Therefore when the reverse voltage to a diode is increased, under the influence of high intensity electric filed
large numbr of electrons within the depletion region break the covalent bonds with their atoms as shown
above and thus a large reverse current flows through the diode. This breakdown is referred to as Zener
breakdown.
Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator:
Figure 2.4: Zener diode as voltage regulator
From the Zener Characteristics shown, under reverse bias condition, the voltage across the diode remains
constant although the current through the diode increases as shown. Thus the voltage across the zener diode
serves as a reference voltage. Hence the diode can be used as a voltage regulator.
It is required to provide constant voltage across load resistance RL , whereas the input voltage may be
varying over a range. As shown, zener diode is reverse biased and as long as the input voltage does not fall
below vz (zener breakdown voltage), the voltage across the diode will be constant and hence the load voltage
will also be constant.
Light Emitting Diode:
Light Emitting Diodes or LED´s, are among the most widely used of all the different types of
semiconductor diodes available today and are commonly used in TV’s and colour displays.
They are the most visible type of diode, that emit a fairly narrow bandwidth of either visible light at different
coloured wavelengths, invisible infra-red light for remote controls or laser type light when a forward current
is passed through them.
Figure 2.4: The Light Emitting Diode
The “Light Emitting Diode” or LED as it is more commonly called, is basically just a specialised type of
diode as they have very similar electrical characteristics to a PN junction diode. This means that an LED will
pass current in its forward direction but block the flow of current in the reverse direction.
Related Products: LEDs and LED Lighting | Optical Lenses
Light emitting diodes are made from a very thin layer of fairly heavily doped semiconductor material and
depending on the semiconductor material used and the amount of doping, when forward biased an LED will
emit a coloured light at a particular spectral wavelength.
When the diode is forward biased, electrons from the semiconductors conduction band recombine with holes
from the valence band releasing sufficient energy to produce photons which emit a monochromatic (single
colour) of light. Because of this thin layer a reasonable number of these photons can leave the junction and
radiate away producing a coloured light output.
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Figure 2.5: LED Construction
Then we can say that when operated in a forward biased direction Light Emitting Diodes are semiconductor
devices that convert electrical energy into light energy.
The construction of a Light Emitting Diode is very different from that of a normal signal diode. The PN
junction of an LED is surrounded by a transparent, hard plastic epoxy resin hemispherical shaped shell or
body which protects the LED from both vibration and shock.
Surprisingly, an LED junction does not actually emit that much light so the epoxy resin body is constructed
in such a way that the photons of light emitted by the junction are reflected away from the surrounding
substrate base to which the diode is attached and are focused upwards through the domed top of the LED,
which itself acts like a lens concentrating the amount of light. This is why the emitted light appears to be
brightest at the top of the LED.
However, not all LEDs are made with a hemispherical shaped dome for their epoxy shell. Some indication
LEDs have a rectangular or cylindrical shaped construction that has a flat surface on top or their body is
shaped into a bar or arrow. Generally, all LED’s are manufactured with two legs protruding from the bottom
of the body.
Also, nearly all modern light emitting diodes have their cathode, ( – ) terminal identified by either a notch or
flat spot on the body or by the cathode lead being shorter than the other as the anode ( + ) lead is longer than
the cathode (k).
Unlike normal incandescent lamps and bulbs which generate large amounts of heat when illuminated, the
light emitting diode produces a “cold” generation of light which leads to high efficiencies than the normal
“light bulb” because most of the generated energy radiates away within the visible spectrum. Because LEDs
are solid-state devices, they can be extremely small and durable and provide much longer lamp life than
normal light sources.
Light Emitting Diode Colours:
So how does a light emitting diode get its colour. Unlike normal signal diodes which are made for
detection or power rectification, and which are made from either Germanium or Silicon semiconductor
materials, Light Emitting Diodes are made from exotic semiconductor compounds such as Gallium
Arsenide (GaAs), Gallium Phosphide (GaP), Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP), Silicon Carbide (SiC)
or Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) all mixed together at different ratios to produce a distinct wavelength of
colour.
Different LED compounds emit light in specific regions of the visible light spectrum and therefore
produce different intensity levels. The exact choice of the semiconductor material used will determine the
overall wavelength of the photon light emissions and therefore the resulting colour of the light emitted.
Thus, the actual colour of a light emitting diode is determined by the wavelength of the light emitted, which
in turn is determined by the actual semiconductor compound used in forming the PN junction during
manufacture.
Therefore the colour of the light emitted by an LED is NOT determined by the colouring of the
LED’s plastic body although these are slightly coloured to both enhance the light output and to indicate its
colour when its not being illuminated by an electrical supply.
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Light emitting diodes are available in a wide range of colours with the most common
being RED, AMBER, YELLOW and GREEN and are thus widely used as visual indicators and as moving
light displays.
Recently developed blue and white coloured LEDs are also available but these tend to be much more
expensive than the normal standard colours due to the production costs of mixing together two or more
complementary colours at an exact ratio within the semiconductor compound and also by injecting nitrogen
atoms into the crystal structure during the doping process.
Light Emitting Diode Colours:
From the table shown below we can see that the main P-type dopant used in the manufacture of Light
Emitting Diodes is Gallium (Ga, atomic number 31) and that the main N-type dopant used is Arsenic (As,
atomic number 33) giving the resulting compound of Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) crystalline structure.
The problem with using Gallium Arsenide on its own as the semiconductor compound is that it radiates large
amounts of low brightness infra-red radiation (850nm-940nm approx.) from its junction when a forward
current is flowing through it.
The amount of infra-red light it produces is okay for television remote controls but not very useful if we
want to use the LED as an indicating light. But by adding Phosphorus (P, atomic number 15), as a third
dopant the overall wavelength of the emitted radiation is reduced to below 680nm giving visible red light to
the human eye. Further refinements in the doping process of the PN junction have resulted in a range of
colours spanning the spectrum of visible light as we have seen above as well as infra-red and ultra-violet
wavelengths.
Typical LED Characteristics
Semiconductor
Wavelength Colour VF @ 20mA
Material
GaAs 850-940nm Infra-Red 1.2v
GaAsP 630-660nm Red 1.8v
GaAsP 605-620nm Amber 2.0v
GaAsP:N 585-595nm Yellow 2.2v
AlGaP 550-570nm Green 3.5v
SiC 430-505nm Blue 3.6v
GaInN 450nm White 4.0v
By mixing together a variety of semiconductor, metal and gas compounds the following list of LEDs can be
produced.
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Liquid crystal display:
We always use devices made up of Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) like computers, digital watches and also
DVD and CD players. They have become very common and have taken a giant leap in the screen industry by
clearly replacing the use of Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT). CRT draws more power than LCD and are also
bigger and heavier. All of us have seen an LCD, but no one knows the exact working of it. Let us take a look
at the working of an LCD.
Figure 2.6: LCD
The article below is developed as two sections:-
1. Basics of LCD Displays 2. Working Principle of LCD
Note:- If you are looking for a note on technical specifications of LCD Displays for Interfacing it with micro
controllers:- here we have a great article on the same:- A Note on Character LCD Display.If you want to
know about the invention history of LCD go through the article:- Invention History of Liquid Crystal
Display (LCD).
We get the definition of LCD from the name “Liquid Crystal” itself. It is actually a combination of two
states of matter – the solid and the liquid. They have both the properties of solids and liquids and maintain
their respective states with respect to another. Solids usually maintain their state unlike liquids who change
their orientation and move everywhere in the particular liquid. Further studies have showed that liquid
crystal materials show more of a liquid state than that of a solid. It must also be noted that liquid crystals are
more heat sensitive than usual liquids. A little amount of heat can easily turn the liquid crystal into a liquid.
This is the reason why they are also used to make thermometers.
Basics of LCD Displays:
The liquid-crystal display has the distinct advantage of having a low power consumption than the LED. It is
typically of the order of microwatts for the display in comparison to the some order of milliwatts for LEDs.
Low power consumption requirement has made it compatible with MOS integrated logic circuit. Its other
advantages are its low cost, and good contrast. The main drawbacks of LCDs are additional requirement of
light source, a limited temperature range of operation (between 0 and 60° C), low reliability, short operating
life, poor visibility in low ambient lighting, slow speed and the need for an ac drive.
Basic structure of an LCD
A liquid crystal cell consists of a thin layer (about 10 u m) of a liquid crystal sandwiched between two glass
sheets with transparent electrodes deposited on their inside faces. With both glass sheets transparent, the cell
is known as transmittive type cell. When one glass is transparent and the other has a reflective coating, the
cell is called reflective type. The LCD does not produce any illumination of its own. It, in fact, depends
entirely on illumination falling on it from an external source for its visual effect
Types of LCD/Liquid Crystal Displays:
Two types of display available are dynamic scattering display and field effect display.
When dynamic scattering display is energized, the molecules of energized area of the display become tur-
bulent and scatter light in all directions. Consequently, the activated areas take on a frosted glass appearance
resulting in a silver display. Of course, the unenergized areas remain translucent.
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Field effect LCD contains front and back polarizers at right angles to each other. Without electrical exci-
tation, the light coming through the front polarizer is rotated 90° in the fluid.
Now, let us take a look at the different varieties of liquid crystals that are available for industrial purposes.
The most usable liquid crystal among all the others is the nematic phase liquid crystals.
Nematic Phase LCD:
The greatest advantage of a nematic phase liquid crystal substance is that it can bring about predictable
controlled changes according to the electric current passed through them. All the liquid crystals are
according to their reaction on temperature difference and also the nature of the substance.
Twisted Nematics, a particular nematic substance is twisted naturally. When a known voltage is applied to
the substance, it gets untwisted in varying degrees according to our requirement. This in turn is useful in
controlling the passage of light. A nematic phase liquid crystal can be again classified on the basis in which
the molecules orient themselves in respect to each other. This change in orientation mainly depends on the
director, which can be anything ranging from a magnetic field to a surface with microscopic grooves.
Classification includes Smectic and also cholesteric. Smectic can be again classified as smectic C, in which
the molecules in each layer tilt at an angle from the previous layer. Cholesteric, on the other hand has
molecules that twist slightly from one layer to the next, causing a spiral like design. There are also
combinations of these two called Ferro-electric liquid crystals (FLC), which include cholesteric molecules in
a smectic C type molecule so that the spiral nature of these molecules allows the microsecond switching
response time. This makes FLCs to be of good use in advanced displays.
Liquid crystal molecules are further classified into thermotropic and lyotropic crystals. The former changes
proportionally with respect to changes in pressure and temperature. They are further divided into nematic
and isotropic. Nematic liquid crystals have a fixed order of pattern while isotropic liquid crystals are
distributed randomly. The lyotropic crystal depends on the type of solvent they are mixed with. They are
therefore useful in making detergents and soaps.
Making of LCD:
▪ Though the making of LCD is rather simple there are certain facts that should be noted while making
it.
▪ The basic structure of an LCD should be controllably changed with respect to the applied electric
current.
▪ The light that is used on the LCD can be polarized.
▪ Liquid crystals should be able to both transmit and change polarized light.
▪ There are transparent substances that can conduct electricity.
Figure 2.6: Working of LCD
To make an LCD, you need to take two polarized glass pieces. The glass which does not have a polarized
film on it must be rubbed with a special polymer which creates microscopic grooves in the surface. It must
also be noted that the grooves are on the same direction as the polarizing film. Then, all you need to do is to
42 a coating of nematic liquid crystals to one of the filters. The grooves will cause the first layer of
add
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molecules to align with the filter’s orientation. At right angle to the first piece, you must then add a second
piece of glass along with the polarizing film. Till the uppermost layer is at a 90-degree angle to the bottom,
each successive layer of TN molecules will keep on twisting. The first filter will naturally be polarized as the
light strikes it at the beginning. Thus the light passes through each layer and is guided on to the next with
the help of molecules. When this happens, the molecules tend to change the plane of vibration of the light to
match their own angle. When the light reaches the far side of the liquid crystal substance, it vibrates at the
same angle as the final layer of molecules. The light is only allowed an entrance if the second polarized glass
filter is same as the final layer. Take a look at the figure above.
Working of LCD:
The main principle behind liquid crystal molecules is that when an electric current is applied to them, they
tend to untwist. This causes a change in the light angle passing through them. This causes a change in the
angle of the top polarizing filter with respect to it. So little light is allowed to pass through that particular
area of LCD. Thus that area becomes darker comparing to others.
For making an LCD screen, a reflective mirror has to be setup in the back. An electrode plane made of
indium-tin oxide is kept on top and a glass with a polarizing film is also added on the bottom side. The entire
area of the LCD has to be covered by a common electrode and above it should be the liquid crystal
substance. Next comes another piece of glass with an electrode in the shape of the rectangle on the bottom
and, on top, another polarizing film. It must be noted that both of them are kept at right angles. When there
is no current, the light passes through the front of the LCD it will be reflected by the mirror and bounced
back. As the electrode is connected to a temporary battery the current from it will cause the liquid crystals
between the common-plane electrode and the electrode shaped like a rectangle to untwist. Thus the light is
blocked from passing through. Thus that particular rectangular area appears blank.
Photodiode Theory of Operation:
A silicon photodiode is a solid-state device which converts incident light into an electric current. It consists
of a shallow diffused p-n junction, normally a p-on-n configuration although “P-type” devices (n-on-p) are
available for enhanced responsivity in the 1µ m region. Modern day silicon photodiodes are generally made
by planar diffusion or ion-implantation methods.
Figure 2.7: Operation of Photodiode
In the p-on-n planar diffused configuration, shown in the figure, the junction edge emerges on the top
surface of the silicon chip, where it is passivated by a thermally grown oxide layer.
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Basic photodiode physics:
The p-n junction and the depletion region are of major importance to the operation of a photodiode. These
photodiode regions are created when the p-type dopant with acceptor
impurities (excess holes), comes into contact with the n-type silicon, doped with donor impurities (excess
electrons). The holes and the electrons, each experiencing a lower potential on the opposite side of the
junction, begin to flow across the junction into their respective lower potential areas. This charge movement
establishes a depletion region, which has an electric field opposite and equal to the low potential field, and
hence no more current flows.
When photons of energy greater than 1.1eV (the bandgap of silicon) fall on the device, they are absorbed
and electron-hole pairs are created. The depth at which the photons are absorbed depends upon their energy;
the lower the energy of the photons, the deeper they are absorbed. The electron-hole pairs drift apart, and
when the minority carriers reach the junction, they are swept across by the electric field. If the two sides are
electrically connected, an external current flows through the connection. If the created minority carriers of
that region recombine with the bulk carriers of that region before reaching the junction field, the carriers are
lost and no external current flows.
The equivalent circuit of a photodiode is shown in the figure below. The photodiode behaves as a current
source when illuminated. When operated without bias, this current is distributed between the internal shunt
resistance and external load resistor. In this mode, a voltage develops which creates a forward bias, thus
reducing its ability to remain a constant current source. When operated with a reverse voltage bias, the
photodiode becomes an ideal current source.
Figure 2.8: Equivalent Circuit of Photodiode
ID = Dark current, Amps
IS = Light Signal Current (IS=RPO)
R = Photodiode responsivity at wavelength of irradiance, Amps/Watt
PO = Light power incident on photodiode active area, Watts
RSH = Shunt Resistance, Ohms
I*N = Noise Current, Amps rms
C = Junction Capacitance, Farads
RS = Series Resistance, Ohms
RL = Load Resistance, Ohms
Silicon photodiodes are typically sensitive to light in the spectral range from about 200 nm (near UV) to
about 1100 nm (near IR). Photosensor responsivity (R) is measured in Amperes (A) of photocurrent
generated per Watt (W) of incident light power. Actual light levels in most applications typically range from
picoWatts to milliWatts, which generate photocurrents from pico-Amps to milli-Amps. Responsivity in
Amps/Watt
44
varies with the wavelength of the incident light, with peak values from 0.4 to 0.7 A/W. The
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silicon photodiode response is well matched to light sources emitting in the UV to near infrared spectrum,
such as HeNe lasers; GaAlAs and GaAs LEDs and laser diodes; and Nd:YAG lasers. Select a detector from
the IR, Blue/Visible or UV series for a spectral response curve best matched to the spectral irradiance of
your light source.
The silicon photodiode response is usually linear within a few tenths of a percent from the minimum
detectable incident light power up to several milliWatts. Response linearity improves with increasing applied
reverse bias and decreasing effective load resistance.
Heating the silicon photodiode shifts its spectral response curve (including the peak) toward longer
wavelengths. Conversely, cooling shifts the response toward shorter wavelengths. The following values are
typical for the temperature dependence of responsivity for different wavelength regions:-
UV to 500nm: -0.1%/°C to -2%/°C
500 to 700nm: ~0%/°C
~900nm: 0.1 %/°C
1064 nm: 0.75%/°C to 0.9%/°C
Modes of operation:
A silicon photodiode can be operated in either the photovoltaic or photoconductive mode. In the photovoltaic
mode, the photodiode is unbiased; while for the photoconductive mode, an external reverse bias is applied.
Mode selection depends upon the speed requirements of the application, and the amount of dark current that
is tolerable. In the photovoltaic mode, dark current is at a minimum. Photodiodes exhibit their fastest
switching speeds when operated in the photoconductive mode.
Photodiodes and Op-Amps can be coupled such that the photodiode operates in a short circuit current mode.
The op-amp functions as a simple current to voltage converter.
Varactor Diode:
Varactor Diode is a reverse biased p-n junction diode, whose capacitance can be varied electrically. As a
result these diodes are also referred to as varicaps, tuning diodes, voltage variable capacitor diodes,
parametric diodes and variable capacitor diodes. It is well known that the operation of the p-n junction
depends on the bias applied which can be either forward or reverse in characteristic. It is also observed that
the span of the depletion region in the p-n junction decreases as the voltage increases in case of forward bias.
On the other hand, the width of the depletion region is seen to increase with an increase in the applied
voltage for the reverse bias scenario. Under such condition, the p-n junction can be considered to be
analogous to a capacitor (Figure 1) where the p and n layers represent the two plates of the capacitor while
the depletion region acts as a
.
45 Figure 2.9: Varactor diode as Parallel plate
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Dielectric separating them. Thus one can apply the formula used to compute the capacitance of a parallel
plate capacitor even to the varactor diode.
Hence, mathematical expression for the capacitance of varactor diode is given by
Where, Cj is the total capacitance of the junction. ε is the permittivity of the semiconductor material. A is the
cross-sectional area of the junction. d is the width of the depletion region. Further the relationship between
the capacitance and the reverse bias
voltage is given as
Where, Cj is the capacitance of the varactor diode. C is the capacitance of the varactor diode when unbiased.
K is the constant, often considered to be 1. Vb is the barrier potential. VR is the applied reverse voltage. m is
the material dependent constant. In addition, the electrical circuit equivalent of a varactor diode and its
symbol are shown by Figure 2. This indicates that the maximum operating frequency of the circuit is
dependent on the series resistance (Rs) and the diode capacitance, which can be mathematically given as
In addition, the quality factor of the varactor diode is given by the equation
Where, F and f represent the cut-off frequency and the operating frequency, respectively.
Figure 2.10; (a) Equivalent circuit of varactor diode (b) Symbolic representation
As a result, one can conclude that the capacitance of the varactor diode can be varied by varying the
magnitude of the reverse bias voltage as it varies the width of the depletion region, d. Also it is evident from
the capacitance equation that d is inversely proportional to C. This means that the junction capacitance of the
varactor diode decreases with an increase in the depletion region width caused to due to an increase in the
reverse bias voltage (VR), as shown by the graph in Figure 3. Meanwhile it is important to note that although
all the diodes exhibit the similar property, varactor diodes are specially manufactured to achieve the
objective.
46 Figure 2.11: Characteristics of Varactor diode
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In other words varactor diodes are manufactured with an intention to obtain a definite C-V curve
which can be accomplished by controlling the level of doping during the process of manufacture. Depending
on this, varactor diodes can be classified into two types viz., abrupt varactor diodes and hyper-abrupt
varactor diodes, depending on whether the p-n junction diode is linearly or non-linearly doped
(respectively).
These varactor diodes are advantageous as they are compact in size, economical, reliable and less prone to
noise when compared to other diodes. Hence, they are used in
1. Tuning circuits to replace the old style variable capacitor tuning of FM radio
2. Small remote control circuits
3. Tank circuits of receiver or transmitter for auto-tuning as in case of TV
4. Signal modulation and demodulation.
5. Microwave frequency multipliers as a component of LC resonant circuit
6. Very low noise microwave parametric amplifiers
7. AFC circuits
8. Adjusting bridge circuits
9. Adjustable bandpass filters
10. Voltage Controlled Oscillators (VCOs)
11. RF phase shifters
12. Frequency multipliers
Tunnel Diode:
The application of transistors is very high in frequency range are hampered due to the transit time and other
effects. Many devices use the negative conductance property of semiconductors for high frequency
applications. Tunnel diode is one of the most commonly used negative conductance devices. It is also known
as Esaki diode after L. Esaki for his work on this effect. This diode is a two terminal device. The
concentration of dopants in both p and n region is very high. It is about 1024 - 1025 m-3 the p-n junction is
also abrupt. For this reasons, the depletion layer width is very small. In the current voltage characteristics of
tunnel diode, we can find a negative slope region when forward bias is applied. Quantum mechanical
tunneling is responsible for the phenomenon and thus this device is named as tunnel diode.
The doping is very high so at absolute zero temperature the Fermi levels lies within the bias of the
semiconductors. When no bias is applied any current flows through the junction.
Characteristics of Tunnel Diode
When reverse bias is applied the Fermi level of p - side becomes higher than the Fermi level of n-side.
Hence, the tunneling of electrons from the balance band of p-side to the conduction band of n-side takes
place. With the interments of the reverse bias the tunnel current also increases. When forward junction is a
applied the Fermi level of n - side becomes higher that the Fermi level of p - side thus the tunneling of
electrons from the n - side to p - side takes place. The amount of the tunnel current is very large than the
normal junction current. When the forward bias is increased, the tunnel current is increased up to certain
limit. When the band edge of n - side is same with the Fermi level in p - side the tunnel current is maximum
with the further increment in the forward bias the tunnel current decreases and we get the desired negative
conduction region. When the forward bias is raised further, normal p-n junction current is obtained which is
exponentially proportional to the applied voltage. The V - I characteristics of the tunnel diode is given,
47
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Figure 2.12: Characteristics of Tunnel diode
The negative resistance is used to achieve oscillation and often Ck+ function is of very high frequency
frequencies.
Figure 2.13: Symbol of Tunnel diode
Applications of Tunnel Diode:
Tunnel diode is a type of sc diode which is capable of very fast and in microwave frequency range. It was
the quantum mechanical effect which is known as tunneling. It is ideal for fast oscillators and receivers for
its negative slope characteristics. But it cannot be used in large integrated circuits – that’s why it’s an
applications are limited.
SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier):
It is a four layered PNPN device and is a prominent member of thyristor family. It consists of three
diodes connected back to back with gate connection or two complementary transistors connected back to
back. It is widely used as switching device in power control applications. It can switch ON for variable
length of time and delivers selected amount of power to load. It can control loads, by switching the current
OFF and ON up to many thousand times a second. Hence it posses advantages of RHEOSTAT and a switch
with none of their disadvantages.
Construction:
As shown in figure it is a four layered three terminal device. Layers being alternately P-type and N-
type silicon. Junctions are marked J1J2J3. Whereas terminals are anode (A), cathode (C) and gate (G). The
gate
48 terminal is connected to inner P-type layer and it controls the firing or switching of SCR.
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Biasing:
The biasing of SCR is shown in figure . The junction J1 and J3 become forward biased while J2 is
reverse biased. In figure polarity is reversed. It is seen that now junction J1 and J3 become reverse biased
and only J2 is forward biased
Figure 2.14: Circuit and Symbol of SCR
Operation of SCR:
• In SCR a load is connected in series with anode and is kept at positive potential with respect to
cathode when the gate is open ile., no voltage is applied at the gate. Under this condition, junctions
J1 and J3 are forward biased and junction J2 is reverse biased. Due to this, no current flows through
RL and hence the SCR is cut off.
• However when the anode voltage is increased gradually to break over voltage, then breakdown
occurs at junction J2 due to this charge carriers are able to flow from cathode to anode easily, hence
SCR starts conducting and is said to be in ON state. The SCR offers very small forward resistance
so that it allow infinitely high current. The current flowing thorough the SCR is limited only by the
anode voltage and external resistance.
• If the battery connections of the applied voltage are reversed as shown in figure the junction J1 and
J3 are reverse biased. J2 is forward biased. If the applied reverse voltage is small the SCR is OFF
and hence no current flows through the device. If the reverse voltage is increased to reverse
breakdown voltage, the junction J1 and J3 will breakdown due to avalanche effect. This causes
current to flow through the SCR.
• From the above discussion we conclude that the SCR can be used to conduct only in forward
direction. Therefore SCR is called as “unidirectional device”.
V-I Characteristics of SCR:
The “forward characteristics’ of SCR may be obtained using the figure. The volt-ampere characteristics of
a SCR for IG =0 is shown in figure.
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Figure 2.15: Circuit for V-I characteristics of SCR Vr in volts, VB01 for
I0 = 0, VB02 for IG=1ma
1. As the applied anode to cathode voltage is increased above zero, a very small current flows through
the device, under this condition the SCR is off. It will be continued until, the applied voltage the
forward break over voltage (point A).
2. If the anode- cathode (applied) voltage exceeds the break over voltage it conducts heavily the SCR
turn ON and anode to cathode voltage decreases quickly to a point B because, under this condition
the SCR offers very low resistance hence it drops very low voltage across it.
3. At this stage is SCR allows more current to flow through it. The amplitude of the current is
depending upon the supply voltage and load resistance connected in the circuit.
4. The current corresponding to the point ‘B’ is called the “holding current (IH)”. It can be defined as
the minimum value of anode current required to keep the SCR in ON State. If the SCR falls below
this holding current the SCR turns OFF.
5. If the value of the gate current IG is increased above zero. (IG >0) the SCR turns ON even at lower
break over voltage as shown in figure.
6. The region lying between the points OA is called forward blocking region. In this region SCR is
ON.
7. Once the SCR is switched ON then the gate looses all the control. So SCR cannot be turned OFF by
varying the gate voltage. It is possible only by reducing the applied voltage.
To obtain the “reverse characteristics” the following points are followed.
1. In this case the SCR is reverse biased. If the applied reverse voltage is increased above zero, hence a
very small current flows through the SCR. Under this condition the SCR is OFF, it continues till the
applied reverse voltage reaches breakdown voltage.
2. As the applied reverse voltage is increased above the breakdown voltage, the avalanche breakdown
occurs hence SCR starts conducting in the reverse direction. It is shown in curve DE. Suppose the
applied voltage is increased to a very high value, the device may get damaged.
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Figure 2.16: Structure and symbol of SCR
Figure 2.17: Characteristics of SCR
The full form of SCR is Silicon Controlled Rectifier.
• It is a three terminal device.
• It has 4 layers of semiconductor.
• It is a unidirectional switch. It conducts current only in one direction. Hence it can control DC power only
OR it can control forward biased half cycle of AC input in the load.
• Basically SCR can only control either positive or negative half cycle of AC input.
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ZENER DIODES
The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode consisting of a silicon PN junction. When biased
in the forward direction it behaves just like a normal signal diode passing the rated current, but as soon as
a reverse voltage applied across the zener diode exceeds the rated voltage of the device, the diodes
breakdown voltage VBis reached at which point a process called Avalanche Breakdown occurs in the
semiconductor depletion layer and a current starts to flow through the diode to limit this increase in
voltage.
The current now flowing through the zener diode increases dramatically to the maximum circuit value
(which is usually limited by a series resistor) and once achived this reverse saturation current remains
fairly constant over a wide range of applied voltages. This breakdown voltage point, VBis called the
"zener voltage" for zener diodes and can range from less than one volt to hundreds of volts.
The point at which the zener voltage triggers the current to flow through the diode can be very accurately
controlled (to less than 1% tolerance) in the doping stage of the diodes semiconductor construction giving
the diode a specific zener breakdown voltage, (Vz) for example, 4.3V or 7.5V. This zener breakdown
voltage on the I-V curve is almost a vertical straight line.
Zener Diode I-V Characteristics
The Zener Diode is used in its "reverse bias" or reverse breakdown mode, i.e. the diodes anode connects
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to the negative supply. From the I-V characteristics curve above, we can see that the zener diode has a region in
its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant negative voltage regardless of the value of the current flowing
through the diode and remains nearly constant even with large changes in current as long as the zener diodes
current remains between the breakdown current IZ(min)and the maximum current ratingIZ(max).
This ability to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or stabilise a voltage source against supply or
load variations. The fact that the voltage across the diode in the breakdown region is almost constant turns out to
be an important application of the zener diode as a voltage regulator. The function of a regulator is to provide a
constant output voltage to a load connected in parallel with it in spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or the
variation in the load current and the zener diode will continue to regulate the voltage until the diodes current falls
below the minimum IZ(min)value in the reverse breakdown region.
TUNNELDIODE:
A tunnel diode or Esaki diode is a type of semiconductor diode which is capable of very fast
operation, well into the microwave frequency region, by using quantum mechanical effects.
It was invented in August 1957 by Leo Esaki when he was with Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo, now known as
Sony. In 1973 he received the Nobel Prize in Physics, jointly with Brian Josephson, for discovering the
electron tunneling effect used in these diodes. Robert Noyce independently came up with the idea of a
tunnel diode while working for William Shockley, but was discouraged from pursuing it.
Fig:Tunnel diode schematic symbol
These diodes have a heavily dopedp–n junction only some 10 nm (100 Å) wide. The heavy doping
results in a broken bandgap, where conduction band electron states on the n-side are more or less aligned
with valence band hole states on the p-side.
Tunnel diodes were manufactured by Sony for the first time in 1957 followed by GeneralElectric and other
companies from about 1960, and are still made in low volume today. Tunnel diodes are usually made from
germanium, but can also be made in gallium arsenide and silicon materials. They can be used as
oscillators, amplifiers, frequency converters anddetectors.
Tunnelling Phenomenon:
In a conventional semiconductor diode, conduction takes place while the p–n junction is forward biased
and blocks current flow when the junction is reverse biased. This occurs up to a point known as the
“reverse breakdown voltage” when conduction begins (often accompanied by destruction of the
device). In the tunnel diode, the dopant concentration in the p and n layers are increased to the point
53
where the reverse breakdown voltage becomes zero and the diode conducts in the reverse direction.
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However, when forward-biased, an odd effect occurs called
“quantum mechanical tunnelling” which gives rise to a region where an increase in forward voltage
is accompanied by a decrease in forward current. This negative resistance region can be exploited in a
solid state version of the dynatron oscillator which normally uses a tetrodethermionic valve (or tube).
Forward bias operation
Under normal forward bias operation, as voltage begins to increase, electrons at first tunnel through
the very narrow p–n junction barrier because filled electron states in the conduction band on the n-side
become aligned with empty valence band hole states on the p-side of the p-n junction. As voltage
increases further these states become more misaligned and the current drops – this is called negative
resistance because current decreases with increasing voltage. As voltage increases yet further, the diode
begins to operate as a normal diode, where electrons travel by conduction across the p–n junction,
and no longer by tunneling through the p–n junction barrier. Thus the most important operating region
for a tunnel diode is the negative resistance region.
Reverse bias operation
When used in the reverse direction they are called back diodes and can act as fast rectifiers with zero
offset voltage and extreme linearity for power signals (they have an accurate square law characteristic
in the reverse direction).
Under reverse bias filled states on the p-side become increasingly aligned with empty states on the n-
side and electrons now tunnel through the pn junction barrier in reverse direction – this is the Zener
effect that also occurs in zener diodes.
Technical comparisons
A rough approximation of the VI curve for a tunnel diode, showing the negative differential
54
resistance region.The Japanese physicist Leo Esaki invented the tunnel diode in 1958.It consists of a p-n
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junction with highly doped regions. Because of the thinness of the junction, the electrons can pass through
the potential barrier of the dam layer at a suitable polarization, reaching the energy states on the other
sides of the junction. The current-voltage characteristic of the diode is represented in Figure 1. In this
sketch i p and Up are the peak, and iv and Uv are the valley values for the current and voltage
respectively. The form of this dependence can be qualitatively explained by considering the tunneling
processes that take place in a thin p-njunction.
Energy band structure of tunnel diode:
For the degenerated semiconductors, the energy band diagram at thermal equilibrium is presented in
Figure2.
In Figure 3 the tunneling processes in different points of the current voltage characteristic for the tunnel
diode are presented.
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In Fig. 3a, the thermal equilibrium situation corresponding to point 1
from the Fig. 1 diagram presented; in this case the electrons will uniformly tunnel in both
directions, so the current will be null. At a direct polarization, a non-zero electron flow will tunnel
from the occupied states of the conduction band of the n region to the emptystates
of the valence band from the p region. The current attains a maximum when the overlap of the empty
and occupied states reaches the maximum value; a minimum value is reached when there are no states
for tunneling on the sides of the barrier. In this case, the tunnel current should drop to zero.
Advantages of tunnel diodes:
Environmental immunity i.e peak point is not a function oftemperature.
lowcost.
low noise.
low powerconsumption.
High speed i.e tunneling takes place very fast at the speed of light in the order of
nanoseconds
simplicity i.e a tunnel diode can be used along with a d.c supply and a few passive
elements to obtain various applicationcircuits.
Applications for tunnel diodes:
local oscillators for UHF televisiontuners
Trigger circuits inoscilloscopes
High speed counter circuits and very fast-rise time pulse generatorcircuits
The tunnel diode can also be used as low-noise microwaveamplifier.
VARACTORDIODE:
Varactor diode is a special type of diode which uses transition capacitance property i.e voltage variable
capacitance .These are also called as varicap,VVC(voltage variable capacitance) or tuning diodes.
The varactor diode symbol is shown below with a diagram representation.
Fig:symbol of varactor diode
When a reverse voltage is applied to a PN junction , the holes in the p-region are attracted to the anode
terminal and electrons in the n-region are attracted to the cathode terminal creating a region where
56 there is little current.This region ,the depletion region, is essentially devoid of carriers and behaves as
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the dielectric of a capacitor.
The depletion region increases as reverse voltage across it increases; and since capacitance varies
inversely as dielectric thickness, the junction capacitance will decrease as the voltage across the PN
junction increases. So by varying the reverse voltage across a PN junction the junction capacitance can
be varied .This is shown in the typical varactor voltage-capacitance curve below.
Fig:voltage- capacitance curve
Notice the nonlinear increase in capacitance as the reverse voltage is decreased. This nonlinearity allows
the varactor to be used also as a harmonic generator.
Major varactor considerations are:
(a) Capacitancevalue
(b) Voltage
(c) Variation in capacitance withvoltage.
(d) Maximum workingvoltage
(e) Leakage current
Applications:
Tunedcircuits.
FMmodulators
Automatic frequency controldevices
Adjustable bandpassfilters
Parametric amplifiers
Televisionreceivers.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OFSCR
A silicon-controlled rectifier (or semiconductor-controlled rectifier) is a four-layer solid state
device that controls current. The name "silicon controlled rectifier" or SCR is General Electric's
trade name for a type of thyristor. The SCR was developed by a team of power engineers led by
Gordon Hall and commercialized by Frank W. "Bill" Gutzwiller in 1957.symbol of SCR is given
below:
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Fig : symbol of SCR
Construction of SCR
An SCR consists of four layers of alternating P and N type semiconductor materials. Silicon is
used as the intrinsic semiconductor, to which the proper dopants are added. The junctions are
either diffused or alloyed. The planar construction is used for low power SCRs (and all the
junctions are diffused). The mesa type construction is used for high power SCRs. In this case,
junction J2 is obtained by the diffusion method and then the outer two layers are alloyed to it,
since the PNPN pellet is required to handle large currents. It is properly braced with tungsten or
molybdenum plates to provide greater mechanical strength. One of these plates is hard soldered
to a copper stud, which is threaded for attachment of heat sink. The doping of PNPN will depend
ontheapplicationofSCR,sinceitscharacteristicsaresimilartothoseofthethyratron.Today,
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the term thyristor applies to the larger family of multilayer devices that exhibit bistable state-
change behaviour, that is, switching either ON or OFF.
The operation of a SCR and other thyristors can be understood in terms of a pair of tightly
coupled bipolar junction transistors, arranged to cause the self-latching action.The following
figures are construction of SCR,its two transistor model and symbol respectively
Fig: Construction,Two transistor model of SCR and symbol of SCR
. SCR Working Principle
The SCR is a four-layer, three-junction and a three-terminal device and is shown in fig.a. The
end P-region is the anode, the end N-region is the cathode and the inner P-region is the gate. The
anode to cathode is connected in series with the load circuit. Essentially the device is a switch.
Ideally it remains off (voltage blocking state), or appears to have an infinite impedance until both
the anode and gate terminals have suitable positive voltages with respect to the cathode terminal.
The thyristor then switches on and current flows and continues to conduct without further gate
signals. Ideally the thyristor has zero impedance in conduction state. For switching off or
reverting to the blocking state, there must be no gate signal and the anode current must be
reduced to zero. Current can flow only in onedirection.
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In absence of external bias voltages, the majority carrier in each layer diffuses until there is a
built-in voltage that retards further diffusion. Some majority carriers have enough energy to cross
the barrier caused by the retarding electric field at each junction. These carriers then become
minority carriers and can recombine with majority carriers. Minority carriers in each layer can be
accelerated across each junction by the fixed field, but because of absence of external circuit in
this case the sum of majority and minority carrier currents must be zero.
A voltage bias, as shown in figure, and an external circuit to carry current allow internal currents
which include the following terms:
The current Ix is due to
Majority carriers (holes) crossing junctionJ1
Minority carriers crossing junctionJ1
Holes injected at junction J2 diffusing through the N-region and crossing junction J1and
Minority carriers from junction J2 diffusing through the N-region and crossing junction
J1.
V I characteristics of SCR:
As already mentioned, the SCR is a four-layer device with three terminals, namely, the anode,
the cathode and the gate. When the anode is made positive with respect to the cathode, junctions
J1 and J3 are forward biased and junction J2 is reverse-biased and only the leakage current will
flow through the device. The SCR is then said to be in the forward blocking state or in the
forwardmodeoroffstate.Butwhenthecathodeismadepositivewithrespecttotheanode,
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junctions J1 and J3 are reverse-biased, a small reverse leakage current will flow through the SCR
and the SGR is said to be in the reverse blocking state or in reverse mode.
When the anode is positive with respect to cathode i.e. when the SCR is in forward mode, the
SCR does not conduct unless the forward voltage exceeds certain value, called the forward
breakover voltage, VFB0. In non-conducting state, the current through the SCR is the leakage
current which is very small and is negligible. If a positive gate current is supplied, the SCR can
become conducting at a voltage much lesser than forward break-over voltage. The larger the gate
current, lower the break-over voltage. With sufficiently large gate current, the SCR behaves
identical to PN rectifier. Once the SCR is switched on, the forward voltage drop across it is
suddenly reduced to very small value, say about 1 volt. In the conducting or on-state, the current
through the SCR is limited by the external impedance.
When the anode is negative with respect to cathode, that is when the SCR is in reverse mode or
in blocking state no current flows through the SCR except very small leakage current of the order
of few micro-amperes. But if the reverse voltage is increased beyond a certain value, called the
reverse break-over voltage, VRB0avalanche break down takes place. Forward break-over voltage
VFB0is usually higher than reverse breakovervoltage,VRBO.
From the foregoing discussion, it can be seen that the SCR has two stable and reversible
operating states. The change over from off-state to on-state, called turn-on, can be achieved by
increasing the forward voltage beyond VFB0. A more convenient and useful method of turn-on
the device employs the gate drive. If the forward voltage is less than the forward break-over
voltage, VFB0, it can be turned-on by applying a positive voltage between the gate and the
cathode. This method is called the gate control. Another very important feature of the gate is that
once the SCR is triggered to on-state the gate loses itscontrol.
The switching action of gate takes place only when
(i) SCR is forward biased i.e. anode is positive with respect to cathode,and
(ii) Suitable positive voltage is applied between the gate and thecathode.
Once the SCR has been switched on, it has no control on the amount of current flowing through
it. The current through the SCR is entirely controlled by the external impedance connected in the
circuit and the applied voltage. There is, however, a very small, about 1 V, potential drop across
the SCR. The forward current through the SCR can be reduced by reducing the applied voltage
or by increasing the circuit impedance. There is, however, a minimum forward current that must
be maintained to keep the SCR in conducting state. This is called the holding current rating of
SCR. If the current through the SCR is reduced below the level of holding current, the device
returns to off-state or blockingstate.
The SCR can be switched off by reducing the forward current below the level of holding current
which may be done either by reducing the applied voltage or by increasing the circuitimpedance.
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Note : The gate can only trigger or switch-on the SCR, it cannot switch off.
Alternatively the SCR can be switched off by applying negative voltage to the anode (reverse
mode), the SCR naturally will be switched off.
Here one point is worth mentioning, the SCR takes certain time to switch off. The time, called
the turn-off time, must be allowed before forward voltage may be applied again otherwise the
device will switch-on with forward voltage without any gate pulse. The turn-off time is about 15
micro-seconds, which is immaterial when dealing with power frequency, but this becomes
important in the inverter circuits, which are to operate at highfrequency.
Merits of SCR
1. Very small amount of gate drive isrequired.
2. SCRs with high voltage and current ratings areavailable.
3.On state losses of SCR areless.
Demerits of SCR
1.Gate has no control,once SCR is turned on.
2.External circuits are required for turning it off.
3.Operationg frequencies are low.
4.Additional protection circuits are required.
Application of SCRs
SCRs are mainly used in devices where the control of high power, possibly coupled with high
voltage, is demanded. Their operation makes them suitable for use in medium to high-voltage
AC power control applications, such as lamp dimming, regulators and motorcontrol.
SCRs and similar devices are used for rectification of high power AC in high-voltage
directcurrent power transmission
PHOTODIODE:
The photo diode is a semiconductor p-n junction device whose region of operation is limited to
the reverse biased region.The figure below shows the symbol of photodiode
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Fig:Symbol for photodiode.
Principle of operation:
A photodiode is a type of photo detector capable of converting light into either current or
voltage, depending upon the mode of operation. The common, traditional solar cell used to
generate electric solar power is a large area photodiode. A photodiode is designed to operate in
reverse bias. The deletion region width is large.Under normal conditions it carries small reverse
current due to minority charge carriers.When light is incident through glass window on the p-n
junction,photons in the light bombard the p-n junction and some energy s imparted to the valence
electrons.So valence electrons break covalent bonds and become free electrons.Thus more
electron-hole pairs are generated.Thus total number of minority charge carriers increases and
hence reverse current increases.This is the basic principle of operation of photodiode.
Characteristics of photodiode:
When the P-N junction is reverse-biased, a reverse saturation current flows due to thermally
generated holes and electrons being swept across the junction as the minority carriers. With the
increase in temperature of the junction more and more hole-electron pairs are created and so the
reverse saturation current I0 increases. The same effect can be had by illuminating the junction.
When light energy bombards a P-N junction, it dislodges valence electrons. The more light
striking the junction the larger the reverse current in a diode. It is due to generation of more and
more charge carriers with the increase in level of illumination. This is clearly shown in ‘ figure
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for different intensity levels. The dark current is the current that exists when no light is incident.
It is to be noted here that current becomes zero only with a positive applied bias equals to VQ.
The almost equal spacing between the curves for the same increment in luminous flux reveals
that the reverse saturation current I0increases linearly with the luminous flux as shown in figure.
Increase in reverse voltage does not increase the reverse current significantly, because all
available charge carriers are already being swept across the junction. For reducing the reverse
saturation current I0 to zero, it is necessary to forward bias the junction by an amount equal to
barrier potential. Thus the photodiode can be used as a photoconductivedevice.
Fig: characteristics of photodiode
On removal of reverse bias applied across the photodiode, minority charge carriers continue to
be swept across the junction while the diode is illuminated. This has the effect of increasing the
concentration of holes in the P-side and that of electrons in the N-side But the barrier potential is
negative on the P-side and positive on the N-side, and was created by holes flowing from P to N-
side and electrons from N to P-side during fabrication of junction. Thus the flow of minority
carriers tends to reduce the barrier potential.
When an external circuit is connected across the diode terminals, the minority carrier; return to
the original side via the external circuit. The electrons which crossed the junction from P to N-
side now flow out through the N-terminal and into the P-terminal This means that the device is
behaving as a voltage cell with the N-side being the negative terminal and the P-side the positive
terminal. Thus, the photodiode is & photovoltaic device as well as photoconductive device.
Advantages:
The advantages of photodiode are:
1. It can be used as variable resistancedevice.
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2. Highly sensitive to the light.
3. The speed of operation is veryhigh.
Disadvantages:
1.Temperature dependent dark current.
2.poor temperature stability.
3.Current needs amplification for driving other circuits.
Applications:
1.Alarm system.
2.counting system.
Problems:
1. In a particular application single phase half wave rectifier using SCR is used.The average load
voltage is 80V.If supply voltage is 230V,50Hz a.c.find the firing angle of the SCR.
2. In a particular application single phase half wave rectifier using SCR s used.The supply
voltage is 325sin t where =100πrad/sec.Find the time for which SCR remains OFF ifforward
breakover voltage is125V.
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UNIT III
RECTIFIERS AND FILTERS
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Block Diagram of a typical DC Power Supply:
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Module 1 Questions:
1. Draw the circuit diagram of half wave rectifier and explain its operation with the help of
waveforms.
2. Derive the expressions for Ripple Factor and Efficiency of Half Wave Rectifier.
3. Derive the expressions for Average DC current, Average DC Voltage, RMS value of current,
DC Power Output and AC Power Input of a Half Wave Rectifier.
4. Draw the circuit diagram of Full wave rectifier and explain its operation with the help of
waveforms.
5. Derive the expressions for Ripple Factor and Efficiency of Full Wave Rectifier.
6. Derive the expressions for Average DC current, Average DC Voltage, RMS Value of Current,
DC Power Output and AC Power Input of a Full Wave Rectifier.
7. A Half wave rectifier has a load of 3.5kΩ. If the diode resistance and the secondary coil
Resistance together have resistance of 800Ω and the input voltage of 240V, Calculate (i) Peak,
Average and RMS value of the current flowing, (ii) DC power output, (iii) AC Power input
and (iv) efficiency of the rectifier.
8. With neat diagram, explain Bridge Rectifier.
9. A bridge rectifier uses four identical diodes having forward resistance of 5Ω each.
Transformer secondary resistance is 5Ω and the secondary voltage of 30V (rms). Determine
the DC output voltage for IDC = 200mA and the value of the ripple voltage.
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Module 2 Questions:
1. Draw the circuit of capacitor filter and explain its operation.
2. Derive the expression for ripple factor of HWR and FWR with capacitor filter.
3. Draw the circuit of inductor filter and explain its operation.
4. Derive the expression for ripple factor of inductor filter. Mention the need of Bleeder resistor.
5. Discuss the L Section Filter with neat diagram.
6. Derive the Ripple Factor For L Section Filter.
7. Derive the expression for Ripple Factor of CLC Filter.
8. Compare the different types of filter circuits in terms of ripple factors.
50
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ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS UNIT-3
Unit- 3
BJT Circuits at DC
Applying the BJT in Amplifier Design
Voltage Amplifier
Voltage Transfer Characteristic (VTC)
Small-Signal Voltage Gain
Determining the VTC by Graphical Analysis
Q-Point
Small-Signal Operation and Models
The Transconductance
Input Resistance at the Base
Input Resistance at the Emitter
Voltage Gain
Separating the Signal and the DC Quantities
The Hybrid-π Model
The T Model
Basic BJT Amplifier Configurations
Common-Emitter (CE) amplifier without and with emitter resistance
Common-Base (CB) amplifier
Common-Collector (CC) amplifier or Emitter Follower
Biasing in BJT Amplifier Circuits
Fixed Bias
Self Bias/Voltage Divider Bias Circuits
Biasing using a Constant-Current Source
CE amplifier – Small Signal Analysis and Design
Transistor Breakdown and Temperature Effects
Problem Solving
VEMU IT, ECE Page 1
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ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS UNIT-3
3.1 BJT Circuits at DC
Consider the analysis of BJT circuits to which only dc voltages are applied.
In the following examples we will use the simple model in which |VBE| of a conducting
transistor is 0.7 V and |VCE| of a saturated transistor is 0.2 V.
The Conditions and Models for the Operation of the BJT in Various Modes as shown in
Table 3.1
Table 3.1 Conditions and Models for the Operation of the BJT in Various Modes
VEMU IT, ECE Page 2
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ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS UNIT-3
3.1.1 Example: Problems on Active Mode
Analyze this circuit to determine all node voltages and branch currents. We will assume that
βis specified to be 100.
Fig.3.1 Analysis of the circuit for Example 3.1.1: (a) circuit; (b) circuit redrawn to remind the
reader of the convention used to show connections to the power supply;
(c) analysis with the steps numbered.
VEMU IT, ECE Page 3
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ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS UNIT-3
Solution:
Glancing at the circuit in Fig. 3.1(a), we note that the base is connected to +4 V and the
emitter is connected to ground through a resistance RE. Therefore, it is safe to conclude that
the base–emitter junction will be forward biased. Assuming that this is the case and
assuming that VBE is approximately 0.7 V, it follows that the emitter voltage will be
Since the collector is connected through R C to the +10-V power supply, it appears possible
that the collector voltage will be higher than the base voltage (VC > VB), which implies
active-mode operation.
Since the base is at +4 V, the collector–base junction is reverse biased by 1.3 V, and the
transistor is indeed in the active mode as assumed.
3.1.2 Example: Problems on Saturation Mode
Analyze the circuit of Fig. 3.2(a) to determine the voltages at all nodes and the currents
through all branches. Assume that the transistor β is specified to be at least 50.
VEMU IT, ECE Page 4
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ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS UNIT-3
Figure 3.2 Analysis of the circuit for Example 3.1.2.
Note that the circled numbers indicate the order of the analysis steps.
Solution:
With +6 V at the base, the base–emitter junction will be forward biased; thus,
Now, assuming active-mode operation, IC = αIE ≈IE; thus,
Since the collector voltage calculated appears to be less than the base voltage by 3.52 V, it
follows that our original assumption of active-mode operation is incorrect. In fact, the
transistor has to be in the saturation mode. Assuming this to be the case, the values of VE
and IE will remain unchanged. The collector voltage, however, becomes
VEMU IT, ECE Page 5
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ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS UNIT-3
3.1.3 Example: Problems on Cutoff Mode
Analyze the circuit in Fig.3.3 (a) to determine the voltages at all nodes and the currents
through all branches.
Figure 3.3 Example 3.1.3: (a) circuit; (b) analysis, with the order of the analysis steps
indicated by circled numbers.
Since the base is at zero volts and the emitter is connected to ground through RE, the base–
emitter junction cannot conduct and the emitter current is zero.
Note that this situation will obtain as long as the voltage at the base is less than 0.5 V or so.
Also, the collector–base junction cannot conduct, since the n-type collector is connected
through RC to the positive power supply while the p-type base is at ground.
It follows that the collector current will be zero.
The base current will also have to be zero, and the transistor is in the cutoff mode of
operation.
The emitter voltage will be zero, while the collector voltage will be equal to +10 V, since the
voltage drops across RE and RC are zero. Figure 3.3 (b) shows the analysis details.
VEMU IT, ECE Page 6
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ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS UNIT-3
3.2 Applying the BJT in Amplifier Design
The basis for this important application is that when operated in the active mode, the BJT
functions as a voltage-controlled current source: the base–emitter voltage (vBE) controls the
collector current(iC)
Although the control relationship is nonlinear (exponential)
We will shortly devise a method for obtaining almost-linear amplification from this
fundamentally nonlinear device.
3.2.1 Voltage Amplifier
Voltage-controlled current source can serve as a transconductance amplifier, that is, an
amplifier whose input signal is a voltage and whose output signal is a current.
A simple way to convert a transconductance amplifier to a voltage amplifier is to pass the
output current through a resistor and take the voltage across the resistor as the output.
Doing this for a BJT results in the simple amplifier circuit shown in Fig. 3.4(a).
Fig.3.4 (a) Simple BJT CE amplifier with input vBE and output vCE. (b) The voltage transfer
characteristic (VTC) of the amplifier in (a).
Here vBE is the input voltage, Rc (known as a load resistance) converts the collector current
to a voltage (Ic Rc ), and Vcc is the supply voltage that powers up the amplifier and, together
with Rc , establishes operation in the active mode, as will be shown shortly.
The output voltage is taken between the collector and ground, rather than simply across Rc.
This is done because of the need to maintain a ground reference throughout the circuit.
The output voltage vCE is given by
𝑣𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑖𝐶 𝑅𝐶 (3.1)
Thus it is an inverted version (note the minus sign) 𝑖𝐶 𝑅𝐶 of that is shifted by the constant
value of the supply voltage 𝑉𝐶𝐶
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ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS UNIT-3
3.2.2 Voltage Transfer Characteristic (VTC)
A very useful tool that yields great insight into the operation of an amplifier circuit is its
voltage transfer characteristic (VTC).
This is simply a plot (or a clearly labeled sketch) of the output voltage versus the input
voltage.
For the BJT amplifier in Fig. 3.4(a), this is the plot of 𝑣𝐵𝐸 versus 𝑣𝐶𝐸 shown in
Fig. 3.4(b).
Cut-off Mode: Observe that for 𝑣𝐵𝐸 lower than about 0.5 V, the transistor is cut off,
𝑖𝐶 = 0 , and, from Eq. (3.1), 𝑣𝐵𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 0. 𝑅𝐶 ⟹ 𝑣𝐵𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 .
Active Mode: As rises 𝑣𝐵𝐸 , the transistor turns on and 𝑣𝐶𝐸 decreases. However, since
initially 𝑣𝐶𝐸 will still be high, the BJT will be operating in the active mode. This
continues as 𝑣𝐶𝐸 is increased until it reaches a value that 𝑣𝐶𝐸 results in becoming lower
than 𝑣𝐵𝐸 by 0.4 volt or so (point Z on the VTC in Fig. 3.4b).
Saturation Mode: For 𝑣𝐵𝐸 greater than that at point Z, the transistor operates in the
saturation region and 𝑣𝐶𝐸 decreases very slowly.
The VTC in Fig.3.4 (b) indicates that the segment of greatest slope (and hence
potentially the largest amplifier gain) is that labeled YZ, which corresponds to operation
in the active mode.
An expression for the segment YZ can be obtained by substituting for 𝑖𝐶 in Eq. (3.1) by
its active-mode value.
𝑣𝐵𝐸
𝑖𝐶 = 𝐼𝑆 e VT (3.2)
Substituting Eq. (3.2) in Eq. (3.1), we will get
𝑣𝐵𝐸
𝑣𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑅𝐶 𝐼𝑆 e VT (3.3)
This is obviously a nonlinear relationship.
Nevertheless, linear (or almost-linear) amplification can be obtained by using the
technique of biasing the BJT.
3.2.3 Biasing the BJT to Obtain Linear Amplification
Fig 3.5 (a) Biasing the BJT CE amplifier at a point Q located on the active-mode segment
of the VTC.
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Biasing enables us to obtain almost-linear amplification from the BJT.
The technique is illustrated in Fig.3.5 (a).
A DC voltage VBE is selected to obtain operation at a point Q on the segment YZ of the
VTC.
How to select an appropriate location for the bias point Q will be discussed shortly.
For the time being, observe that the coordinates of Q are the dc voltages V BE and , VCE
which are related by
𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑅𝐶 𝐼𝑆 e VT (3.4)
Point Q is known as the bias point or the DC operating point.
Also, since at Q no signal component is present, it is also known as the quiescent point
(which is the origin of the symbol Q).
Note that a transistor operating at Q will have a collector current given by
𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝑆 e VT (3.5)
Next, the signal to be amplified 𝑣𝑏𝑒 a function of time t, is superimposed on the bias
voltage 𝑉𝐵𝐸 as shown in Fig. 3.6(a).
Thus the total instantaneous value of becomes
𝑣𝐵𝐸 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝐵𝐸 − 𝑣𝑏𝑒 (t) (3.6)
Figure 3.6 BJT CE amplifier biased at a point Q, with a small voltage signal vbe superimposed on
the dc bias voltage VBE. The resulting output signal vce appears superimposed on the dc collector
voltage VCE. The amplitude of vce is larger than that of vbe by the voltage gain Av.
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The resulting 𝑣𝐶𝐸 (𝑡)can be obtained by substituting this expression for 𝑣𝐵𝐸 (𝑡) into Eq.
(3.4).
Graphically, we can use the VTC to obtain point by point, as illustrated in Fig. 3.6(b).
Here we show the case when vbe is a sine wave of ―small‖ amplitude.
Specifically, the amplitude of vbe is small enough to restrict the excursion of the
instantaneous operating point to a short almost-linear segment of the VTC around the
bias point Q.
The shorter the segment, the greater the linearity achieved, and the closer to an ideal sine
wave the signal component at the output, vce will be.
This is the essence of obtaining linear amplification from the nonlinear BJT.
3.2.4 Small-Signal Voltage Gain
If the input signal Vbe is kept small, the corresponding signal at the output Vce will be
nearly proportional to with the constant of proportionality being the slope of the almost-
linear segment of the VTC around Q.
This is the voltage gain of the amplifier, and its value can be determined by evaluating
the slope of the tangent to the VTC at the bias point Q,
dvCE
Av = | 3.7
dvBE v BE = V BE
𝑉𝐵𝐸
Differentiating 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑅𝐶 𝐼𝑆 e V T w.r.t V ,we obtain
BE
dvCE 1 𝑉 𝐵𝐸
VT = −
1
Av = = 0− 𝑅𝐶 𝐼𝑆 e 𝑅 𝐼
dvBE VT VT 𝐶 𝐶
𝐼𝐶
Av = − 𝑅 3.8
VT 𝐶
We make the following observations on this expression for the voltage gain:
1. The gain is negative, which signifies that the amplifier is inverting; that is, there is a
180 phase shift between the input and the output.
2. The gain is proportional to the collector bias current 𝐼𝐶 and to the load resistance 𝑅𝐶 .
𝑅𝐶 𝐼𝐶 VRC
Av = − =− (3.9)
VT VT
where VRC is the dc voltage drop across RC,
VRC = VCC − VCE (3.10)
The simple expression in Eq. (3.9) indicates that the voltage gain of the amplifier is the
ratio of the dc voltage drop across RC to the thermal voltage VT (≈25 mV at room
temperature).
It follows that to maximize the voltage gain we should use as large a voltage drop across
RC as possible. For a given value of VCC, Eq. (3.10) indicates that to increase VRC we
have to operate at a lower VCE.
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However, reference to Fig. 3.6(b) shows that a lower VCE means a bias point Q close to
the end of the active-region segment, which might not leave sufficient room for the
negative-output signal swing without the amplifier entering the saturation region.
If this happens, the negative peaks of the waveform of vce will be flattened.
Indeed, it is the need to allow sufficient room for output signal swing that determines the
most effective placement of the bias point Q on the active-region segment, YZ, of the
transfer curve.
Placing Q too high on this segment not only results in reduced gain (because V RC is
lower) but could possibly limit the available range of positive signal swing.
At the positive end, the limitation is imposed by the BJT cutting off, in which event the
positive-output peaks would be clipped off at a level equal to VCC.
Finally, it is useful to note that the theoretical maximum gain Av is obtained by biasing
the BJT at the edge of saturation, which of course would not leave any room for negative
signal swing.
The resulting gain is given by
VCC − VCEsat
Av = − (3.11)
VT
Thus,
VCC
Avmax ≅ (3.12)
VT
Although the gain can be increased by using a larger supply voltage, other considerations
come into play when one is determining an appropriate value for V CC.
In fact, the trend has been toward using lower and lower supply voltages, currently
approaching 1 V or so.
At such low supply voltages, large gain values can be obtained by replacing the
resistance RC with a constant-current source.
3.2.5 Determining the VTC by Graphical Analysis
Figure 3.7 shows a graphical method for determining the VTC of the amplifier of Figure
3.6(a).
Although graphical analysis of transistor circuits is rarely employed in practice, it is
useful for us at this stage in gaining greater insight into circuit operation, especially in
answering the question of where to locate the bias point Q.
The graphical analysis is based on the observation that for each value of , the circuit will
be operating at the point of intersection of the corresponding graph and the straight line
representing 𝑣𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑅𝐶 𝐼𝐶 , which can be rewritten in the form
𝑣𝐶𝐸 𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝑅𝐶 𝐼𝐶
= −
𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶
𝑣𝐶𝐸 𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝑣𝐶𝐸
= − 𝐼𝐶 ⟹ 𝐼𝐶 = − (3.13)
𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶
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Figure 3.7 Graphical construction for determining the VTC of the amplifier circuit of
Fig. 3.6(a).
The straight line representing this relationship is superimposed on the
𝑖𝐶 − 𝑣𝐶𝐸 characteristics in Fig. 3.7.
It intersects the horizontal axis at 𝑣𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 and has a slope of − 1 𝑅𝐶 .
Since this straight line represents in effect the load resistance 𝑅𝐶 , it is called the load line.
The VTC is then determined point by point.
Note that we have labeled three important points: point Y at which V, point Q at which
the BJT can be biased for amplifier operation (𝑣𝐵𝐸=𝑉𝐵𝐸 and 𝑣𝐶𝐸=𝑉𝐶𝐸 ), and point Z at
which the BJT leaves the active mode and enters the saturation region.
If the BJT is to be used as a switch, then operating points Y and Z are applicable:
At Y the transistor is off (open switch), and at Z the transistor operates as a low valued
RCEsat resistance and has a small voltage drop (closed switch).
It should be noted, however, that because of the long delay time needed to turn off a
saturated BJT, modern digital integrated circuits no longer utilize the saturated mode of
operation.
3.2.6 Q-Point
The bias point Q is determined by the value of VBE and that of the load resistance RC.
Two important considerations in deciding on the location of Q are the gain and the
allowable signal swing at the output.
To illustrate, consider the VTC shown in Fig. 3.8(b). Here the value of RC is fixed, and
the only variable remaining is the value of VBE.
Since the slope increases as we move closer to point Z, we obtain higher gain by locating
Q as close to Z as possible.
However, the closer Q is to the boundary point Z, the smaller the allowable magnitude of
negative signal swing.
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Thus, as usual in engineering design, we encounter a situation requiring a trade-off.
Figure 3.8 Effect of bias-point location on allowable signal swing: Load line A results in bias
point QA with a corresponding VCE that is too close to VCC and thus limits the positive swing of
vCE. At the other extreme, load line B results in an operating point, QB, too close to the saturation
region, thus limiting the negative swing of vCE.
In deciding on a value RC for it is useful to refer to the plane iC-vCE.
Figure 3.8 shows two load lines resulting in two extreme bias points: Point Q A, is too
close to VCC, resulting in a severe constraint on the positive signal swing of vce
Exceeding the allowable positive maximum results in the positive peaks of the signal
being clipped off, since the BJT will turn off for the part of each cycle near the positive
peak.
We speak of this situation as the circuit not having sufficient ―headroom.‖
Similarly, point QB is too close to the boundary of the saturation region, thus severely
limiting the allowable negative signal swing of vce
Exceeding this limit would result in the transistor entering the saturation region for part
of each cycle near the negative peaks, resulting in a distorted output signal.
We speak of this situation as the circuit not having sufficient ―legroom.‖
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3.3 Small-Signal Operation and Models
Figure 3.9 (a) Conceptual circuit to illustrate the operation of the transistor as an CE amplifier.
(b) The circuit of (a) with the signal source vbe eliminated for dc (bias) analysis.
Consider once more the conceptual amplifier circuit shown in Fig. 3.9(a).
Here the base–emitter junction is forward biased by a dc voltage VBE (battery).
The reverse bias of the collector–base junction is established by connecting the collector
to another power supply of voltage VCC through a resistor RC.
The input signal to be amplified is represented by the voltage source vbe that is
superimposed on VBE.
We consider first the dc bias conditions by setting the signal vbe to zero.
The circuit reduces to that in Fig. 3.9(b), and we can write the following relationships for
the dc currents and voltages:
𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝑆 e VT (3.14)
𝐼
𝐼𝐸 = 𝐶 𝛼 3.15
𝐼𝐶
𝐼𝐵 = 𝛽 (3.16)
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑅𝐶 𝐼𝐶 (3.17)
Obviously, for active-mode operation, VC should be greater than (VB − 0.4) by an
amount that allows for the required signal swing at the collector.
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3.3.1 Collector Current and Transconductance
If a signal vbe is applied as shown in Fig. 3.9(a), the total instantaneous base–emitter
voltage vBE becomes
𝑣𝐵𝐸 = 𝑉𝐵𝐸 + 𝑣𝑏𝑒 (3.18)
Correspondingly, the collector current becomes
𝑣𝐵𝐸 𝑉𝐵𝐸 +𝑣𝑏𝑒 𝑉𝐵𝐸 𝑣𝑏𝑒
𝑖𝐶 = 𝐼𝑆 e VT = 𝐼𝑆 e VT = 𝐼𝑆 e VT . e VT
𝑣𝑏𝑒
𝑖𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 . e V T (3.19)
Here we have expanded the exponential in Eq. (3.19) in a series and retained only the
first two terms. This approximation, which is valid only for vbe less than approximately
10 mV, is referred to as the small-signal approximation.
𝑣𝑏𝑒 2 𝑣𝑏𝑒 3 𝑣𝑏𝑒 4
𝑣𝑏𝑒 V V V
𝑖𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 1 + + T + T + T + ⋯….
VT 2! 3! 4!
𝑣𝑏𝑒
𝑖𝐶 ≅ 𝐼𝐶 1 + (3.20)
VT
Under this approximation, the total collector current is given by Eq. (3.20) and can be
rewritten
𝐼𝐶
𝑖𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝑣𝑏𝑒
VT
𝑖𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝑖𝑐 (3.21)
Thus the collector current is composed of the dc bias value IC and a signal component ic ,
𝐼𝐶
𝑖𝑐 = 𝑣𝑏𝑒 (3.22)
VT
This equation relates the signal current in the collector to the corresponding base–emitter
signal voltage. It can be rewritten as
𝑖𝑐 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑣𝑏𝑒 (3.23)
where gm is called the transconductance, and from Eq. (3.22), it is given by
𝐼𝐶
𝑔𝑚 = (3.24)
VT
We observe that the transconductance of the BJT is directly proportional to the collector
bias current IC.
Thus to obtain a constant predictable value for gm, we need a constant predictable IC.
Finally, we note that BJTs have relatively high transconductance as compared to
MOSFETs.
1 mA
For instance, at IC = 1 mA, 𝑔𝑚 = 25 mV = 40mA/V.
A graphical interpretation for gm is given in Fig. 3.10, where it is shown that gm is equal
to the slope of the iC –vBE characteristic curve at iC = IC (i.e., at the bias point Q). Thus,
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𝜕𝑖𝐶
𝑔𝑚 = |𝑖 = 𝐼𝐶 (3.25)
𝜕𝑣𝐵𝐸 𝐶
Figure 3.10 Linear operation of the transistor under the small-signal condition: A small
signal vbe with a triangular waveform is superimposed on the dc voltage VBE. It gives rise
to a collector signal current ic, also of triangular waveform, superimposed on the dc
current IC. Here, ic = gmvbe, where gm is the slope of the iC–vBE curve at the bias point Q.
The small-signal approximation implies keeping the signal amplitude sufficiently small
that operation is restricted to an almost-linear segment of the iC–vBE exponential curve.
Increasing the signal amplitude will result in the collector current having components
nonlinearly related to vbe.
The analysis above suggests that for small signals (vbe ≪VT), the transistor behaves as a
voltage-controlled current source.
The input port of this controlled source is between base and emitter, and the output port is
between collector and emitter.
The transconductance of the controlled source is gm, and the output resistance is infinite.
The latter ideal property is a result of our first-order model of transistor operation in
which the collector voltage has no effect on the collector current in the active mode.
Practical BJTs have finite output resistance because of the Early effect.
The effect of the output resistance on amplifier performance will be considered later.
3.3.2 The Base Current and the Input Resistance at the Base
To determine the resistance seen by vbe, we first evaluate the total base current i B
𝑖𝐶 𝐼𝐶+ 𝑖𝑐 𝐼𝐶 𝑖𝑐
𝑖𝐵 = = = +
𝛽 𝛽 𝛽 𝛽
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𝐼𝐶
𝐼𝐶 VT 𝑣𝑏𝑒
𝑖𝐵 = +
𝛽 𝛽
𝐼𝐶 1 𝐼𝐶
𝑖𝐵 = + 𝑣 (3.26)
𝛽 𝛽 VT 𝑏𝑒
Thus,
𝑖𝐵 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝑖𝑏 (3.27)
Where IB is equal to 𝐼𝐶 β and the signal component ib is given by
1 𝐼𝐶
𝑖𝑏 = 𝑣 (3.28)
𝛽 VT 𝑏𝑒
Substituting 𝐼𝐶 VT for by gm gives
𝑔𝑚
𝑖𝑏 = 𝑣 (3.29)
𝛽 𝑏𝑒
The small-signal input resistance between base and emitter, looking into the base, is
denoted by rπ and is defined as
𝑣𝑏𝑒
𝑟𝜋 = (3.30)
𝑖𝑏
Using Eq. (3.29) gives
𝛽 𝛽 𝛽 𝑉𝑇
𝑟𝜋 = = = 𝑉𝑇 = (3.31)
𝑔𝑚 𝐼𝐶 /𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐶 𝛽
Thus rπ is directly dependent on β and is inversely proportional to the bias current I C.
Substituting for gm in Eq. (3.31) from Eq. (3.24) and replacing IC /β by IB gives an
alternative expression for rπ ,
𝑉𝑇
𝑟𝜋 = (3.32)
𝐼𝐵
3.3.3 Input Resistance at the Emitter
The total emitter current iE can be determined from
𝑖𝐶 𝐼𝐶+𝑖𝑐 𝐼𝐶 𝑖𝑐
𝑖𝐸 = = = +
𝛼 𝛼 𝛼 𝛼
𝐼𝐶
𝐼𝐶 VT 𝑣𝑏𝑒
𝑖𝐸 = +
𝛼 𝛼
𝐼𝐶 1 𝐼𝐶
𝑖𝐸 = + 𝑣 (3.33)
𝛼 𝛼 VT 𝑏𝑒
Thus,
𝑖𝐸 = 𝐼𝐸 + 𝑖𝑒 (3.34)
Where IE is equal to 𝐼𝐶 α and the signal current ie is given by
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1 𝐼𝐶
𝑖𝑒 = 𝑣 (3.35)
𝛼 VT 𝑏𝑒
Substituting 𝐼𝐶 VT for by gm gives
𝑔𝑚
𝑖𝑒 = 𝑣 (3.36)
𝛼 𝑏𝑒
The small-signal input resistance between base and emitter, looking into the emitter, is
denoted by re and is defined as
𝑣𝑏𝑒
𝑟𝑒 = (3.37)
𝑖𝑒
Using Eq. (3.36) gives
𝛼 𝛼 𝛼 𝑉𝑇
𝑟𝑒 = = = 𝑉𝑇 = (3.38)
𝑔𝑚 𝐼𝐶 /𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐶 𝛼
Thus re is directly dependent on α and is inversely proportional to the bias current IC.
Substituting for gm in Eq. (3.38) from Eq. (3.24) and replacing IC /α by IE gives an
alternative expression for rπ ,
𝑉𝑇
𝑟𝑒 = (3.39)
𝐼𝐸
Relation Between 𝒓𝝅 and 𝒓𝒆
The relationship between rπ and re can be found by combining their respective definitions
𝑣𝑏𝑒 = 𝑖𝑏 𝑟𝜋 = 𝑖𝑒 𝑟𝑒
Thus,
𝑖𝑒
𝑟𝜋 = 𝑟𝑒
𝑖𝑏
𝛼𝑖𝑐
𝑟𝜋 = 𝑟
𝛽𝑖𝑐 𝑒
𝛽 𝛽 + 1 𝑖𝑐
𝑟𝜋 = 𝑟𝑒
𝛽𝑖𝑐
𝑟𝜋 = 𝛽 + 1 𝑟𝑒 (3.40)
Figure 3.11 Illustrating the definition of rπ and re.
Figure 3.11 illustrates the definition of rπ and re.
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3.3.4 Voltage Gain
Then the total collector voltage vCE will be
𝑣𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑖𝐶 𝑅𝐶
𝑣𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − (𝐼𝐶 + 𝑖𝑐 )𝑅𝐶
𝑣𝐶𝐸 = (𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 ) + 𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝐶
𝑣𝐶𝐸 = 𝑣𝐶𝐸 − 𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝐶 (3.41)
Here the quantity VCE is the dc bias voltage at the collector, and the signal voltage is
given by
𝑣𝑐𝑒 = −𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝐶 = −(𝑔𝑚 𝑣𝑏𝑒 )𝑅𝐶
𝑣𝑐𝑒 = −𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝐶 = −𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 𝑣𝑏𝑒 (3.42)
Thus the voltage gain of this amplifier Av is
𝑣𝑐𝑒
𝐴𝑣 = = −𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 (3.43)
𝑣𝑏𝑒
Here again we note that because gm is directly proportional to the collector bias current,
the gain will be as stable as the collector bias current is made.
Substituting 𝑔𝑚 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑉𝑇 in Equ.(3.43), we get
𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶
𝐴𝑣 = − (3.44)
𝑉𝑇
3.3.5 Separating the Signal and the DC Quantities
Figure 3.12 (a) Conceptual circuit to illustrate the operation of the transistor as an CE amplifier.
(b) The circuit of (a) with the signal source vbe eliminated for dc (bias) analysis.
The analysis above indicates that every current and voltage in the amplifier circuit of Fig.
3.12(a) is composed of two components: a dc component and a signal component.
For instance, vBE = VBE + vbe, iC = IC + ic, and so on.
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The dc components are determined from the dc circuit given in Fig. 3.12(b) and from the
relationships imposed by the transistor (Eqs. 3.45 through 3.47).
𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝑆 e VT (3.45)
𝐼𝐶
𝐼𝐸 = 𝛼 3.46
𝐼𝐶
𝐼𝐵 = 𝛽 (3.47)
Figure 3.13 The CE amplifier circuit of Fig. 3.12(a) with the dc sources (VBE and VCC)
eliminated (short-circuited). Thus only the signal components are present. Note that this is a
representation of the signal operation of the BJT and not an actual amplifier circuit.
On the other hand, a representation of the signal operation of the BJT can be obtained by
eliminating the dc sources, as shown in Fig. 3.13.
Observe that since the voltage of an ideal dc supply does not change, the signal voltage
across it will be zero.
For this reason we have replaced VCC and VBE with short circuits. Had the circuit
contained ideal dc current sources, these would have been replaced by open circuits.
Note, however, that the circuit of Fig. 3.13 is useful only in so far as it shows the various
signal currents and voltages; it is not an actual amplifier circuit, since the dc bias circuit
is not shown.
Figure 3.13 also shows the expressions for the current increments (i c, ib, and ie) obtained
when a small signal vbe is applied.
These relationships can be represented by a circuit. Such a circuit should have three
terminals—C, B, and E—and should yield the same terminal currents indicated in Fig.
3.13.
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The resulting circuit is then equivalent to the transistor as far as small-signal operation is
concerned, and thus it can be considered an equivalent small-signal circuit model.
3.3.6 Hybrid-π Model
Figure 3.14 Two slightly different versions of the hybrid-π model for the small-signal
operation of the BJT. The equivalent circuit in (a) represents the BJT as a voltage-controlled
current source (a transconductance amplifier), and that in (b) represents the BJT as a current-
controlled current source (a current amplifier).
An equivalent circuit model for the BJT is shown in Fig. 3.14(a).
This model represents the BJT as a voltage-controlled current source and explicitly
includes the input resistance looking into the base, rπ .
The model obviously yields ic = gmvbe and Not so obvious, however, is the fact that the
model also yields the correct expression for i e.
This can be shown as follows: At the emitter node we have
𝑣𝑏𝑒 𝑣𝑏𝑒
𝑖𝑒 = + 𝑔𝑚 𝑣𝑏𝑒 = 1 + 𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝜋
𝑟𝜋 𝑟𝜋
𝑣𝑏𝑒 𝑣𝑏𝑒
𝑖𝑒 = 1+𝛽 =
𝑟𝜋 𝑟𝜋
1+𝛽
𝑣𝑏𝑒
𝑖𝑒 = (3.48)
𝑟𝑒
Slightly different model can be obtained by expressing the current of the controlled
source (gmvbe) in terms of base current ib
𝑖𝑐 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑣𝑏𝑒 = 𝑔𝑚 (𝑖𝑏 𝑟𝜋 )
𝑖𝑐 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑖𝑏 𝑟𝜋 =(𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝜋 )𝑖𝑏 = 𝛽𝑖𝑏
𝑖𝑐 = 𝛽𝑖𝑏 (3.49)
This results in the alternative equivalent-circuit model shown in Fig. 3.14(b).
Here the transistor is represented as a current-controlled current source, with the control
current being ib.
The two models of Fig. 3.14 are simplified versions of what is known as the hybrid-π
model.
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This is the most widely used model for the BJT.
It is important to note that the small-signal equivalent circuits of Fig. 3.14 model the
operation of the BJT at a given bias point.
This should be obvious from the fact that the model parameters gm and rπ depend on the
value of the dc bias current IC , as indicated in Fig. 3.14.
3.3.7 T Model
Although the hybrid-π model can be used to carry out small-signal analysis of any
transistor circuit, there are situations in which an alternative model, shown in Fig. 3.15, is
much more convenient.
This model, called the T model, is shown in two versions in Fig. 3.15.
The model of Fig. 3.15(a) represents the BJT as a voltage-controlled current source with
the control voltage being vbe.
Here, however, the resistance between base and emitter, looking into the emitter, is
explicitly shown.
From Fig. 3.15(a) we see clearly that the model yields the correct expressions for ic and
ie.
For ib we note that at the base node we have
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𝑖𝑒 = 𝑖𝑐 + 𝑖𝑏 ⇒ 𝑖𝑏 = 𝑖𝑒 − 𝑖𝑐
𝑣𝑏𝑒 𝑣𝑏𝑒
𝑖𝑏 = − 𝑔𝑚 𝑣𝑏𝑒 = 1 − 𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝑒
𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒
𝑣𝑏𝑒 𝑣𝑏𝑒 𝛽 𝑣𝑏𝑒 𝛽 + 1 − 𝛽
𝑖𝑒 = 1−𝛼 = 1− =
𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒 𝛽+1 𝑟𝑒 𝛽+1
𝑣𝑏𝑒 𝑣𝑏𝑒
𝑖𝑒 = = (3.50)
(𝛽 + 1)𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝜋
If in the model of Fig. 3.15(a) the current of the controlled source is expressed in terms of
the emitter current as
𝑖𝑐 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑣𝑏𝑒 = 𝑔𝑚 (𝑖𝑒 𝑟𝑒 )
𝑖𝑐 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑖𝑒 𝑟𝑒 =(𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝑒 )𝑖𝑏 = 𝛼𝑖𝑒
𝑖𝑐 = 𝛼𝑖𝑒 (3.51)
We obtain the alternative T model shown in Fig. 3.15(b).
Here the BJT is represented as a current-controlled current source but with the control
signal being ie.
Figure 3.15 Two slightly different versions of what is known as the T model of the BJT. The
circuit in (a) is a voltage-controlled current source representation and that in (b) is a current-
controlled current source representation. These models explicitly show the emitter resistance re
rather than the base resistance rπ featured in the hybrid-π model.
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(a) T-Model of NPN Transistor (b) T-Model of PNP Transistor
3.3.8 Application of the Small-Signal Equivalent Circuits
1. Eliminate the signal source and determine the dc operating point of the BJT and in
particular the dc collector current IC : IC,IB, and IE
2. Calculate the values of the small-signal model parameters: gm,re and rπ
3. Eliminate the dc sources by replacing each dc voltage source with a short circuit and each
dc current source with an open circuit.
4. Replace the BJT with one of its small-signal equivalent circuit models. Although any one
of the models can be used, one might be more convenient than the others for the
particular circuit being analyzed.
5. Analyze the resulting circuit to determine the required quantities (e.g., voltage gain, input
and output resistance).
Input Resistance
𝑣
𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖 𝑖 (3.52)
𝑖
Input Voltage
𝑅𝑖𝑛
𝑣𝑖 = 𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑔 (3.53)
𝑅𝑖𝑛 + 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑔
Open-circuit voltage gain
𝐴𝑣𝑜 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑣𝑖 (3.54)
Output Resistance
𝑣
𝑅𝑜 = 𝑜 𝑖 (3.55)
𝑜
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Output voltage
𝑅𝐿
𝑣𝑜 = 𝐴 𝑣 (3.56)
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅0 𝑣𝑜 𝑖
Voltage Gain
𝑣𝑜 𝑅𝐿
𝐴𝑣 = = 𝐴𝑣𝑜 (3.57)
𝑣𝑖 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅0
Overall Voltage Gain
𝑣𝑜
𝐺𝑣 = (3.58)
𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑔
𝑅𝑖𝑛
𝐺𝑣 = 𝐴𝑣 (3.59)
𝑅𝑖𝑛 + 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑔
3.3.9 Example: Determine the voltage gain. Assume β=100 (CB Amplifier).
Solution:
We shall follow the five-step process outlined above:
1. The first step in the analysis consists of determining the quiescent operating point. For
this purpose we assume that vi = 0 and thus obtain the dc circuit shown in Fig. 3.16(b).
The dc base current will be
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Figure 3.16 Example : (a) CB amplifier circuit; (b) circuit for dc analysis; (c) amplifier circuit
with dc sources replaced by short circuits; (d) amplifier circuit with transistor
replaced by its hybrid-π, small-signal models.
The dc collector current will be
The dc voltage at the collector will be
Since VB at +0.7 V is less than VC , it follows that in the quiescent condition the
transistor will be operating in the active mode. The dc analysis is illustrated in Fig.
3.16(b).
2. Having determined the operating point, we can now proceed to determine the small-
signal model parameters:
3. Replacing VBB and VCC with short circuits results in the circuit in Fig. 3.16(c).
4. To carry out the small-signal analysis, it is equally convenient to employ either of the
two hybrid- π, equivalent-circuit models to replace the transistor in the circuit of Fig.
6.42(c). Using the first results in the amplifier equivalent circuit given in Fig. 3.16(d).
5. Analysis of the equivalent circuit in Fig. 3.16(d) proceeds as follows:
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The output voltage vo is given by
Thus the voltage gain will be
3.3.10 Example: Calculate the value of gm for a BJT biased at IC = 0.5 mA.
Solution:
𝐼𝐶 0.5 × 10−3
𝑔𝑚 = = = 20 × 10−3 = 20mA/V
𝑉𝑇 25 × 10−3
3.3.11 Example: A BJT amplifier is biased to operate at a constant collector current
IC = 0.5 mA irrespective of the value . If the transistor manufacturer specifies to range
from 50 to 200, give the expected range of gm ,IB, and rπ.
Solution:
𝐼𝐶 0.5 × 10−3
𝑔𝑚 = = −3
= 20 × 10−3 = 20mA/V
𝑉𝑇 25 × 10
𝐼𝐶 0.5 × 10−3
𝐼𝐵 = = = 10 × 10−6 = 10μA
𝛽 50
𝐼𝐶 0.5 × 10−3
𝐼𝐵 = = = 2.5 × 10−6 = 2.5μA
𝛽 200
𝑉𝑇 25 × 10−3
𝑟𝜋 = = = 2.5 × 103 = 2.5 kΩ
𝐼𝐵 10 × 10−6
𝑉𝑇 25 × 10−3
𝑟𝜋 = = = 10 × 103 = 10 kΩ
𝐼𝐵 2.5 × 10−6
Ans. 𝑔𝑚 is constant at 20 mA/V; 𝐼𝐵 =10μA to 2.5 μA; 𝑟𝜋 =25kΩ to 10 kΩ
3.3.12 Example: A BJT having β = 100 is biased at a dc collector current of 1 mA. Find the
value of gm, re, and rπ at the bias point.
𝐼𝐶 1 × 10−3
𝑔𝑚 = = = 20 × 10−3 = 40mA/V
𝑉𝑇 25 × 10−3
𝐼𝐶 1 × 10−3
𝐼𝐵 = = = 0.01 × 10−3 = 10μA
𝛽 100
𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝑇 25 × 10−3
𝑟𝑒 = = = = 24.75 × 103 = 24.75 kΩ
𝐼𝐸 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵 (0.01 × 10−3 + 1 × 10−3 )
𝑉𝑇 25 × 10−3
𝑟𝜋 = = = 2.5 × 103 = 2.5 kΩ
𝐼𝐵 10 × 10−6
Ans. 40 mA/V; 25 Ω; 2.5 kΩ
3.3.13 Derive the expression for input resistance, open-circuit voltage gain, output
resistance, voltage gain and overall voltage gain for an CE amplifier using hybrid-π
model.
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Input Resistance Rin:
𝛽
𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 𝑟𝜋 = 𝑟𝜋 = 𝛽 + 1 𝑟𝑒 = 𝑔𝑚
Open-Circuit Voltage Gain Avo:
The output voltage can be found by multiplying the current(𝑔𝑚 𝑣𝜋 ) by the total resistance
between the output node and ground,
𝑣𝑜 = −𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝐶 ∥ 𝑟𝑜
𝑣𝑜 = −(𝑔𝑚 𝑣𝜋 ) 𝑅𝐶 ∥ 𝑟𝑜
Since 𝑣𝜋 = 𝑣𝑖 , the open-circuit voltage gain 𝐴𝑣𝑜 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑣𝑖 can be obtained as
𝑣𝑜 𝑣𝑜
𝐴𝑣𝑜 = = = −𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 ∥ 𝑟𝑜
𝑣𝑖 𝑣𝜋
𝑅𝐶 is usually much lower than 𝑟𝑜 and the effect of 𝑟𝑜 on reducing 𝐴𝑣𝑜 is slight (less than
10% or so).
Thus in many cases we can neglect 𝑟𝑜 and express simply as
𝐴𝑣𝑜 = −(𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 )
Output Resistance Ro:
𝑅0 = 𝑅𝐶 ∥ 𝑟𝑜 ≅ 𝑅𝐶
Overall Voltage Gain Gv:
Input Voltage 𝑣𝑖 :
𝑟𝜋
𝑣𝑖 = 𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑔
𝑟𝜋 + 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑔
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𝑣𝑖 𝑟𝜋
⟹ =
𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑔 𝑟𝜋 + 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑔
Voltage Gain 𝐴𝑣 :
𝑣𝑜
𝐴𝑣 = = −𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 ∥ 𝑅𝐿 ∥ 𝑟𝑜
𝑣𝑖
⟹ 𝑣𝑜 = −𝑣𝑖 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 ∥ 𝑅𝐿 ∥ 𝑟𝑜
Overall Voltage Gain𝐺𝑣 :
𝑣𝑜
𝐺𝑣 =
𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑔
−𝑣𝑖 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 ∥ 𝑅𝐿 ∥ 𝑟𝑜
𝐺𝑣 =
𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑔
𝑣𝑖
=− . 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 ∥ 𝑅𝐿 ∥ 𝑟𝑜
𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑔
𝑟𝜋
=− 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 ∥ 𝑅𝐿 ∥ 𝑟𝑜
𝑟𝜋 + 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑔
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3.3.14 Derive the expression for input resistance, open-circuit voltage gain, output
resistance, voltage gain and overall voltage gain for an CE amplifier with emitter
resistance using T-model.
Input Resistance Rin:
𝑣𝑖
𝑅𝑖𝑛 =
𝑖𝑏
𝑖𝑒
𝑖𝑏 = 1 − 𝛼 𝑖𝑒 = 𝛽+1
𝑣𝑖
𝑖𝑒 =
𝑟𝑒 + 𝑅𝑒
𝑅𝑖𝑛 = (𝛽 + 1)( 𝑟𝑒 + 𝑅𝑒 )
Open-Circuit Voltage Gain Avo:
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𝑣𝑖
𝑣𝑜 = −𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝐶 = −𝛼𝑖𝑒 𝑅𝐶 = −𝛼 𝑅
𝑟𝑒 + 𝑅𝑒 𝐶
𝑣𝑜 𝑅𝐶 𝛼 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶
𝐴𝑣𝑜 = = −𝛼 =− = −𝑔𝑚 ≈−
𝑣𝑖 𝑟𝑒 + 𝑅𝑒 𝑟𝑒 1 + 𝑅𝑒 𝑅
1 + 𝑟𝑒 1 + 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝑒
𝑟 𝑒 𝑒
Output Resistance Ro:
𝑅0 = 𝑅𝐶
Overall Voltage Gain Gv:
Voltage Gain 𝐴𝑣 :
𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐿
𝐴𝑣 = 𝐴𝑣𝑜 = −𝛼
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅0 𝑟𝑒 + 𝑅𝑒 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝐶
𝑅𝐶 ∥ 𝑅𝐿
= −𝛼
𝑟𝑒 + 𝑅𝑒
Overall Voltage Gain𝐺𝑣 :
𝑅𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝐶 ∥ 𝑅𝐿
𝐺𝑣 = × −𝛼
𝑅𝑖𝑛 + 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑔 𝑟𝑒 + 𝑅𝑒
(𝛽 + 1)( 𝑟𝑒 + 𝑅𝑒 ) 𝛽 𝑅𝐶 ∥ 𝑅𝐿
𝐺𝑣 = − . .
𝛽 + 1 𝑟𝑒 + 𝑅𝑒 + 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑔 𝛽 + 1 𝑟𝑒 + 𝑅𝑒
𝑅𝐶 ∥ 𝑅𝐿
= −𝛽
𝛽 + 1 𝑟𝑒 + 𝑅𝑒
3.3.15 Derive the expression for input resistance, open-circuit voltage gain, output
resistance, voltage gain and overall voltage gain for an CB amplifier using T-model.
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Input Resistance Rin:
𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 𝑟𝑒
Open-Circuit Voltage Gain Avo:
𝑣𝑖
𝑣𝑜 = −𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝐶 = −𝛼𝑖𝑒 𝑅𝐶 = −𝛼 − 𝑅
𝑟𝑒 𝐶
𝑣𝑜 𝛼
𝐴𝑣𝑜 = = 𝑅 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶
𝑣𝑖 𝑟𝑒 𝐶
Output Resistance Ro:
𝑅0 = 𝑅𝐶
Overall Voltage Gain Gv:
Voltage Gain 𝐴𝑣 :
𝐴𝑣 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 ∥ 𝑅𝐿
Overall Voltage Gain𝐺𝑣 :
𝑣𝑖 𝑅𝑖𝑛
𝐺𝑣 = 𝐴𝑣 = × 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 ∥ 𝑅𝐿
𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑔 𝑅𝑖𝑛 + 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑔
𝑟𝑒
𝐺𝑣 = 𝑔 𝑅 ∥ 𝑅𝐿
𝑟𝑒 + 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑔 𝑚 𝐶
𝑅𝐶 ∥ 𝑅𝐿
=𝛼
𝑟𝑒 + 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑔
VEMU IT, ECE Page 32
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3.3.16 Derive the expression for input resistance, open-circuit voltage gain, output
resistance, voltage gain and overall voltage gain for an CC amplifier using T-model.
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Input Resistance Rin:
𝑣𝑖 𝑣𝑖 𝑣𝑖
𝑅𝑖𝑛 = = =
𝑖𝑏 𝑖𝑒 𝑣𝑖 (𝑟𝑒 + 𝑅𝐿 )
𝛽+1 𝛽+1
=( 𝛽 + 1) (𝑟𝑒 + 𝑅𝐿 )
Open-Circuit Voltage Gain Avo:
𝑣𝑜 𝑅𝐿 1
𝐴𝑣 = = =
𝑣𝑖 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑟𝑒 1 + 𝑟𝑒
𝑅 𝐿
𝑅𝐿 = ∞
𝐴𝑣𝑜 = 1
Output Resistance Ro:
𝑅0 = 𝑟𝑒
Overall Voltage Gain Gv:
Overall Voltage Gain𝐺𝑣 :
𝑣0 𝑣𝑖 ( 𝛽 + 1) (𝑟𝑒 + 𝑅𝐿 ) 𝑅𝐿
𝐺𝑣 = = 𝐴𝑣 =
𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑔 𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑔 ( 𝛽 + 1) (𝑟𝑒 + 𝑅𝐿 ) + 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑔 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑟𝑒
( 𝛽 + 1)𝑅𝐿
𝐺𝑣 =
( 𝛽 + 1) (𝑟𝑒 + 𝑅𝐿 ) + 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑔
VEMU IT, ECE Page 34
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𝑣𝑜 𝑅𝐿
𝐺𝑣 = =
𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑔 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑟𝑒 + 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑔 𝛽 + 1
VEMU IT, ECE Page 35
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3.4 Basic BJT Amplifier Configurations
There are three basic configurations for connecting the BJT as an amplifier.
Each of these configurations is obtained by connecting one of the three BJT terminals to
ground, thus creating a two-port network with the grounded terminal being common to
the input and output ports.
Figure 3.17 The three basic configurations of BJT amplifier.
In the circuit of Fig. 3.17(a) the emitter terminal is connected to ground, the input voltage
signal vi is applied between the base and ground, and the output voltage signal vo is taken
between the collector and ground, across the resistance RC. This configuration, therefore,
is called the grounded-emitter or common-emitter (CE) amplifier.
The common-base (CB) or grounded-base amplifier is shown in Fig. 3.17(b). It is
obtained by connecting the base to ground, applying the input vi between the emitter and
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ground, and taking the output vo across the resistance RC connected between the collector
and ground.
Finally, Fig. 3.17(c) shows the common-collector (CC) or grounded-collector amplifier.
It is obtained by connecting the collector terminal to ground, applying the input voltage
signal vi between base and ground, and taking the output voltage signal vo between the
emitter and ground, across a load resistance RL .
For reasons that will become apparent shortly, this configuration is more commonly
called the emitter follower.
3.4.1 Common-Emitter (CE) amplifier with and without Emitter Resistance
Figure 3.18 (a) CE Amplifier fed with a signal vsig from a generator with a resistance Rsig.
Figure 3.18 (b) CE Amplifier with Emitter Resistance Re.
VEMU IT, ECE Page 37
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Circuit Diagram and Working Principle of Simple CE Amplifier
Figure 3.19 Simple CE Amplifier
Collector terminal (output terminal) is connected to supply voltage VCC through the
collector resistor RC.
Base terminal is provided with the AC signal which needs to be amplified.
Emitter terminal is grounded (hence also referred to as Grounded Emitter configuration).
In this kind of arrangement, as the input voltage V i increases, the base current IB also
increases which in turn increases the collector current IC.
This causes an increase in the voltage drop across the collector resistor, RC which results
in a decreased output voltage V0 as emphasized by the following relationship
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 (3.60)
Similarly as the input voltage goes on decreasing, I B and hence IC decrease, due to which
the voltage drop across RC also decreases thereby increasing the output voltage.
This indicates that for the positive half-cycle of the input waveform, one would get
amplified negative half-cycle while for the negative input pulse, the output would be a
amplified positive pulse.
Hence there exists a phase-shift of 180o between the input and the output waveforms of
the common emitter amplifier for which it is also referred to as Inverting Amplifier.
Circuit Diagram and Working Principle of Practical CE Amplifier
The resistor R1 and R2 forms the voltage divider biasing circuit to set the proper operating
point for the CE amplifier.
The Emitter Resistor RE is one of the components which provide bias stabilization.
The capacitors Ci and Co which are the decoupling capacitors used to provide AC
coupling between the amplifier stages. It blocks any DC component present in the signal
and passes only AC signal for amplification.
The Bypass capacitor CE is connected in parallel with the emitter resistor R E to provide a
low reactance path to the amplified AC signal.
When a sinusoidal AC signal is applied at the input terminals of the circuit, during the
positive half cycle, the forward bias of the EBJ V BE is increased, resulting in an increase
VEMU IT, ECE Page 38
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in IB. The collector current IC is increased by β times the increase in IB. This result VCE is
decreased, i.e., the output voltage gets decreased.
Thus, in a CE amplifier, a positive-going input signal is converted into a negative-going
output signal, i.e., a 1800 phase shift is introduced between the output and input signal
and further, the output signal is an amplified version of the input signal.
Figure 3.20 Practical CE Amplifier Circuit
3.4.2 Common-Base (CB) amplifier
Figure 3.21(a) CB Amplifier Circuit
VEMU IT, ECE Page 39
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Figure 3.21(b) Practical CB Amplifier Circuit
Figure 3.21(a) shows a common-base amplifier with the biasing circuit omitted. The
amplifier is fed with a signal source characterized by vsig and Rsig.
In this type of amplifier, the input signal is applied between emitter and base terminals
and the output signal is obtained across the collector and base terminals through the load
resistance (RL). The base is common to both the input and output terminals.
When the applied input signal increases on positive half cycle, the forward bias between
emitter-base junction decreases.
As a result, emitter current decreases and hence collector current IC also decreases.
Thus, potential drop across RL (IC RL) decreases, the output signal is increases.
When applied input decreases on negative half cycle, forward bias between emitter-base
junction increases.
Due to increased forward bias, emitter current (Ie) increases and IC also increases.
Thus potential drop across RL(IC RL) also increases.
Therefore, output signal decreases.
Thus, in common Base amplifier, collector voltage increases with increasing input signal
and decreases with decreasing input signal.
This shows that input and amplified output signals are in phase.
3.4.3 Common-Collector (CC) amplifier or Emitter Follower
The emitter follower is fed with a signal source ( vsig,Rsig) and has a load resistance RL
connected between emitter and ground.
Assuming that RL includes both the actual load and any other resistance that may be
present between emitter and ground.
VEMU IT, ECE Page 40
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Figure 3.22 (a) Common-Collector Amplifier or Emitter-Follower.
I E I C I B
VIN VB
VE VB VBE
Figure 3.22 (b) Practical CC Amplifier Circuit. (c) Voltage Divider Circuit.
Resistors R1 and R2 form a simple voltage divider network used to bias the transistor into
conduction.
With the collector terminal of the transistor connected directly to VCC and no collector
resistance, (RC = 0) any collector current will generate a voltage drop across the emitter
resistor RE.
When a signal is applied to base of the transistor, V BE is increased and decreased as the
signal goes positive and negative respectively.
Considering VBE fairly constant, we say that variations in the VB appears at the emitter
and emitter voltage VE will vary same as base voltage VB.
The emitter terminal follows the signal voltage applied to the base. Hence the CC circuit
is also known as emitter follower of voltage buffer.
VEMU IT, ECE Page 41
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3.4.4 General h-Parameters for any Transistor Configuration
Figure 3.23: Hybrid Model for any Transistor Configuration.
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑖 𝐼𝑖 − 𝑟 𝑉𝑜 3.60
𝐼𝑜 = 𝑔 𝐼𝑖 − 0 𝑉𝑜 3.61
Hybrid Parameters
𝑉𝑖
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖 = 𝑉 =0 3.62
𝐼𝑖 𝑜
𝑉𝑖
𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑔𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝑟 = 𝐼 =0 3.63
𝑉0 𝑖
𝐼𝑜
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝑓 = 𝑉 =0 3.64
𝐼𝑖 𝑜
𝐼𝑜
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐴𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜 = 𝐼 =0 3.65
𝑉𝑜 𝑖
1
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑌𝑜 = 3.66
0
3.4.5 Draw the Hybrid Model for CE Configuration
VEMU IT, ECE Page 42
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3.4.6 Draw the Hybrid Model for CC Configuration
3.4.7 Draw the Hybrid Model for CB Configuration
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3.4.8 Derive the expression for Current gain Ai, Voltage gain Av, Input Resistance Ri and
Output Resistance Ro for CE Amplifier using h-parameter Model.
Current Gain: Current gain is defined as the ratio of the load current IL to the input
current Ib.
𝑖𝐿 𝑖𝑐
𝐴𝑖 = = −
𝑖𝑏 𝑖𝑏
𝑖𝑐 = 𝑓𝑒 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑜𝑒 𝑣𝑐
∵ 𝑣𝑐 = 𝑖𝐿 𝑅𝐿 = − 𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝐿
𝑖𝑐 = 𝑓𝑒 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑜𝑒 − 𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑓𝑒 𝑖𝑏 − 𝑜𝑒 𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝐿
𝑖𝑐 (1 + 𝑜𝑒 𝑅𝐿 ) = 𝑓𝑒 𝑖𝑏
𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑒
=
𝑖𝑏 (1 + 𝑜𝑒 𝑅𝐿 )
𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑒
𝐴𝑖 = − =−
𝑖𝑏 (1 + 𝑜𝑒 𝑅𝐿 )
VEMU IT, ECE Page 44
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Input Resistance :
𝑣𝑏
𝑅𝑖 =
𝑖𝑏
𝑣𝑏 = 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑐
∵ 𝑣𝑐 = 𝑖𝐿 𝑅𝐿 = − 𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝐿
𝑣𝑏 = 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑟𝑒 − 𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝐿
𝑖𝑐
𝐴𝑖 = − ⟹ −𝑖𝑐 = 𝐴𝑖 𝑖𝑏
𝑖𝑏
∵ 𝑣𝑐 = 𝑖𝐿 𝑅𝐿 = − 𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝐿 = 𝐴𝑖 𝑖𝑏 𝑅𝐿
𝑣𝑏 = 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑟𝑒 𝐴𝑖 𝑖𝑏 𝑅𝐿
𝑣𝑏 = 𝑖𝑏 (𝑖𝑒 + 𝑟𝑒 𝐴𝑖 𝑅𝐿 )
𝑣𝑏
𝑅𝑖 = = 𝑖𝑒 + 𝑟𝑒 𝐴𝑖 𝑅𝐿
𝑖𝑏
𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑒 𝑅𝐿 𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑒
𝑅𝑖 = 𝑖𝑒 + 𝑟𝑒 𝐴𝑖 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑖𝑒 − = 𝑖𝑒 −
1 + 𝑜𝑒 𝑅𝐿 1
𝑜𝑒 + 𝑅
𝐿
Voltage Gain :
𝑣𝑐 𝐴𝑖 𝑖𝑏 𝑅𝐿
𝐴𝑣 = =
𝑣𝑏 𝑣𝑏
𝑖𝑏 1
∵ =
𝑣𝑏 𝑅𝑖
𝐴𝑖 𝑅𝐿
𝐴𝑣 =
𝑅𝑖
𝑓𝑒 𝑅𝐿 𝑓𝑒 𝑅𝐿 𝑓𝑒
𝐴𝑣 = − = =
1 + 𝑜𝑒 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑖 1 𝑅𝑖 1
𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑜𝑒 𝑅𝑖 𝑜𝑒 + 𝑅
𝐿
Output Admittance :
𝑖𝑐
𝑌𝑜 = 𝑤𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑠 = 0
𝑣𝑐
𝑖𝑐 = 𝑓𝑒 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑜𝑒 𝑣𝑐
Dividing above equation by 𝑣𝑐 ,We get,
𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑒 𝑖𝑏 𝑜𝑒 𝑣𝑐 𝑓𝑒 𝑖𝑏
= + = + 𝑜𝑒
𝑣𝑐 𝑣𝑐 𝑣𝑐 𝑣𝑐
𝑅𝑠 𝑖𝑏 +𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑐 = 𝑣𝑠
With 𝑣𝑠 = 0
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𝑅𝑠 𝑖𝑏 +𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑐 = 0
𝑖𝑏 𝑅𝑠 +𝑖𝑒 = −𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑐
𝑖𝑏 −𝑟𝑒
⟹ =
𝑣𝑐 𝑅𝑠 +𝑖𝑒
𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑒 𝑖𝑏 −𝑓𝑒 𝑟𝑒
= + 𝑜𝑒 = + 𝑜𝑒
𝑣𝑐 𝑣𝑐 𝑅𝑠 +𝑖𝑒
𝑓𝑒 𝑟𝑒 1
𝑌0 = 𝑜𝑒 − 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅0 =
𝑅𝑠 +𝑖𝑒 𝑌0
3.4.9 Derive the expression for Current gain Ai, Voltage gain Av, Input Resistance Ri and
Output Resistance Ro for CE Amplifier with Emitter Resistance using h-parameter
Model.
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3.4.10 Derive the expression for Current gain Ai, Voltage gain Av, Input Resistance Ri and
Output Resistance Ro for CB Amplifier using h-parameter Model.
Current Gain:
𝑖𝐿 𝑖𝑐
𝐴𝑖 = =−
𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝑒
𝑖𝑐 = 𝑓𝑏 𝑖𝑒 + 𝑜𝑏 𝑣𝑐
∵ 𝑣𝑐 = 𝑖𝐿 𝑅𝐿 = − 𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝐿
𝑖𝑐 = 𝑓𝑏 𝑖𝑒 + 𝑜𝑏 − 𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑓𝑏 𝑖𝑒 − 𝑜𝑏 𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝐿
𝑖𝑐 (1 + 𝑜𝑏 𝑅𝐿 ) = 𝑓𝑏 𝑖𝑒
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𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑏
=
𝑖𝑒 (1 + 𝑜𝑏 𝑅𝐿 )
𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑏
𝐴𝑖 = − =−
𝑖𝑒 (1 + 𝑜𝑏 𝑅𝐿 )
Input Resistance :
𝑣𝑒
𝑅𝑖 =
𝑖𝑒
𝑣𝑒 = 𝑖𝑏 𝑖𝑒 + 𝑟𝑏 𝑣𝑐
∵ 𝑣𝑐 = 𝑖𝐿 𝑅𝐿 = − 𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝐿
𝑣𝑏 = 𝑖𝑏 𝑖𝑒 + 𝑟𝑏 − 𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝐿
𝑖𝑐
𝐴𝑖 = − ⟹ −𝑖𝑐 = 𝐴𝑖 𝑖𝑒
𝑖𝑒
𝑣𝑐 = 𝑖𝐿 𝑅𝐿 = − 𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝐿 = 𝐴𝑖 𝑖𝑒 𝑅𝐿
𝑣𝑏 = 𝑖𝑏 𝑖𝑒 + 𝑟𝑏 𝐴𝑖 𝑖𝑒 𝑅𝐿
𝑣𝑏 = 𝑖𝑒 (𝑖𝑏 + 𝑟𝑏 𝐴𝑖 𝑅𝐿 )
𝑣𝑒
𝑅𝑖 = = 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑟𝑏 𝐴𝑖 𝑅𝐿
𝑖𝑒
𝑟𝑏 𝑓𝑏 𝑅𝐿 𝑟𝑏 𝑓𝑏
𝑅𝑖 = 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑟𝑏 𝐴𝑖 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑖𝑏 − = 𝑖𝑏 −
1 + 𝑜𝑏 𝑅𝐿 1
𝑜𝑏 + 𝑅
𝐿
Voltage Gain :
𝑣𝑐 𝐴𝑖 𝑖𝑒 𝑅𝐿
𝐴𝑣 = =
𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒
𝑖𝑒 1
∵ =
𝑣𝑒 𝑅𝑖
𝐴𝑖 𝑅𝐿
𝐴𝑣 =
𝑅𝑖
𝑓𝑏 𝑅𝐿 𝑓𝑏 𝑅𝐿 𝑓𝑏
𝐴𝑣 = − = =
1 + 𝑜𝑏 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑖 1 𝑅𝑖 1
𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑜𝑏 𝑅𝑖 𝑜𝑏 + 𝑅
𝐿
Output Admittance :
𝑖𝑐
𝑌𝑜 = 𝑤𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑠 = 0
𝑣𝑐
𝑖𝑐 = 𝑓𝑏 𝑖𝑒 + 𝑜𝑏 𝑣𝑐
Dividing above equation by 𝑣𝑐 ,We get,
VEMU IT, ECE Page 48
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𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑏 𝑖𝑒 𝑜𝑏 𝑣𝑐 𝑓𝑏 𝑖𝑒
= + = + 𝑜𝑏
𝑣𝑐 𝑣𝑐 𝑣𝑐 𝑣𝑐
𝑅𝑠 𝑖𝑒 +𝑖𝑏 𝑖𝑒 + 𝑟𝑏 𝑣𝑐 = 𝑣𝑠
With 𝑣𝑠 = 0
𝑅𝑠 𝑖𝑒 +𝑖𝑏 𝑖𝑒 + 𝑟𝑏 𝑣𝑐 = 0
𝑖𝑒 𝑅𝑠 +𝑖𝑏 = −𝑟𝑏 𝑣𝑐
𝑖𝑒 −𝑟𝑏
⟹ =
𝑣𝑐 𝑅𝑠 +𝑖𝑏
𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑏 𝑖𝑒 −𝑓𝑏 𝑟𝑏
= + 𝑜𝑏 = + 𝑜𝑏
𝑣𝑐 𝑣𝑐 𝑅𝑠 +𝑖𝑏
𝑓𝑏 𝑟𝑏 1
𝑌0 = 𝑜𝑏 − 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅0 =
𝑅𝑠 +𝑖𝑏 𝑌0
3.4.11 Derive the expression for Current gain Ai, Voltage gain Av, Input Resistance Ri and
Output Resistance Ro for CC Amplifier using h-parameter Model.
VEMU IT, ECE Page 49
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Current Gain:
𝑖𝐿 𝑖𝑒
𝐴𝑖 = =−
𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝑏
𝑖𝑒 = 𝑓𝑐 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑜𝑐 𝑣𝑒
∵ 𝑣𝑒 = 𝑖𝐿 𝑅𝐿 = − 𝑖𝑒 𝑅𝐿
𝑖𝑒 = 𝑓𝑐 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑜𝑐 − 𝑖𝑒 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑓𝑐 𝑖𝑏 − 𝑜𝑐 𝑖𝑒 𝑅𝐿
𝑖𝑒 (1 + 𝑜𝑐 𝑅𝐿 ) = 𝑓𝑐 𝑖𝑏
𝑖𝑒 𝑓𝑐
=
𝑖𝑏 (1 + 𝑜𝑐 𝑅𝐿 )
𝑖𝑒 𝑓𝑐
𝐴𝑖 = − =−
𝑖𝑏 (1 + 𝑜𝑐 𝑅𝐿 )
Input Resistance :
𝑣𝑏
𝑅𝑖 =
𝑖𝑏
𝑣𝑏 = 𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑟𝑐 𝑣𝑒
∵ 𝑣𝑒 = 𝑖𝐿 𝑅𝐿 = − 𝑖𝑒 𝑅𝐿
𝑣𝑏 = 𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑟𝑐 − 𝑖𝑒 𝑅𝐿
𝑖𝑒
𝐴𝑖 = − ⟹ −𝑖𝑒 = 𝐴𝑖 𝑖𝑏
𝑖𝑏
𝑣𝑐 = 𝑖𝐿 𝑅𝐿 = − 𝑖𝑒 𝑅𝐿 = 𝐴𝑖 𝑖𝑏 𝑅𝐿
𝑣𝑏 = 𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑟𝑐 𝐴𝑖 𝑖𝑏 𝑅𝐿
𝑣𝑏 = 𝑖𝑏 (𝑖𝑐 + 𝑟𝑐 𝐴𝑖 𝑅𝐿 )
VEMU IT, ECE Page 50
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𝑣𝑏
𝑅𝑖 = = 𝑖𝑐 + 𝑟𝑐 𝐴𝑖 𝑅𝐿
𝑖𝑏
𝑟𝑐 𝑓𝑐 𝑅𝐿 𝑟𝑐 𝑓𝑐
𝑅𝑖 = 𝑖𝑐 + 𝑟𝑐 𝐴𝑖 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑖𝑐 − = 𝑖𝑐 −
1 + 𝑜𝑐 𝑅𝐿 1
𝑜𝑐 + 𝑅
𝐿
Voltage Gain :
𝑣𝑒 𝐴𝑖 𝑖𝑏 𝑅𝐿
𝐴𝑣 = =
𝑣𝑏 𝑣𝑏
𝑖𝑏 1
∵ =
𝑣𝑏 𝑅𝑖
𝐴𝑖 𝑅𝐿
𝐴𝑣 =
𝑅𝑖
𝑓𝑐 𝑅𝐿 𝑓𝑐 𝑅𝐿 𝑓𝑐
𝐴𝑣 = − = =
1 + 𝑜𝑐 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑖 1 𝑅𝑖 1
𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑜𝑐 𝑅𝑖 𝑜𝑐 + 𝑅
𝐿
Output Admittance :
𝑖𝑒
𝑌𝑜 = 𝑤𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑠 = 0
𝑣𝑒
𝑖𝑒 = 𝑓𝑐 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑜𝑐 𝑣𝑒
Dividing above equation by 𝑣𝑒 ,We get,
𝑖𝑒 𝑓𝑐 𝑖𝑏 𝑜𝑐 𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑐 𝑖𝑏
= + = + 𝑜𝑐
𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒
𝑅𝑠 𝑖𝑏 +𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑟𝑐 𝑣𝑒 = 𝑣𝑠
With 𝑣𝑠 = 0
𝑅𝑠 𝑖𝑏 +𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑟𝑐 𝑣𝑒 = 0
𝑖𝑏 𝑅𝑠 +𝑖𝑐 = −𝑟𝑐 𝑣𝑒
𝑖𝑏 −𝑟𝑐
⟹ =
𝑣𝑒 𝑅𝑠 +𝑖𝑐
𝑖𝑒 𝑓𝑐 𝑖𝑏 −𝑓𝑐 𝑟𝑐
= + 𝑜𝑐 = + 𝑜𝑐
𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒 𝑅𝑠 +𝑖𝑐
𝑓𝑐 𝑟𝑐 1
𝑌0 = 𝑜𝑐 − 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅0 =
𝑅𝑠 +𝑖𝑐 𝑌0
VEMU IT, ECE Page 51
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3.4.12 Comparison of BJT Amplifiers
Characteristics CE Amplifier CB Amplifier CC amplifier
(Emitter Follower)
Current Gain High Less Than Unity High
Voltage Gain High High Less Than Unity
Input Resistance Medium Lowest Highest
Output Resistance Moderately High Highest Lowest
Phase Shift between 180 ° 0° 0°
Input and Output
Application For Audio Frequency For High Frequency For Impedance
Applications Applications Matching
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3.4.13 A transistor used in CE arrangement has the following set of h parameters when the d.c.
operating point is VCE = 10 volts and IC = 1 mA :
hie = 2000 Ω; hoe =10−4 mho; hre = 10−3; hfe = 50
Determine (i) input impedance (ii) current gain and (iii) voltage gain. The a.c. load seen
by the transistor is RL = 600 Ω.
Solution:
(i) Input impedance is given by :
𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑒 10−3 × 50
𝑅𝑖 = 𝑖𝑒 − = 2000 − = 2000 − 28 = 1972 𝛺
1 1
𝑜𝑒 + 𝑅 10−4 + 600
𝐿
(ii) Current gain,
𝑓𝑒 50
𝐴𝑖 = − == − = −47
(1 + 𝑜𝑒 𝑅𝐿 ) (1 + 10−4 × 600)
(iii) Voltage gain,
𝐴𝑖 𝑅𝐿 −47 × 600
𝐴𝑣 = = = −14.4
𝑅𝑖 1972
The negative sign indicates that there is 180° phase shift between input and output. The
magnitude of gain is 14.4. In other words, the output signal is 14.4 times greater than the
input and it is 180° out of phase with the input.
3.4.14 The below Figure shows the transistor amplifier in CE arrangement. The h parameters of
transistor are as under : hie = 1500 Ω; hfe = 50; hre = 4 × 10−4; hoe = 5 × 10−5 mho
Find (i) a.c. input impedance of the amplifier (ii) voltage gain and (iii) output impedance.
Solution:
The a.c. load rL seen by the transistor is equivalent of the parallel combination of
RC (= 10 kΩ) and RL (= 30 kΩ) i.e.
𝑟𝑖 𝑅𝐿 10 × 30
𝑟𝐿 = = = 7.5 𝑘𝛺 = 7500𝛺
𝑟𝑖+𝑅𝐿 10 × 30
(i) Input impedance is given by :
𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑒 4 × 10−4 × 50
𝑅𝑖 = 𝑖𝑒 − = 1500 − = 1390 𝛺
1 −5 1
𝑜𝑒 + 𝑟 5 × 10 + 7500
𝐿
VEMU IT, ECE Page 53
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(ii) Current gain,
𝑓𝑒 50
𝐴𝑖 = − == − = −196
(1 + 𝑜𝑒 𝑅𝐿 ) (1 + 5 × 10−5 × 7500)
(iii) Voltage gain,
𝐴𝑖 𝑅𝐿 −196 × 7500
𝐴𝑣 = = = 27270 𝛺 = 27.27 𝑘𝛺
𝑅𝑖 1390
3.5 Biasing in BJT Amplifier Circuits
Biasing:
Biasing is the process of setting a transistors DC operating voltage or current conditions
to the correct level so that any AC input signal can be amplified correctly by the
transistor.
Biasing Problem:
The biasing problem is that of establishing a constant dc current in the collector of the
BJT. This current has to be calculable, predictable, and insensitive to variations in
temperature and to the large variations in the value of β encountered among transistors of
the same type.
Another important consideration in bias design is locating the dc bias point in the iC–vCE
plane to allow for maximum output signal swing.
Need for Biasing:
A transistors steady state of operation depends a great deal on its base current, collector
voltage, and collector current and therefore, if a transistor is to operate as a linear
amplifier, it must be properly biased to have a suitable operating point.
Establishing the correct operating point requires the proper selection of bias resistors and
load resistors to provide the appropriate input current and collector voltage conditions.
The various types of biasing methods are:
Fixed Bias(Base Bias)
Self Bias/Voltage Divider Bias Circuits
Two-Power Supply Bias
Biasing Using a Collector-to-Base Feedback Resistor
Biasing Using a Constant-Current Source
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3.5.1 Fixed Bias(Base Bias)
V CE
IB I C V CC
I C R C
VCE V CC I C RC
VCE V C
V BE
IB V CC
R B
VE 0
VCE V C V E VBE V B V E VBE V B
Fig.3.24 Two obvious schemes for biasing the BJT: (a) by fixing VBE; (b) by fixing IB.
Both result in wide variations in IC and hence in VCE and therefore are considered to be
―bad.‖ Neither scheme is recommended.
The transistors base current, IB remains constant for given values of Vcc, and therefore the
transistors operating point must also remain fixed. Hence referred as fixed biasing.
First, attempting to bias the BJT by fixing the voltage V BE by, for instance, using a voltage
divider across the power supply VCC, as shown in Fig 3.24(a) is not a viable approach:
The very sharp exponential relationship iC–vBE means that any small and inevitable
differences in VBE from the desired value will result in large differences in IC and in VCE.
Second, biasing the BJT by establishing a constant current in the base as shown in Fig.3.24
(b), where 𝐼𝐵 ≅ 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 0.7 𝑅𝐵 is also not a recommended approach.
Here the typically large variations in the value of β among units of the same device type will
result in correspondingly large variations in IC and hence in VCE.
Advantages:
1. Simple circuit as its uses few components
2. It provides maximum flexibility, because the biasing conditions are easily set by
changing the value of RB
Disadvantages:
1. There is no means to stop self increase of i c due to increase in temperature. So, thermal
stability is not provided.
2. If β increases due to transistor replacement then, ic also increases by factor β. Therefore
there is a chance of thermal runaway.
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3.5.2 Self Bias/Voltage Divider Bias Circuits
Fig.3.25. Classical biasing for BJTs using a single power supply: (a) circuit; (b) circuit
with the voltage divider supplying the base replaced with its Thévenin equivalent.
Figure 3.25(a) shows the arrangement most commonly used for biasing a discrete-circuit
transistor amplifier if only a single power supply is available.
The technique consists of supplying the base of the transistor with a fraction of the supply
voltage VCC through the voltage divider R1, R2.
In addition, a resistor RE is connected to the emitter.
Figure 3.25(b) shows the same circuit with the voltage divider network replaced by its
Thévenin equivalent,
𝑅2
𝑉𝐵𝐵 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 (3.67)
𝑅1 +𝑅2
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅𝐵 = (3.68)
𝑅1 +𝑅2
The current IE can be determined by writing a Kirchhoff loop equation for the base–
emitter– ground loop, labeled L, and substituting 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝐸 𝛽 + 1
𝑉𝐵𝐵 = 𝐼𝐵 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐸 + 𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝐸
𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝐵
𝑉𝐵𝐵 = 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐸 + 𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝐸 = 𝐼𝐸 + 𝑅𝐸 + 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝛽+1 𝛽+1
𝑅𝐵
𝑉𝐵𝐵 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 𝐼𝐸 + 𝑅𝐸
𝛽+1
𝑉𝐵𝐵 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
⟹ 𝐼𝐸 = (3.69)
𝑅
𝑅𝐸 + 𝛽 +𝐵 1
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To make IE insensitive to temperature and β variation, we design the circuit to satisfy the
following two constraints:
𝑉𝐵𝐵 ≫ 𝑉𝐵𝐸 (3.70)
𝑅𝐵
𝑅𝐸 ≫ (3.71)
𝛽+1
Condition (3.70) ensures that small variations in V BE (≈ 0.7 V) will be swamped by the
much larger VBB.
There is a limit, however, on how large VBB can be:
For a given value of the supply voltage VCC, the higher the value we use for VBB, the
lower will be the sum of voltages across RC and the collector–base junction (VCB).
On the other hand, we want the voltage across R C to be large in order to obtain high
voltage gain and large signal swing (before transistor cutoff).
We also want VCB (or VCE) to be large to provide a large signal swing (before transistor
saturation).
Thus, as is the case in any design, we have a set of conflicting requirements, and the
solution must be a trade-off.
As a rule of thumb, one designs for VBB about 1/3 VCC, VCB (or VCE) about1/3 VCC and IC
RC about 1/3 VCC
Condition (3.71) makes IE insensitive to variations in β and could be satisfied by selecting
RB small.
This in turn is achieved by using low values for R1 and R2.
Lower values for R1 and R2, however, will mean a higher current drain from the power
supply, and will result in a lowering of the input resistance of the amplifier (if the input
signal is coupled to the base), which is the trade-off involved in this part of the design.
It should be noted that condition (3.71) means that we want to make the base voltage
independent of the value of β and determined solely by the voltage divider.
This will obviously be satisfied if the current in the divider is made much larger than the
base current.
Typically one selects R1 and R2 such that their current is in the range of IE to 0.1IE.
Further insight regarding the mechanism by which the bias arrangement of Fig. 3.25(a)
stabilizes the dc emitter (and hence collector) current is obtained by considering the
feedback action provided by RE.
Consider that for some reason the emitter current increases.
The voltage drop across RE, and hence VE will increase correspondingly.
Now, if the base voltage is determined primarily by the voltage divider R 1, R2, which is
the case if RB is small, it will remain constant, and the increase in VE will result in a
corresponding decrease in VBE.
This in turn reduces the collector (and emitter) current, a change opposite to that
originally assumed.
Thus RE provides a negative feedback action that stabilizes the bias current.
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3.5.3 A Two-Power Supply Version of the Classical Bias Arrangement
Figure 3.36 Biasing the BJT using two power supplies.
A somewhat simpler bias arrangement is possible if two power supplies are available, as
shown in Fig. 3.26.
Writing a loop equation for the loop labeled L gives
𝑉𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝐼𝐸 = (3.72)
𝑅
𝑅𝐸 + 𝛽 +𝐵 1
Resistor RB is needed only if the signal is to be capacitively coupled to the base.
Otherwise, the base can be connected directly to ground, or to a grounded signal source,
resulting in almost total β -independence of the bias current.
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3.5.4 Biasing Using a Collector-to-Base Feedback Resistor
Fig.3.27.(a) A CE transistor amplifier biased by a feedback resistor RB. (b) Analysis of the
circuit in (a).
Figure 3.27(a) shows a simple but effective alternative biasing arrangement suitable for
common-emitter amplifiers.
The circuit employs a resistor RB connected between the collector and the base.
Resistor RB provides negative feedback, which helps to stabilize the bias point of the
BJT.
Analysis of the circuit is shown in Fig. 3.37(b), from which we can write
𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝐼𝐸
𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅 + 𝑉𝐵𝐸 (3.73)
𝛽+1 𝐵
Thus the emitter bias current is given by
𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
⟹ 𝐼𝐸 = 3.74
𝑅
𝑅𝐶 + 𝛽 +𝐵 1
It is interesting to note that this equation is identical to Eq. (3.73), which governs the
operation of the traditional bias circuit, except that VCC replaces VBB and RC replaces RE.
It follows that to obtain a value of IE that is insensitive to variation of β, we select
𝑅𝐵
≪ 𝑅𝐶 .
𝛽+1
Note, however, that the value of RB determines the allowable negative signal swing at the
collector since
𝑅𝐵
𝑉𝐶𝐵 = 𝐼𝐵 𝑅𝐵 = 𝐼 (3.75)
𝛽+1 𝐸
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ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS UNIT-3
3.5.5 Biasing Using a Constant-Current Source
Figure 3.28 (a) A BJT biased using a constant-current source I. (b) Circuit for implementing the
current source I.
The BJT can be biased using a constant-current source I as indicated in the circuit of
Fig. 3.28(a).
This circuit has the advantage that the emitter current is independent of the values of β
and RB.
Thus RB can be made large, enabling an increase in the input resistance at the base
without adversely affecting bias stability.
Further, current-source biasing leads to significant design simplification, as will become
obvious in later sections and chapters.
A simple implementation of the constant-current source I is shown in Fig. 3.28(b).
The circuit utilizes a pair of matched transistors Q1 and Q2, with Q1 connected as a diode
by shorting its collector to its base.
If we assume that Q1 and Q2 have high β values, we can neglect their base currents.
Thus the current through Q1 will be approximately equal to IREF,
𝑉𝐶𝐶 − (−𝑉𝐸𝐸 ) − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝐼𝑅𝐸𝐹 = (3.76)
𝑅
Now, since Q1 and Q2 have the same VBE, their collector currents will be equal, resulting
in
𝑉𝐶𝐶 + 𝑉𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑅𝐸𝐹 = (3.77)
𝑅
Neglecting the Early effect in Q2, the collector current will remain constant at the value
given by this equation as long as Q2 remains in the active region.
VEMU IT, ECE Page 60
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This can be guaranteed by keeping the voltage at the collector, V, greater than that at the
emitter (−VEE) by at least 0.3V.
The connection of Q1 and Q2 in Fig. 3.28(b) is known as a current mirror.
3.5.6 Given the device characteristics of Fig. 3.29(a), determine VCC , RB and RC for the
fixed bias configuration of Fig. 3.29 (b).
Figure 3.29(a) IC Vs VCE Characteristic (b) Fixed Bias Circuit
From the load line VCC=20V
𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝐶𝐶 20
𝐼𝐶 = ⟹ 𝑅𝐶 = = = 2.5 𝑘Ω
𝑅𝐶 𝐼𝐶 8 × 10−3
𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸 20 − 0.7
𝐼𝐵 = ⟹ 𝑅𝐵 = = = 482.5 𝑘Ω
𝑅𝐵 𝐼𝐵 40 × 10−6
3.5.7 Given the load line of Fig. 3.30 and the defined Q-point, determine the required
values of VCC , RB and RC for a fixed-bias configuration.
Figure 3.30. IC Vs VCE Characteristic
From the above Fig. VCE =VCC=20V at 𝐼𝐶 = 0𝑚𝐴
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𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝐶𝐶 20
𝐼𝐶 = 𝑎𝑡 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 0𝑉 ⟹ 𝑅𝐶 = = = 2 𝑘Ω
𝑅𝐶 𝐼𝐶 10 × 10−3
𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸 20 − 0.7
𝐼𝐵 = ⟹ 𝑅𝐵 = = = 772𝑘Ω
𝑅𝐵 𝐼𝐵 25 × 10−6
3.5.8 Determine VCE for the voltage-divider bias configuration of Fig. 3.31
Figure 3.31. Voltage Divider Bias Configuration
𝑅2 𝑉𝐶𝐶 10 × 103 × (−18)
𝑉𝐵 = = == 3.16 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 47 × 103 + 10 × 103
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the base–emitter loop yields
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸 − 𝑉𝐸 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝐸 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝑉𝐸 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸 = −3.16— 0.7 = −2.46𝑉
𝑉𝐸 2.46
𝐼𝐸 = = = 2.24𝑚𝐴
𝑅𝐸 1.1 × 103
For the collector–emitter loop:
−𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝐸 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸 − 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 0
Substituting IE≈IC and gathering terms, we have
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = −𝑉𝐶𝐶 + 𝐼𝐶 (𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐸 )
Substituting values gives
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = −18 + 2.24 × 10−3 2.4 × 103 + 1.1 × 103 = −18 + 7.84 = −10.16𝑉
VEMU IT, ECE Page 62
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3.6 Transistor Breakdown and Temperature Effects
Figure 3.32 The BJT common-base characteristics including the transistor breakdown region.
Figure 3.33 The BJT common-emitter characteristics including the breakdown region.
The maximum voltages that can be applied to a BJT are limited by the EBJ and CBJ
breakdown effects that follow the avalanche multiplication mechanism.
Consider first the common-base configuration.
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The iC− vCB characteristics in Fig. 3.32(b) indicate that for iE = 0 (i.e., with the emitter
open-circuited) the collector–base junction breaks down at a voltage denoted by BVCBO.
For iE > 0, breakdown occurs at voltages smaller than BVCBO.
Typically, for discrete BJTs, BVCBO is greater than 50 V.
Next consider the common-emitter characteristics of Fig. 3.33, which show breakdown
occurring at a voltage BVCEO.
Here, although breakdown is still of the avalanche type, the effects on the characteristics
are more complex than in the common-base configuration.
We will not explain these in detail; it is sufficient to point out that typically BV CEO is
about half BVCBO.
On transistor data sheets, BVCEO is sometimes referred to as the sustaining voltage
LVCEO.
Breakdown of the CBJ in either the common-base or common-emitter configuration is
not destructive as long as the power dissipation in the device is kept within safe limits.
This, however, is not the case with the breakdown of the emitter–base junction.
The EBJ breaks down in an avalanche manner at a voltage BVEBO much smaller than
BVCBO.
Typically, BVEBO is in the range of 6 V to 8 V, and the breakdown is destructive in the
sense that the β of the transistor is permanently reduced.
This does not prevent use of the EBJ as a zener diode to generate reference voltages in IC
design.
In such applications one is not concerned with the β-degradation effect.
Transistor breakdown and the maximum allowable power dissipation are important
parameters in the design of power amplifiers.
Throughout this chapter we have assumed that the transistor common-emitter dc current
gain, β or HFE, is constant for a given transistor.
In fact, depends on the dc current at which the transistor is biased, as shown in Fig. 3.34.
The physical processes that give rise to this dependence are beyond the scope of this
book.
Note, however, that there is a current range over which is highest.
Normally, one biases the transistor to operate at a current within this range.
Figure 3.34 also shows the dependence of on temperature.
The fact that increases with temperature can lead to serious problems in transistors that
operate at large power levels.
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Figure 3.34 Typical dependence of β on IC and on temperature in an integrated-circuit NPN
silcon transistor intended for operation around 1 mA.
3.6.1 Determine the dc bias voltage VCE and the current IC for the voltage-divider
configuration of Fig. 3.35.
Figure 3.35 Voltage-Divider Bias Configuration
𝑅1 𝑅2 39 × 103 × (3.9 × 103 )
𝑅𝑇𝐻 = = = 3.55 𝑘 Ω
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 39 × 103 + (3.9 × 103 )
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𝑅2 𝑉𝐶𝐶 (3.9 × 103 ) × (22)
𝐸𝑇𝐻 = = = 2𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 39 × 103 + (3.9 × 103 )
𝐸𝑇𝐻 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸 2 − 0.7
𝐼𝐵 = = = 6.05µ𝐴
𝑅𝑇𝐻 + (𝛽 + 1)𝑅𝐸 3.55 × 10 + (140 + 1) 1.5 × 103
3
𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵 = 140 × 6.05 × 10−6 = 0.85𝑚𝐴
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 + 𝐼𝐶 (𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐸 )
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 22 + 0.85 × 10−3 10 × 103 + 1.5 × 103 = 22 − 9.78 = 12.22𝑉
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Objective Type Questions and Answers
1. The conditions of Forward active mode for BJT CE amplifier is [ ]
VE< VB VE> VB
A) VC>VB>VE B) VC<VB<VE C) D)
Vc< VB Vc> VB
2. The conditions of Reverse active mode for BJT CE amplifier is [ ]
VE< VB VE> VB
A) VC>VB>VE B) VC<VB<VE C) D)
Vc< VB Vc> VB
3. The conditions of saturation mode for BJT CE amplifier is [ ]
VE< VB VE> VB
A) VC>VB>VE B) VC<VB<VE C) D)
Vc< VB Vc> VB
4. The conditions of cut-off mode for BJT CE amplifier is [ ]
VE< VB VE> VB
A) VC>VB>VE B) VC<VB<VE C) D)
Vc< VB Vc> VB
A trans-conductance amplifier (Voltage-controlled current source) whose input signal is
5. [ ]
a ____________and whose output signal is a____________.
Voltage, Voltage, Current, Current,
A) B) C) D)
Voltage Current Voltage Current
AV=-(IC/VT)RC
6. The negative sign signifies in the above small-signal voltage gain expression is [ ]
______phase shift between the input and output signal.
A) 360° B) 0° C) 180° D) 90°
The bias Point Q (Quiescent) is located in _______________region of iC Vs vCE
7. [ ]
characteristics for CE amplifier.
A) Cutoff B Active C Saturation D All
8. BJT can be used as a open switch under which operating mode. [ ]
Saturation
A) Cutoff Mode B) Active mode C) D) All
Mode
9. The trans-conductance gm of CE amplifier is related by [ ]
𝜕𝑖𝑐 B) 𝜕𝑖𝑒 C) 𝜕𝑖𝑏 D) 𝝏𝒊𝒄
A) 𝑔𝑚 = 𝑔𝑚 = 𝑔𝑚 = 𝒈𝒎 =
𝜕𝑖𝑏 𝜕𝑣𝐵𝐸 𝜕𝑣𝐵𝐸 𝝏𝒗𝑩𝑬
10. The expression of input resistance rϖ at the base of CE amplifier is defined as [ ]
𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝑇 𝑽𝑻 𝑉𝑜
A) 𝑟𝜋 = B) 𝑟𝜋 = C) 𝒓𝝅 = D) 𝑟𝜋 =
𝐼𝐸 𝐼𝐶 𝑰𝑩 𝐼𝐵
11. The expression of input resistance rϖ at the emitter of CE amplifier is defined as [ ]
𝑽𝑻 𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝑜
A) 𝒓𝒆 = B) 𝑟𝑒 = C) 𝑟𝑒 = D) 𝑟𝑒 =
𝑰𝑬 𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐵 𝐼𝐵
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ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS UNIT-3
12. The relationship between 𝑟𝜋 and 𝑟𝑒 is [ ]
𝛽 𝛽+1
A) 𝑟𝜋 = 𝑟 B) 𝑟𝜋 = 𝑟𝑒 C) 𝑟𝜋 = (𝛼 + 1)𝑟𝑒 D) 𝒓𝝅 = (𝜷 + 𝟏)𝒓𝒆
𝛽+1 𝑒 𝛽
The hybrid-ϖ model of BJT CE amplifier is explicitly includes the input resistance looking
13. [ ]
into the______.
A) Emitter B) Base C) Collector D) None
The T model of BJT CE amplifier is explicitly includes the input resistance looking into
14. [ ]
the______.
A) Emitter B) Base C) Collector D) None
15. The amplifier that gives 180° voltage phase shift is [ ]
A) CE B) CC C) CB D) All
16. ______ amplifier is also called as emitter follower. [ ]
A) CE B) CC C) CB D) All
17. The current gain Ai expression for CE amplifier using hybrid model is given by [ ]
𝑜𝑒 𝑖𝑒 𝑜𝑒 𝒉𝒇𝒆
A) − B) − C) − D) −
(1 + 𝑖𝑒 𝑅𝐿 ) (1 + 𝑜𝑒 𝑅𝐿 ) (1 + 𝑓𝑒 𝑅𝐿 ) (𝟏 + 𝒉𝒐𝒆𝑹𝑳)
18. The input resistance Ri expression for CE amplifier using hybrid model is given by [ ]
A) 𝑓𝑒 + 𝑟𝑒 𝐴𝑖 𝑅𝐿 B) 𝑜𝑒 + 𝑟𝑒 𝐴𝑖 𝑅𝐿 C) 𝒉𝒊𝒆 + 𝒉𝒓𝒆 𝑨𝒊 𝑹𝑳 D) 𝑖𝑒 + 𝑜𝑒 𝐴𝑖 𝑅𝐿
19. Which biasing provides the best operating point stability [ ]
Two Battery Collector-to-
A) B) C) Fixed Bias D) Self Bias
Bias Base Bias
20. The biasing of an IC BJT is done by the following biasing scheme [ ]
Current
Potential Collector-to-Base
A) B) Fixed Bias C) Mirror D)
Divider Bias Feedback Bias
Biasing
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Two Marks Questions and Answers
1. Define thermal runaway.
The continuous increase in collector current due to poor biasing causes the
temperature at collector terminal to increase. If no stabilization is done, the collector
leakage current also increases. This further increases the temperature. This action
becomes cumulative and ultimately the transistor burns out. The self destruction of an
un stabilized transistor is known as thermal runaway.
2. Explain how transistor works as an amplifier.
A transistor operates as an amplifier by transfer of the current from low impedance
loop to high impedance loop.
3. Explain the influence of temperature on operation point.
4. What is am amplifier? What are the types of amplifiers?
An amplifier is a circuit; it can be used to increase the magnitude of the input current
or voltage at the output by means of energy drawn from an external source.
Common emitter amplifier
Common base amplifier
Common collector amplifier
5. Write the advantages of h-parameters.
Real numbers at audio frequency
Easy to measure
Can be obtained from the transistor state characteristics curves
Convenient to use in circuit analysis and design
Easily convertible from one configuration to other
Readily supplied by manufacturers.
6. What is emitter follower?
As the output signal taken at the emitter terminal almost follows the input signal, the
CC amplifier is called as emitter follower.
7. What is h-parameter for a transistor?
Every linear circuit having input and output terminals can be analysed by four
parameters (one measured in ohm, one in mho and two dimensionless) called hybrid
or h Parameters.
8. What is meant by Q-point?
Quiescent point is a point on the dc load line which represents V CE and IC in the
absence of ac signal and variations in VCE and IC take place around this point when ac
signal is applied.
9. List out the different types of biasing.
Voltage divider bias
Base bias
Emitter feedback bias
Collector feedback bias
10. What are the advantages of fixed bias circuit?
This is simple circuit which uses a few components.
The operating point can be fixed anywhere on the Centre of the active region.
11. What is the need for biasing?
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To prevent thermal runaway
To achieve stability
12. What are the advantages and disadvantages of fixed bias circuit?
Advantages of fixed bias circuit are as follows
This is a simple circuit which uses very few components
The operating point can be fixed anywhere in the active region of the
characteristics by simply changing the value of RB. Thus it provides
flexibility in design.
Disadvantages of fixed bias circuit are as follows
This circuit does not provide any check on the collector current which
increases with the rise in temperature i.e. thermal stability is not provided by
this circuit.
Since IC and β and IB is already fixed; IC depends on β which changes unit to
unit and shifts the operating points
13. State the advantages and disadvantages of collector to base bias.
Advantages of collector to base bias circuit are as follows
The biasing arrangements are simple since only one resistor RB is used.
The value of base resistance RB can be easily calculated.
Disadvantages of collector to base bias circuit are as follows
Does not provide good stabilization
The negative feedback of resistance RB reduces the gain of the amplifier
14. Draw the fixed bias and the self bias circuits.
15. Why are common emitter amplifiers more popular?
The common emitter amplifiers are more popular because
The CE configuration provides both voltage gain as well as current gain which
is greater than unity.
Power gain of the CE amplifier is much greater than the other two
configurations.
The ratio of output resistance to input resistance is small in the range of 10 Ω
to 100 Ω which makes the configuration an ideal for coupling between the
various transistors.
16. What are the benefits of h-parameters?
Real numbers at audio frequency
Easy to measure
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Can be obtained from the transistor state characteristics curves
Convenient to use in circuit analysis and design
Essay Type Questions
1. Explain the collector to base bias method along with circuit diagram.
2. Draw the circuit diagram of CB amplifier and explain its operation in detail.
3. Draw the circuit diagram of CE amplifier with emitter resistor and explain its
operation in detail.
4. What is biasing? Explain the need of it. List out different types of biasing methods.
5. Given IE=2.5mA, hfe=140, hoe=20µs(µmho) and hob=0.5µs. Determine, (a) the CE
hybrid equivalent circuit and (b) The common-base re model.
(a)
𝑉𝑇 26 × 10−3
𝑟𝑒 = = = 10.4 Ω
𝐼𝐸 2.5 × 10−3
𝑖𝑒 = 𝛽𝑟𝑒 = 140 × 10.4 = 1.456𝑘Ω
1 1
𝑟𝑜 = = = 50𝑘Ω
𝑜𝑒 20 × 10−6
(b) 𝑟𝑒 = 10.4 Ω
𝛽 140
𝛼= = ≅ 11
𝛽 + 1 140 + 1
1 1
𝑟𝑜 = = = 2𝑀Ω
𝑜𝑏 0.5 × 10−6
6. List out the few comparison of transistor amplifier configurations in detail.
7. Draw the fixed bias circuit and explain it. Write the draw backs of it.
8. Derive the general expressions for current gain , input impedance, voltage gain and
output impedance of transistor amplifier using h-parameters.
9. Draw the hybrid parameter equivalent circuit for an NPN CE transistor and explain.
10. Give the advantages of h-parameter analysis.
VEMU IT, ECE Page 71
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