Energy Conservation I ST Details:

EEE221 Md. Reshad Al Muttaki

Tutorial 1 Email: reshad.al.muttaki@g.bracu.ac.bd
Spring 2025 Section: 1 & 3

Magnetism Basics
Magnetic Fields: A time changing magnetic field induces a voltage in a coil of wire if it passes through that coil.
This is the basis of transformer operation.

Figure: A pictorial representation of the magnetic field which describes how a magnetic force is distributed
within and around a magnetic material

Ampere’s Law: This is the law governing the production of magnetic field by a current.

∮ 𝐻 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐼𝑁𝑒𝑡

Here, H = Magnetic Field Intensity

I = Current
𝑑𝑙 = Differential Element of Length Along the Path of Integration

Figure: A Simple Magnetic Core

Here, 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻

Where, B = Magnetic Flux Density

H = Magnetic Field Intensity
𝜇 = Permeability

Again, 𝜇 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟

Where, 𝜇𝑟 = Relative Permeability

𝜇𝑜 = Permeability in Vacuum = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝐻𝑚−1

Now, the current passing within the path of integration 𝐼𝑁𝑒𝑡 is then Ni, since the coil of wire cuts the path of
integration N times while carrying current i. Ampere’s law thus becomes:

𝐻𝑙𝑐 = 𝑁𝑖

We know,

𝜑
𝐵=
𝐴

⇒ 𝜑 = 𝐵𝐴 = 𝜇𝐻𝐴

= 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝐻𝐴

𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝑁𝑖𝐴
∴ 𝜑=
𝑙𝑐

Faraday’s Law: It states that if a flux passes through a turn of a coil of wire, a voltage will be induced in the turn
of a coil of the wire that is directly proportional to the rate of change in the flux with respect to time.

𝑑𝜑
𝑒=𝑁
𝑑𝑡

Figure: Illustration of Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

Lenz’s Law: It states that the direction of the voltage buildup in the coil is such that if the coil ends were short
circuited, it would produce current that would cause a flux opposing the original flux change.

𝑑𝜑
𝑒 = −𝑁
𝑑𝑡

Figure: The meaning of Lenz’s law: (a) A coil enclosing an increasing magnetic flux; (b) determining the
resulting voltage polarity

B-H Curve: A great deal of information can be learned about the magnetic properties of a material by studying
its hysteresis loop. A hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the induced magnetic flux density B and the
magnetizing force H. It is often referred to as the B-H loop.

Figure: B-H Curve/ Hysteresis Loop

The loop is generated by measuring magnetic flux (B) while changing the magnetizing force (H) in a
ferromagnetic material.
 ➢ Initial Magnetization: A demagnetized material follows the dashed line as H increases. More current
(H+) results in a stronger magnetic field (B+).
➢ Saturation (Point "a"): Almost all magnetic domains align, and further increase in H causes minimal
flux increase.
➢ Retentivity (Point "b"): When H returns to zero, some residual magnetism (remanence) remains in
the material.
➢ Coercivity (Point "c"): Reversing H flips enough domains to reduce B to zero—this is the coercive
force required to remove residual magnetism.
➢ Negative Saturation (Point "d"): Further increasing H negatively leads to saturation in the opposite
direction.
➢ Residual Magnetism (Point "e"): When H returns to zero, residual magnetism remains, similar to the
opposite direction.

Increasing H positively moves B back to zero, but the curve does not return to the origin, showing energy loss
due to hysteresis.

Figure: Magnetic Hysteresis Loops for Soft and Hard Materials

EMF Equation (VVI):

Show that, 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝑬𝑴𝑭 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟒𝝋𝒎 𝒇 (𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔).

Solution:

Here,

𝜑𝑚 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥

𝑓 = 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑁𝑃 = 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑁𝑆 = 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑖𝑙
We know,

𝜑𝑚 − (−𝜑𝑚 )
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 =
1⁄
2𝑓

= 4𝜑𝑚 𝑓 (𝑤𝑏/𝑠)

Again, the rate of change of flux per turn is the average induced EMF per turn in volts.

∴ 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑀𝐹 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛 = 4𝜑𝑚 𝑓 (𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠)

For sinusoidal voltage:

𝑉𝑚
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
= 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = √2
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 2𝑉𝑚
𝜋
𝑉𝑚 𝜋
= ×
√2 2𝑉𝑚

𝜋
= = 1.11
2√2

Now, RMS Value of the Induced EMF Per Turn,

𝐸 = 1.11 × 4𝜑𝑚 𝑓 (𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠)

∴ 𝐸 = 4.44𝜑𝑚 𝑓 (𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠)

[Proved]

Furthermore, for primary coil,

𝐸𝑃 = 4.44𝜑𝑚 𝑓 × 𝑁𝑃 … … … … … (𝑖)

For Secondary Coil,

𝐸𝑆 = 4.44𝜑𝑚 𝑓 × 𝑁𝑆 … … … … … (𝑖𝑖)

Dividing Equations (𝑖) and (𝑖𝑖),

𝐸𝑃 4.44𝜑𝑚 𝑓 × 𝑁𝑃
=
𝐸𝑆 4.44𝜑𝑚 𝑓 × 𝑁𝑆

𝐸𝑃 𝑁𝑃
∴ = =𝑎
𝐸𝑆 𝑁𝑆
 Transformers
Definition: A transformer is a device that changes AC electric power at one voltage level to AC electric power of
another voltage level through the action of magnetic field.

Figure: A Simple Transformer Equivalent Circuit

Here,

𝑉𝑃 𝑁𝑃 𝐼𝑆
= = =𝑎
𝑉𝑆 𝑁𝑆 𝐼𝑃

Types of Transformers:

According to Phase: • Single Phase (1𝜑) Transformer

• Three Phase (3𝜑) Transformer
According to Use: • Power Transformer
• Distribution Transformer
• Instrument Transformer
o Potential Transformer
o Current Transformer
According to Cooling: • Natural Air Cooling
• ONAN (Oil Natural Air Natural)
• ONAF (Oil Natural Air Forced)
• Gas Cooling
According to Installation: • Indoor Type
• Underground Type
• Outdoor Type
According to Core Construction: • Shell Type
• Core Type
Special Type: • Unit Transformer/Generator Transformer
• Cast Resin Transformer
Usual Transportation Through Transformers:

Figure: Bangladesh Power System

We know, in an ideal transformer, input power is equal to output power.

According to the Equivalent Circuit in the Previous Page,

𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑃 𝐼𝑃 cos 𝜃𝑃

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 cos 𝜃𝑠

𝑉𝑃
= ∙ 𝑎𝐼𝑃 ∙ cos 𝜃𝑃
𝑎

= 𝑉𝑃 𝐼𝑃 cos 𝜃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛

∴ 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛

Now, apparent impedance in the primary coil can be expressed as:

𝑉𝑃
𝑍𝐿′ =
𝐼𝑃

𝑎𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠
= = 𝑎2 = 𝑎2 𝑍𝐿
𝐼𝑠 𝐼𝑠
𝑎

∴ 𝑍𝐿′ = 𝑎2 𝑍𝐿
Problem 1: A single-phase power system consists of a 480-V, 60-Hz generator supplying a load 𝑍𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 4 + 𝑗3 𝛺
through a transmission line of impedance 𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 0.18 + 𝑗0.24 𝛺. Answer the following questions about this
system.

(a) If the power system is exactly as described above, what will the voltage at the load be? What will the
transmission line losses be?
(b) Suppose a 1:10 step-up transformer is placed at the generator end of the trans-mission line and a 10:1 step-
down transformer is placed at the load end of the line. What will the load voltage be now? What will the
transmission line losses be now?

Solution: (a) We will draw the equivalent circuit of the single-phase power system:

Here, 𝐼𝐺 = 𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 𝐼𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 . The line current of the system is given by:

(Ans.)
(b) The equivalent circuit for no. (b) will be:

The value of the load’s impedance when reflected to the transmission system’s voltage is

The total impedance at the transmission line level (𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 + 𝑍𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 ) is now reflected across T1 to the source’s voltage
level:
 ′′ ′
Notice that 𝑍𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 4 + 𝑗3 𝛺 and 𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 0.0018 + 𝑗0.0024 𝛺.

Knowing the current IG, we can now work back and find Iline and Iload. Working back through T1, we get:

(Ans.)

Problem 2 (VVI): A 13.8-kV, single-phase generator supplies power to a load through a transmission line. The
load’s impedance is 𝑍𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 500∠36.87° Ω, and the transmission line’s impedance is 𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 60∠60° Ω.

a) If the generator is directly connected to the load, what is the ratio of the load voltage to the generated
voltage? What are the transmission losses of the system?
b) What percentage of the power supplied by the source reaches the load (what is the efficiency of the
transmission system)?
c) If a 1:10 step-up transformer is placed at the output of the generator and a 10:1 transformer is placed at
the load end of the transmission line, what is the new ratio of the load voltage to the generated voltage?
What are the transmission losses of the system now? (Note: The transformers may be assumed to be ideal.)
d) What percentage of the power supplied by the source reaches the load now?
e) Compare the efficiencies of the transmission system with and without transformers.
Figure: Circuits for Problem 2: (a) without transformers and (b) with transformers