AGNITY MODEL COLLEGE

Basic Technology
JSS 1Third Term 2024/2025E-Note
Week Content
1 Revision of last term’s Examination
2 Basic Ideas of Electricity
3 Electric and Magnetic Fields
4 Basic Components of Electric Circuits
5 Voltage, Resistance, Inductance, Capacitance, E.M.F
6 Interaction of Electricity and Magnetic Field
7 Mid Term Break
8 Machines and Mechanical Advantage
9 Maintenance
10 Building Construction 1
11 Building Construction 2
12 Setting Out
13 Foundation
14 Revision and Examination

1
LESSON 2
BASIC IDEAS OF ELECTRICITY
(Matter)

Definitions: Atom: An atom can be defined as the smallest unit of matter. It

contains the neutron, proton and electron. Atoms combine to form molecules. E.g.

Carbon Atom Hydrogen Atom

Structure of the Atom (Carbon Atom)

Neutron: This is the part of an atom that has no charge .It is neutral. It is found in
the nucleus of the atom.
Proton: This part of the atom carries the positive (+) charge. It is found in the
nucleus.
Electron: The electron is the negatively (-) charged particle of an atom. It moves
freely round the shell.

Matter
Matter is anything that has weight and can occupy space. Matter is made up of
very tiny particles.

State of Matter
Matter exists in three states, namely solid, liquid, Gas and Plasma

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1. Solid: As solid, for instance, ice block. It has a definite shape. The particles
move within their fixed position.
2. Liquid: As liquid, e.g. water, matter takes the shape of the container.As such,
the particles collide with one another and with the wall of the container.

3. Gas: As gas, i.e. steam in this case, the particles collide faster with one another,
with the wall of the container and finally escape into atmosphere.

4. Plasma: It is superheated matter and it is called the fourth state of matter. It is

formed when gases are heated.

Electricity
Electricity can be defined as the flow of free electrons in a material. Such materials
are called conductors. These free electrons produce electric charges which results
in electricity.

Types of Electricity
(i). Static Electricity: This is the flow of charges experienced when two different
materials are rubbed together. The flow of charges here is usually very brief. E. g ,
rubbing one’s palms together or rubbing a biro case on one’s hair.

(ii). Current Electricity: This refers to the steady flow of electric charge from a
generating source. The flow experienced here is steady for a long time. E. g .
batteries, A.C. and D.C. generators.

Conductors : These are materials that electric charges can flow through. They
include materials like water, metals, zinc, copper, etc.

Semi- conductors: These are materials that behave as conductors and insulators.
They have both properties. Silicon is an example.

Insulators: Insulators are materials that electric charges cannot pass through. They
include materials like dry stick, rubber, plastic, etc.

Charges: A body is said to be charged when it acquires electrons from

anotherobject when the two are rubbed against each other. Positive charge
naturally flowsin the direction of the negative charge. E.g

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 Positive charge flowing towards Negative charge

Polarity of Charges
This is a condition where electric charges are at opposite terminals. These charges
could be referred to as like and unlike charges. In electricity, these charges are
referred to as positive (+) and negative (-) charges.
Law of Electric Charges This law states that like charge repel while unlike charge
attract. E.g.

Attraction Repulsion

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.Define matter
2. Define an atom
3. Identify the three state of matter
4. Differentiate between conductor and an insulator
5. Define electric charge and draw the hydrogen atom
6. Explain the polarity of charges.

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LESSON 3
ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC
FIELDS
Definitions: Electric Field: This is the space in which a charged body or object
experiences a force of attraction or repulsion. E. g.

Electric Field

Magnetic field: A magnetic field is a region or space around the poles of a

magnet, where the force attraction or repulsion is experienced by another pole of
another magnet. E. g

Earth’s
Magnetic Field Magnetic Field

Magnet
A magnet is a piece of metal that attracts objects made or iron towards itself.

Types of Magnets
There are basically two types of magnets namely:
(i).Permanent Magnet: These are magnets that do not depend on electricalenergy
to retain their magnetic properties. They lose this force only if exposed tofire or
burnt. E.g.bar magnets and horse- shoe magnets. E.g.

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 Bar Magnets
(ii). Temporary Magnet: These are magnets that depend on electrical energy to
keep their magnetic properties. As long as electric current is allowed to pass
through a soft metal using a coil, the metal rod retains its magnetic force. E.g

Temporary Magnets

Magnetic flux: These are the lines of force created between the north and the
south poles of a magnet. E.g

Magnetic Force: This is the force of attraction or repulsion that emanates from a
magnet.
Laws of Magnetism: This law states that like poles repel while unlike poles
attract. E.g

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 Law of Magnetism

Magnetism: This is the ability of a magnet to attract magnetic substances.

Magnetic Substances: These are substances that can be attracted to magnets. They
include substances like razor blade, steel rods and any metal that contains iron in
them. E.g

Magnetic Substance

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define electric field
2. Define magnetic field
3. Define a magnet
4. Describe the different types of magnets
5. Describe magnetic flux
6. State the law of magnetism
7. Identify at least four magnetic substances
8. Explain the Right-Hand rule in magnetic force.

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 LESSON 4BASICCOMPONENTS
OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

Definition: An electric circuit may be defined as a closed path or loop

through which electric current flows. There are basic components that make the
flow of current possible. E.g

Definition of Electric Circuit Components

Source of E.M.F:Electromotive force provides the force that pushes the free
electrons in a conductor. The source may be battery. It is measured in volts (V).
Resistor: This is the component that opposes the flow of electric current in a
circuit. Resistor converts electrical energy into heat energy.

Meters
i. Ammeter: This is the instrument used for measuring the amount of current in an
electric circuit.
ii. Voltmeter: This instrument is used for measuring the amount of voltage in a
circuit. E.g

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 Voltmeter

Symbols of Resistors.

Inductor: This device is used to produce an alternating current in a circuit. It is

made up of a coil of a good electrical conductor. The unit of the inductor is the
Henry (H).

Inductors

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Switches: It is a device that is used for making and breaking of a circuit in a safe
way. Cutting and joining a circuit are referred to as breaking and making of a
circuit. E.g.

Switches

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define an electric circuit.
2. Draw a simple electric circuit in series and in parallel connections.
3. Identify basic components of an electric circuit.

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LESSON 5
DEFINITION OF VOLTAGE, RESISTANCE,
INDUCTANCE, CAPACITANCE, DIELECTRIC
NATURE AND TYPES OF CAPACITORS
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (E.M.F)

Definitions:
Voltage: This is the amount of work that has to be done in moving a unit charge
across an electric circuit. It is a measure of the force of the flow of current in a
circuit. It is measured in volts (V).

Potential difference ( p.d.): This is the measure of the difference in voltage

between two points in an electric circuit. It is measured in volts (V).

Resistance: This is the measure of the magnitude of the resistor to oppose the flow
of electric current. It is measured in Ohm (Ω).

Factors Affecting the Resistance of a Material

i. Nature of the Material: Different materials have different resistance value. For
instance, the resistance of copper is higher than that of silver.
ii. Temperature of the Material: As the temperature of the material increases, the
resistance increases also.
iii. Length of the Material: The longer the length of the material, the higher the
resistance.
iv. Cross-sectional area of the material: As the cross-sectional area of the
material increases, resistance decreases and vice-versa.

Inductance: This is the magnitude of the function of an inductor.

Induced Current: This is the current produced when there is relative motion
between a magnet and a copper coil.

Capacitor: The capacitor is a device used for storing electrical energy or charges.

Capacitance: This is the magnitude of the charge stored in a capacitor. It is

measured in Farads “F”.

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 Types of Capacitors.

(i).Electrolytic Capacitor: This typeof capacitor is cylindrical in shape and has

positive and negative terminals clearly marked on it. If wrongly connected, the
capacitor damages easily.
(ii). Film/Paper Capacitors
(iii). Ceramic Capacitors
(iv). Dielectric Capacitors.

Paper Capacitor Ceramic Capacitor

Dielectric Capacitor

Dielectric Nature: A dielectric is an insulating material placed between the

parallel plates of a capacitor. It is used to separate the plates so as to avoid contact
between them. The dielectric nature can affect the efficiency of a capacitor,
depending on the material used in making the dielectric nature. Examples of
dielectric materials are air, paper, wood, rubber, plastic, etc.

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Symbols of Capacitors

Factors Affecting the capacitance of a Capacitor

i. Distance between the plates: As the distance between the plates decreases, the
capacitance increases.
ii. Area of the Plates: As the area of the plates increases, the capacitance equally
increases.
iii. Nature of the Dielectric Material: Solid materials increases the capacitance
than gaseous materials.

Uses of Capacitors
(i) Capacitors can be used as filters in converting alternating current (AC) ripples.
(ii) Capacitors are used as radio tuners to select a particular station.
(iii) They can also be used to store small electrical energy, which is to be used later
in electronic panels.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Differentiate between resistor and resistance.
2. Define an inductor.
3. Differentiate between a capacitor and capacitance.
4. Identify symbols of an inductor, capacitor and resistor.
5. State the factors affecting the resistance of a resistor.
6. State the factors affecting the capacitance of a capacitor.

13
LESSON 6
INTERACTION OF ELECTRCITY &
MAGNETIC FIELD
A Current-Carrying Conductor Experiment Title: To show that a
current-carrying conductor can produce magnetic field provided current flows
through the conductor.
Materials: Copper wire, battery, retort stand, emboss paper or plywood,
iron filings, a compass or indicator and switch.
Procedure:
i. Attach or clamp the plywood or emboss paper to the retort stand.
ii. Make the copper wire to pass through the plywood or emboss
paper and connect the circuit as shown below. Keep the switch open.
iii. Sprinkle some iron fillings on the plywood or emboss paper, close to the copper
wire.
iv. Place the compass close to the iron filings.
v. Put on the switch.
Result: i. The iron filings form series of circles round the copper wire (conductor)
ii. The needle of the compass is set at right angle to the conductor.
Conclusion: i. The series of circles formed round the copper wire indicates
magnetic field or magnetic force.
ii. The experiment shoes that compasses are sensitive to magnets, hence the needle
is set at right angle to the copper wire. E.g

Current-
Carrying Conductor Experiment Diagram

Coils and Solenoids Coil: A coil is a series of looped copper wire up to a required
length.

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Solenoid: A solenoid on the other hand, is a coil of insulated wire of many turns. It
can also be used for making temporary magnet.

Experiment Another experiment explaining electromagnetism is the solenoid . In

this case, a flexible copper wire is wound to form a hollow loop. A bar magnet is
moved within the loop. As long as this motion is maintained, it would be observed
that current passes through the flex wire. However, if the relative motion between
the bar magnet and the flex wire stops, no current flows through the wire. E.g.

Solenoid Connection (Electromagnetism)

This experiment shows that there is a relationship between electricity and

magnetism. This relationship is referred to as electromagnetism.
Electric Bell In an electric bell, the principle of electromagnetism is at work. It is
quite a simple principle. When the bell switch is pushed, the electromagnet that has
been electrically charged, produces magnetic field. This field attracts a soft-iron,
which has an hammer, to strike the gong. As long as the switch is pushed, the
process continues. However, when the switch is left alone, the current in the
electromagnet stops flowing and the electromagnet stops attracting the soft iron.
E.g

Electric Bell

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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. State the relationship between electricity and magnetic field.
2. Define solenoid
3. What is a coil?
4. Explain how an electric bell operates.

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LESSON 8
MACHINES AND MECHANICAL
ADVANTAGE
Definition: A machine can be defined as an equipment that has moving parts,
designed to do a particular type of job in a simplified manner. It can also be
defined as a device that carries a large load with little effort..
Features of a Simple Machine
A simple machine must contain the following features:

Load: This is the part of a simple machine meant to lift or hold any
weight that may be attached to it.
Fulcrum: This is the mid-point between the load and the effort. It is
sometimes referred to as the pivot in a machine.
Effort: This is the point where a force is applied to the machine to be able to
lift any attached load at the other end of the machine.
Examples of Simple Machines
1.The Lever: This is a simple machine that has a fixed bar that rotates about a
fixed point, called the fulcrum or pivot. Levers are classified based on where the
load, fulcrum and effort are located.
These classes are: i. First class levers ii. Second class levers iii. Third class levers

i. First class levers: In this class of levers, the fulcrum is between the load
and the effort. E.g. pliers, claw hammer and scissors.

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 Claw Hammer
Scissors

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 Pliers

ii.Second class levers: In this class of

levers, the load comes between the fulcrum and the effort. The mechanical
advantage in this case is more than one. Example include: wheelbarrow, bottle
opener, human leg, nut cracker, e.t.c

Bottle Open
Wheel Barrow

Nut Cracker
iii.Third class levers: In a third class lever, the effort is between the load
and the fulcrum. E.g. chopsticks, human hand, sugar tong, tweezer, e.t.c

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Chopstick Sugar Tong

Arm
2.Wedge: A wedge is a simple machine used to split things in two. A wedge can
include a knife, a piece of object used to stop a rolling object or axe used to split
wood. E.g

Other examples of wedges are

screw jack (threaded type), taper’s shank drill, nail and chisel.

3.Pulleys: The pulley is a force magnifier machine, where a small force

is applied to lever up a bigger load force. E.g.
(Picture of Pulley)
Mechanical Advantage (Calculations)
Mechanical advantage can be defined as the ratio of the
working force (load) to the force applied to the machine (effort).
In calculating mechanical advantage, different
approach is applied depending on the nature of the question:
(i) for the lever, mechanical advantage is calculated as

(ii) M.A. = Load

Effort

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(ii) for the wedge, M.A.= length of the inclined plane
vertical height above the ground

(iii) for the pulley, M.A. = distance moved by effort

distance moved by load

Examples:
1.In the arrangement shown below calculate:
(a) M.A.
(b) the value of X

Solution
(a).Mechanical advantage: = 150kg : 30kg or 150
30 = 5:1 or 5
(b).The value of X = 150 x Xm = 30 x 2m
Therefore, x = 30 x 2
150
60
150 , x = 0.4m

2. A boy pries a nail out of a wall by applying a force of 100 N to a pincer. The
pincer applies a force of 1300 N to the nail. Calculate the mechanical advantage of
the pincer.
Solution
Mechanical Advantage (M.A) = L/E = 1300
100 = 13.

3. What Mechanical Advantage (MA) would a machine require to lift a load of

20,000N with the least effort of 4000N?
Solution. M.A. = L/E = 20,000N/4000N = 5N.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. One of the following gives the definition of a machine.

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 a. a device that makes transportation faster
b. a device that amplifies sound
c. a device with moving parts used for a particular type of work
d. any device that makes work pleasurable.
Use the figure below to answer question 2 and 3.

2. Calculate the mechanical advantage of the seesaw shown below.

3. Calculate the value of X.

4. If the distance moved by effort is 32meters and that of load (height) is

24meters respectively, the mechanical advantage of a wedge will be what?
5. The three basic features of any machine are what?
6. Define a machine
7. Identify simple machines
8. State the classes of levers
9. Define mechanical advantage

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LESSON 9
MAINTENANCE
Definition: Maintenance can be defined as the process or art of caring for an
equipment so as to avoid damage and accident.

Types of Maintenance
The three basic types of maintenance are as follows:
(i) Preventive Maintenance: This is a routine maintenance carried out on an
equipment to avoid any breakdown or damage to the equipment.
(ii) Corrective Maintenance: This is the type of maintenance carried out when a
breakdown to an equipment is experienced.
(iii) Predictive Maintenance: It is done to examine the likelihood of a breakdown.
This type of maintenance helps one to decide if equipment needs to be serviced.

Importance of Maintenance
i. It increase the span of an equipment.
ii. It makes work to be easily overcome.
iii. It prevents accident.
iv. Maintenance increases the efficiency of a machine.
v. It can prevent unexpected cost of replacement of damaged parts.
vi. It prevents the breakdown of equipment.

Nature of Maintenance
The nature of maintenance always involves obeying the
manufacturer’s manual guidelines, cleaning, dusting, oiling and washing.

Routine Maintenance:To carry out routine

maintenance, an engineer must do the following:
i. Grease or lubricate all moving parts to reduce friction.
ii. Keep all equipment clean after use.
iii. Prevent equipment from rust by keeping them away from moisture and direct
heat.
iv. Check all nuts and bolts regularly to ensure that they are properly tightened and
oiled.
v. Make sure that electrical equipment are disconnected or switched off from the
mains.

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 Importance of Keeping Maintenance Records
The importance of keeping maintenance record is as follows:
i. Maintenance record helps you estimate the worth of a machine at any time.
ii. Makes it possible to make plans and prepare budgets.
iii. It helps one to take appropriate management decisions.
iv. Determine the profitability of the machine.
v. Obtain credit (borrow money) from banks.
vi. Helps one prepare for tax assessment (especially for organizations)

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define maintenance
2. Mention at least three types of maintenance
3. State at least four importance of maintenance
4. State four routine maintenance
5. State at least four importance of keeping
maintenance record.

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LESSON 10
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
(Definition, Types and Materials)

Definition: A building can be defined as a shelter where we can live, play,

worship, transact business and produce goods and services.
Classification and Types of Buildings
Residential Public
Industrial. (a).Bungalow Hotels
Warehouses (b).Storey building Worship buildings
Factories (c).Duplexes Stadia
(d).Huts Sports complexes
(e).Sky-scrapers Halls
Shopping Complexes
Hospitals

Materials used in Building

Construction
(i) Cement: Cement is used as a bonding agent for sand, aggregates, bricks and
blocks.
(ii) Aggregate: These are crushed granite gravels and sand. They are classed as
either coarse(stones), medium and fine(sand) types. They are used as concretes.
(iii) Steel: Steel is used to reinforce concrete. They are also classed as either high
carbon steel, medium or low carbon steel.
(iv) Water: Water is required for mixing concrete and sandcrete.
(v) Concrete: This is the mixture of cement, sand, gravel and water. It is generally
used for bearing load in buildings.
(vi) Sandcrete blocks: These are blocks produced from the mixture of cement,
sand and water only. These blocks are used for erecting walls.
(vii) Burnt bricks: Bricks are used for building furnaces and incinerators and most
especially for decoration of some buildings.
(viii) Mortar(Plaster): Mortar is used for plastering walls to be smooth for
painting. It is much like the mixture of sandcrete, just that in the case of mortar the
quantity of cement is increased.
(ix) Wood: In buildings, wood is used in making doors, windows, door and
window frames, ceiling hangers and stair cases.

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(x) Glass and other ceramics: Glasses are used to beautify and illuminate
buildings. Ceramics in the form of tiles may be used to decorate and cover walls.

Concrete- Types, Properties and Tools

Definition: Concrete can be defined as the mixture of cement, sand, aggregates
and water. These are the four components of concrete. It is used to reinforce
buildings.
Types of Concrete
(a). Reinforced concrete: this is concrete that contains steel inside it. It is used for
bearing load on pillars, column and floors.
(b). Green concrete: this is a freshly prepared concrete that has not set yet.
(c). Precast concrete: this is concrete cast outside the site of construction. It is
brought in and assembled into parts of the building.
(d). Pre-stressed concrete: this is a reinforced concrete prepared so as to prevent
cracking due to expansion from heat.
(e).Terrazo: this is a flooring concrete mixed with granites or formed with marble.
It is usually coloured , ground and polished.
Properties of Concrete
1. Durability: Concrete can withstand heat, cold and chemicals. It
hardly deteriorates.
2. Mouldability:This means that concrete can be moulded easily into whatever
shape desired when it is still fresh.
3. Resistance to chemicals: Concrete with low water content can withstand
chemical effect and vice-versa.
4. Resistance to fire: Some concrete referred to as quart and quartzite are highly
resistant to fire.
5. High compressive strength: This means that concrete can carry great loads,
depending on the aggregate ratio used.
Methods for Mixing Concrete
In most African countries, there are two ways of mixing concrete.
These are hand mixing and machine mixing.
(i). Hand Mixing: This is the method of using hand and spade to
mix concrete. It is applied where there are no machines for the mixing.

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 Men at WorkHand Mixing

(ii). Machine Mixing: This is the method of using machines like the tilting drum,
non-tilting drum and transit mixer in the mixing of concrete. E.g

Machine Mixing

Methods of Transporting Concrete The method of transporting concrete depends

on the distance to be travelled. For short distances, the usual method is listed
below:
i. Head pan
ii. Wheel barrow
iii. Dumper
iv. Platform hoist
v. Crane
vi. Pumping plant. E.g

Head Pan Wheel Barrow

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 Dumper Crane

Pumping Plant Pipeline

For
long distance transportation, concrete is delivered to the job site using a transit or
truck mixer. E.g

Truck Mixer

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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define building
2. State the classes of buildings
3. List at least ten types of buildings
4. Identify at least ten building materials
5. State the functions of the materials identified
6. Define concrete
7. List at least five types of concrete and their uses
8. State five properties of concrete
9. Identify at least three tools used for mixing and transporting concrete

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LESSON 11
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
(Site Preparation)
Definition: Site preparation can be defined as the clearing and leveling of a piece
of land for the purpose of building construction.
Hand Tools Used In Site Preparation
(i) Spade: Spade is used for digging relatively loose or soft earth.
Some persons do refer to the spade as ‘shovel’, which is technically wrong. E.g

Spade
(ii) Shovel: The shovel is used for lifting and
throwing loose materials into another position, for spreading and leveling earth.E.g

Shovel (iii) Machete: The machete

or cutlass is used for cutting grass, shrubs, wood-like trees and branches from sites.
E.g

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 Machete (iv) Hoe: Hoe is used
in site preparation for digging the surface level of the ground. E.g

Hoe
(v) Axe: The axe is used manually for cutting bigger branches of trees during site
preparation. E.g

Axe
Mechanical tools used in Site Preparation
(i) Chain saw: This is a portable motorized saw used for
felling trees and tree trunks into smaller sizes. E.g

Chain Saw
(ii) Bulldozer: This moving machine is used to push down any obstacle like big
trees, old buildings and walls. E.g

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 Bulldozer

(iii) Payloader: The payloader is used for lifting large quantities of loose materials
at a time (in whole) and loading it into trucks. E.g

Payloader
(iv) Grader: The grader is used for leveling excavated earth,
trimming of edges of gutters and for cutting ditches. E.g

Grader

Work Done During Site

Preparation
i. Removal of shrubs, grasses, trees and old buildings.
ii. Grubbing: This is the act of removing roots of trees and stumps mechanically.
iii. Leveling: There are two methods of leveling a piece of land to archive a
suitable topography.
a. One method is called the cut and fill method i.e using the soil from a higher
level of a piece of land to fill a lower part.
b. The other method is referred to as the earth-filling method where soil from
another site is used to fill a swampy site before building construction takes place.

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iv. Extermination of termites and other insects.

Termite Treatment
Termites are native to the tropics. If allowed, they can eat away all timber
components of the house and carry away sand under the foundation failure.
Therefore they must be controlled. There are many anti-termite applications in the
market. However, the common one in use is ‘dieldrex’ or ‘Aldrin dust’. The
manufacturers of anti-termite chemicals will advise on the application in the
foundation trenches

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define site preparation.
2. list and explain the uses five hand tools used in site preparation.
3. Explain the uses of four mechanical tools used in site preparation.
4. Describe three work done during site preparation.

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LESSON 12 SETTING-OUT
Definition: Setting-Out can be defined as the process of driving wooden pegs into
the ground in a way that tallies with the building plan or blue print. Lines are used
to indicate boundaries on the dug wooden pegs during setting-out .
Materials Needed During Setting-Out
(i) Blue print or plan: This is the drawing of the proposed building by an architect
on paper. With the aid of the blue print, setting-out is carried out easily, since it
indicates the dimensions of a building. E.g

Blue print of a Building

(ii) Wooden pegs: These are shaped pieces of wood driven into
the ground to run lines on.

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 Wooden Pegs

(iii)
Profiles: These are small sized plank used to mark the position of trenches and
walls. E.g.

Wooden Profile
(iv) Nails: Nails are hammered on the pegs and profiles to run the lines.

Nails
(v) Lines: These are nylon ropes used to indicate demarcation of

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the walls.
Ropes (Lines)

Tools Needed during Setting-Out

(i) Measuring tape: The tape must be graduated in the metric form i.e millimeters,
centimeters and meters. E.g.

A Measuring Tape

(ii) Sledge hammer: This big hammer is used for driving pegs
into the ground. E.g.

Sledge Hammer

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 (iii) Builder’s square: This is a
triangular wooden tool used for setting the squareness at the corners of the building
space. E.g.

Builder’s Square

(iv) Steel square: The steel square serves the same purpose as the builder’s square,
just that it is made of a metallic material. E.g.

Steel Square
(v) Plumb: The plumb is used to set walls in a vertical and horizontal position.
E.g.

Plumb os Spirit Level

(vi) Theodolite: This instrument is used for measuring the

angle of elevations and depressions and for setting out corner of very massive
buildings. E.g.

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 Theodolite A simple
building such as a three bedroom bungalow on a plane site, could be set out using
the 3-4-5 method or the builders square method. The two methods are illustrated
below.
Steps in setting out by the 3-4-5 method
1. Set out the building line with a tape, lines and pegs.
2. Peg one corner of the wall n the building line. Note that the position of this
peg must be as shown in the building drawing.
3. Peg 4 units of measurement from the corner peg along the line.
4. Peg 3 units of measurement from the corner peg perpendicular to the building
line.
5. Now you can have 3 pegs at the vertices of a right angle triangle. Measure the
third side. If it is 5 units of measurement, then you are accurate. But if not, then
check and adjust the position of the peg that is not on the building line, in order to
give the exact 3-4-5 ratio of measurement. That is, the hypotenuse of the triangle
must be exactly 5 units of measurement.
6. Set the remaining wall corners of the building in a similar way.
7. Set up profile boards at each wall corner and where one wall joins another, with
nail points for wall and foundation widths.
8. String nail points for foundation trenches.
9. Cross-check all round for accuracy. Note that after the foundation is laid, you
will similarly string the nail point for walls.

Setting out by the use of the builders square

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The builders square method is similar to the 3-4-5 method, in that they are based
on the same principle of using a right angled triangle. The builders square amy be
used as follows;
1. Set out the building line.
2. Peg a chosen wall corner on the building line.
3. Place one side of the builders square on the building line.
4. Peg the vertex on the building line.
5. Set the remaining wall corners of the building a similar way.
6. Set up profile boards at each wall corners of the building in a similar way.
7. String nail points for foundation trenches.
8. Cross-check all round for accuracy. Note that after the foundation is laid, you
will similarly string the nail points for walls.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define setting-out
2. State at least four materials used in setting-out
3. Classify and explain the uses of the tools used in setting- out

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 LESSON 13 FOUNDATION
Definition: This is the lower part of the building that transfers the load of the
building to the soil below without cracking.
Functions of a Foundation
i. Foundation transfers the building load to the ground.
ii. Foundation houses the mechanical system of a building.
iii. Foundation anchors the building against wind and other climatic events.
iv. Foundation protects the building from upward moisture movement (i.e.
underground water)
v. Foundation isolates the building from expansive soils.
vi. Foundation provides living spaces in the form of basement and storage areas.

Types of Foundation
(i). Strip Foundation: This is the type of foundation made of a continuous strip
of concrete under the wall. For instance, the type used for gutters, fences and small houses.
Concrete is poured evenly on the dug trench before blocks is set on it. E.g.

Strip Foundations

(ii). Raft Foundation: This is the type of foundation where the concrete base expands to
cover the entire area under the building. It is suitable for swampy areas. E.g.

(iii). Pad Foundation: This is a reinforced concrete built under columns (or pillars), carrying
the building. Used for bridges or buildings with parking space under them. E.g.

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Pad foundations

(iv). Pile Foundation: This is the type of foundation used for sky scrapers, high-rise
buildings and oil rig platforms. Piles are driven far into the sub-soil to reach much firmer soil
below. E.g.

Pile foundations

(v). Stepped Foundation: This type of foundation is constructed where the land slopes. It
consist of a number of modified strip foundations, stepped at required intervals. Used
especially where the soil is hard. E.g

Stepped foundation

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 Understanding Building Terminologies
(i) Foundation: This is the lower part of the building that transfers the load of the building to
the soil below without cracking.
(ii) Architect: This is the professional that draws the building plan(blueprint).
(iii) Quantity surveyor: This is a professional that quantifies the amount of money,
material, labour and workmanship that could finish a particular project or building.
(iv) Builder: This is the engineer that erects the building according to plan of the building.
(v) Statutory personnel: This is a government official who makes sure that any building
meets local, state or national standard. If it does not meet the standard, such buildings are
usually demolished.
(vi) Structural engineers: This is a professional that determines and specifies the strength
and types of building materials like cement ratio, number of steel, etc, for any construction.
(vii) Landscaping: This is the process of making the surrounding of a building more
beautiful by planting trees and flowers and the general topography of the land. E.g.

Landscaping

(viii) Timbering: This is the practice of using timber to

support the vertical sides of a trench, so as to avoid collapse. E.g.

Timbering

ix) Foundation footing: This is the wide base that carries the walls, pillars or columns of
any building. E.g.

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(x) Excavation: This is the digging up of earth to a required dept, width and length. This
can be done both manually and mechanically.
(xi) Soil: Soil can be defined as any loose material deposit, such as gravel, sand, clay or
the mixture of all these. There are two types of soils namely, cohesive and non-cohesive.
(a). Cohesive soil: This is the type of soil that is sticky and closely bonded together.
Example of such soil is mud and clay soil. They are good for foundations if compacted. E.g.

Cohesive soil

(b) Non-cohesive soil: This type of soil is loose in nature. It includes sharp sand or loamy
soil and gravel. It is the most suitable for foundations since they have good bearing values.
E.g.

Non-cohesive soil
(xii) DPC: The acronym DPC means damp proof course. This is the layer that
prevents the penetration of moisture or water into the building from underground. Materials
that can be used for DPC include waterproof, polythene and mackintosh. E.g.

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(xiii) Lintel: This is the material put over an opening in a wall to enable the wall to continue
above the opening. E.g.

Lintel
(xiv) Rendering: This is the method of spraying mortar or concrete on the
surface of wall, such that the wall then looks coarse (rough). E.g.

Rendered
walls

(xv) Bonding: This is the type of arrangement used when laying blocks to ensure that no
vertical joints occurs. E.g.

Bonding in progress

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(xvi) Slab: This is a horizontal part of a building, made from concrete and supported by
columns or walls. E.g.

Slab
(xvii) Batching: This is the process of measuring concrete either by volume or
mass. E.g. (xviii) Curing: This is the process of maintaining a satisfactory moisture
condition for a freshly placed concrete. E.g.

Curing in progress

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define foundation
2. State at least five types of foundations
3. State at least five functions of foundation
4. Define the following terms:
(a). Lintels
(b). Batching
(c). Rendering
(d). Foundation footing
(e). Excavation

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